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1. According to Kant, intuitions only gain objective status by being thought or

conceptualized. How do empirical concepts perform this function?

Kant believed that unless intuition (or perception) is processed by empirical concept it

remains a raw sensory data without any knowledge of object. According to Kant there are

two sources through which knowledge can be obtained: sensibility and the understanding.

There are mainly two types of representations: intuitions and the concepts. Intuitions

arise from the sensibility and help to perceive the objects. Concepts help in the

intellectual understanding of the perceptions. Kant stated that it is true that all our

knowledge is based on raw sensory data that we receive through senses. But intellect is

needed to analyze and process that raw sensory data. The intuition relates to the object

directly and is particular in nature while an empirical concept relates to several objects

(or perceptions) indirectly and is general in nature. The ‘form’ is based on intellect

(concept) which is independent of all experience and the ‘matter’ (intuition) is based on

sensory impressions or experience we receive through our senses. Kant argued that mind

is not like ‘empty slate’ but it comes filled with certain ‘a priori’ concepts and categories.

Mind analyses the raw sensory data according to those concepts and categories (pure

concepts such as space, time etc.).

The cognition is not possible with a single faculty. The cognition occurs only when

there are both intuitions and conceptual thoughts and both are interdependent. A sensible

intuition does not provide determinate knowledge of objects. Sensibility receives the

impressions and understanding (concepts) analyses that information. Both are essential to

gain the knowledge of an object. Intuitions do not contain any meaning and cannot lead
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to an object unless these are processed by mental machinery of understanding. Kant

argued that we cannot know anything until the raw sensory experience is brought under

the ‘concept’ which is provided by reason alone. He maintained that to experience an

object, the sensual perceptions or intuitions must be conceptualized or in other words

intuitions must be brought under concepts or categories. Concepts arise from the

understanding and they perform the act of unification of different representations in to a

single representation. ‘A posteriori’ or empirical concepts are based on experience. Any

empirical concept is a general representation and can be true to many perceptions. A

number of empirical concepts (such as number, quality etc) as well as specific concepts

are required to recognize an object. Kant stated that there are four types of faculties of

cognition: intuition, understanding, judgment and reason (“Critique of Pure Reason”).

Intuition represents the lowest faculty of cognition while the reason represents the highest

faculty of cognition. Kant stated that “synthetic a priori judgment” is derived using

concepts. ‘Synthetic a priori’ judgment is based on ‘form’ and ‘matter’. The ‘form’ is

based on intellect (a priori) which is independent of all experience and the ‘matter’ (a

posteriori) is based on sensory impressions or experience we receive through our senses.

Empirical concepts unify and synthesize the perceptions by act of judgments and lead to

empirical knowledge of the object.

2. Explain this three-fold synthesis by which intuitions are rendered objective. Show

how this synthetic process takes place on both the empirical and transcendental

levels.
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According to Kant both perceptions and concepts are required to have knowledge

of an object. But Kant argued that synthesis is required to make sense of the raw sensory

information. Synthesis is the act of combining different representations and arriving at

totally new representation to know an object. According to Kant synthesis plays an

important role in knowing the objects and it helps to convert the perceptions or intuitions

into concepts. Without synthesis there cannot be knowledge of an object. Kant states that

intuitions without concepts lack contents and concepts without intuitions remain only

thoughts. According to Kant three-fold synthesis is essential to combine intuitions and

concepts. The first synthesis is called Apprehending in Intuition, the second is called

Reproducing in Imagination and the third is called Recognizing in Concepts. The

synthesis of ‘apprehending in intuition’ is related to raw perception or intuition,

‘reproducing in imagination’ describes the role of imagination and ‘recognizing in

concepts’ is related to formation of concepts. These three kinds of synthesis may also be

related to the three faculties of cognition: Sensibility, Imagination and Understanding.

The first two kinds of synthesis (‘apprehending in intuition’ and ‘reproducing in

imagination’) do not occur independently, they are inseparable. All the three kinds of

synthesis (of apprehension, reproduction and recognition) are essential to know an object.

Kant’s first synthesis ‘apprehending in intuition’ describes that object is not

perceived instantaneously by the mind. Every apprehension (intuition) of an object occurs

in phases. Different impressions occur in a successive manner and at different intervals of

time. Each apprehension contains manifold. But to present manifold in a single

representation, it is essential to first go through these manifold impressions and then

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synthesize these successive impressions. This is called synthesis of apprehension.

Without this synthesis manifold of impressions would create confusion.

The second synthesis ‘reproducing in imagination’ describes the capacity to

associate different images or reproduction of the phenomena. According to Kant

imagination is connecting the manifolds of intuition by forming an image. This synthesis

reproduces manifolds of the intuition by way of association.

The third synthesis ‘recognizing in concepts’ uses memory and the concepts. In

order to relate past representations with the present, the use of concept becomes essential.

According to Kant ‘apperception’ is needed in order to recognize the objects.

‘Apperception’ is applying concepts or act of judging.

According to Kant there are two types of intuitions and concepts: empirical and

pure. Pure concepts (time and cause) are a priori (not dependent on experience) and come

from within the mind. These pure concepts are called categories. Kant explains that pure

intuitions are brought under categories via transcendental aesthetic and transcendental

logic. This leads to transcendental knowledge through transcendental deduction.

Transcendental deduction means that human beings are conscious of time and cause in

their cognitive faculties. If the concepts and intuitions are a posteriori (based on

experience) or are empirical then the knowledge is empirical. The synthetic process

occurs when empirical intuitions are brought under empirical concepts.

3. Why does Kant maintain that moral law cannot be derived from human nature?

How does Kant’s claim mark a break with previous ethical theories?
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According to Kant moral laws cannot be derived from human nature as human

nature itself faces conflicts between good and evil tendencies. There are many aspects of

human nature that can be used either for good or for evil. Human nature is also

influenced by desires and appetites. Thus human nature can corrupt our moral motivation

or can contradict the moral values set out by the moral law. Kant states that every human

being is a rational being and has a free will. According to this free will he/she can choose

between different options. Kant stated that to pursue good and to avoid evil, it is essential

to use free will and free will can only be applied when we follow reason. The capacity of

human being to use free will is based on practical reason. Thus Kant believed that moral

laws can only be discovered "a priori" (or through acts of reasoning) and not from

experience. Moral laws do not depend on the actual behavior of people and instead tell us

what we ought to do. So the moral laws can be based on only pure or practical reason.

Kant states that the essential character of any law is that it should be universal and

should not allow any exceptions. Kant claims that true moral law is also universal in

nature and can be derived from the principle of the categorical imperative. A Categorical

Imperative tells us what we ought to do. It is not based on experience but it precedes

experience. For example a moral law tells us that we should not tell a lie. This moral law

is applicable universally, in all conditions and without any exceptions. It does not rely on

the experiences of other people and instead it could be followed and should be followed

by everyone. Kant stated that the consequences of an action cannot validate the morality

of that action and empirical motives (such as self-interest) can lead us away from

morality. So need to have ‘a priori’ moral law and it should be followed irrespective of

the consequences it produces.

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Thus Kant’s claim marks a break with previous empirically derived ethical

theories such as those based on utility, virtue, moral sense, happiness etc. Kant stated that

even the motives of happiness and virtue can lead us to a bad state (such as arrogance)

and can decrease our morality. So the highest motive is to do our duty as this is the right

thing to do. According to Kant, only reason and not experience can tell us what our duty

is. Kant’s moral philosophy negates the idea that that moral principle can be inferred

through experience. According to Kant empirical moral philosophy tells the people what

other people do but it cannot tell what we ought to do. Empirical moral philosophy is

descriptive in nature and does not tell us about normative principles. So moral law

originates in reason alone and cannot be known by drawing inferences from experiences

of human nature.

4. Explain Kant’s idea of a good will and its connection with his idea of duty.

Kant’s moral philosophy is based on his idea of good will (“Groundwork of the

Metaphysics of Morals”). According to Kant, the goal of morality or moral laws is not to

produce happiness or pleasure but goodwill because only goodwill is good without any

qualification. Kant says that goodwill is most important thing in morality. Goodwill does

not have inferior motives of self interest, happiness etc. Goodwill is intrinsically good

and does not depend on the consequences of the action. According to Kant goodwill is

not good because it produces good results but because goodwill is good in itself. So even

if goodwill results into nothing good, it is still valuable. A person with goodwill can never

be immoral. Even happiness and Intelligence are not good without qualification.

Happiness is as good as one is worthy of it otherwise it can lead to bad state of morality
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such as pride or arrogance. Intelligence, courage etc can also be put to wrong use by bad

persons if these are not supported by goodwill. Kant explains that the reason for this bad

state is the bad will. One should do the right thing only for the sake of doing the right

thing. There should be no ulterior motive of doing the right thing. An action can be

considered moral if it is guided by goodwill and not by motives of self interest, happiness

etc. For example if a person is honest because he is afraid of being caught by someone,

then he is not working according to goodwill and his motives cannot be considered

moral.

Kant states that a goodwill acts according to duty. Moral laws require that our

actions should be guided by the duty. Duty is done out of respect for the laws of

categorical imperative. To act in accordance with duty is to follow the moral law set by

categorical imperative. Categorical imperative means moral laws are absolute in nature.

According to Kant moral laws are imperatives. Moral laws must be followed irrespective

of the consequences. Moral laws are not dependent upon the inferior motives (such as

personal interests, happiness etc.) but goodwill. Kant says that there are two types of

duties which must be performed in accordance with moral law i.e. perfect duty and

imperfect duty. Perfect duty is the duty that is to be performed without exceptions.

Imperfect duty is essentially not to be followed rigidly but if performed, can be

praiseworthy (such as giving some money in charity). Kant says only those actions have

moral worth that are performed with a sense of duty but out of respect for moral laws. If a

person does a right thing for a wrong reason, that person cannot be considered moral. It is

the duty of every rational being to do right things for right reasons. So the moral action is

to obey one’s duty and to do the right thing for the sake of doing the right thing.
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Works Cited

Kant, Immanuel, 2008. Critique of Pure Reason, Kant's Moral Philosophy, Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Kant, Immanuel, 2008. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant's Moral

Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy