0 Basic Camera Parts

There are 10 basic camera parts to identify in today’s digital world. Whether you have a digital
compact or a digital SLR, these parts will inevitably be found on most cameras.

1. Lens

The lens is one of the most vital parts of a camera. The light enters through the lens, and this is
where the photo process begins. Lenses can be either fixed permanently to the body or
interchangeable. They can also vary in focal length, aperture, and other details.

2. Viewfinder

The viewfinder can be found on all DSLRs and some models of digital compacts. On DSLRs, it
will be the main visual source for image-taking, but many of today’s digital compacts have
replaced the typical viewfinder with an LCD screen.

3. Body

The body is the main portion of the camera, and bodies can be a number of different shapes and
sizes. DSLRs tend to be larger bodied and a bit heavier, while there are other consumer cameras
that are a conveniently smaller size and even able to fit into a pocket.

4. Shutter Release

The shutter release button is the mechanism that “releases” the shutter and therefore enables the
ability to capture the image. The length of time the shutter is left open or “exposed” is
determined by the shutter speed.

5. Aperture

The aperture affects the image’s exposure by changing the diameter of the lens opening, which
controls the amount of light reaching the image sensor. Some digital compacts will have a fixed
aperture lens, but most of today’s compact cameras have at least a small aperture range. This
range will be expressed in f/stops. For DSLRs, the lens will vary on f/stop limits, but it is usually
easily defined by reading the side of the lens. There will be a set of numbers stating the f/stop or
f/stop range, ex: f/2.8 or f/3.5-5.6. This will be your lowest settings available with that lens.

6. Image Sensor

The image sensor converts the optical image to an electronic signal, which is then sent to your
memory card. There are two main types of image sensors that are used in most digital cameras:
CMOS and CCD. Both forms of the sensor accomplish the same task, but each has a different
method of performance.
7. Memory Card

The memory card stores all of the image information, and they range in size and speed capacity.
The main types of memory cards available are CF and SD cards, and cameras vary on which type
that they require.

8. LCD Screen

The LCD screen is found on the back of the body and can vary in size. On digital compact
cameras, the LCD has typically begun to replace the viewfinder completely. On DSLRs, the
LCD is mainly for viewing photos after shooting, but some cameras do have a “live mode” as
well.

9. Flash

The on-board flash will be available on all cameras except some professional grade DSLRs. It
can sometimes be useful to provide a bit of extra light during dim, low light situations.

10. User Controls

The controls on each camera will vary depending on the model and type. Your basic digital
compacts may only have auto settings that can be used for different environments, while a DSLR
will have numerous controls for auto and manual shooting along with custom settings.

1. It is the authority of the President of the Philippines to suspend the execution of a penalty,
reduce the sentence and extinguish criminal liability.
A. Parole C. Executive clemency
B. Pardon D. President’s clemency
2. B.J.M.P. is under the administration of the:
A. Executive Department C. P.N.P.
B. D.I.L.G. D. none of theses
3. There are three (3) casework techniques applied by the parole officer, which one is not.
A. The trick and treat techniques
B. The executive techniques
C. The guidance, counseling and leadership techniques
D. The manipulative techniques
4. The basis of this old school of penology is the human free-will.
A. Penology School C. Classical School
B. Neo-classical D. Positivist
5. This helps the prisoner/detainee in the resolution of his problems
A. Meeting C. Working
B. Recreation D. Counseling

6. Takes charge of financial matters especially in programming, budgeting, accounting, and other
activities related to financial services. It consolidates and prepares financial reports and related
statements of subsistence outlays and disbursements in the operational of the jail.
A. Budget and finance branch C. General services branch
B. Property and supply branch D. Mess services branch
7. Operation conducted by the BJMP wherein a prisoner maybe checked at any time. His
beddings, lockers and personal belongings may also be opened at anytime, in his presence,
whenever possible. This practice is known as: A. Check and balance C. S.O.P.
B. Inventory D. Operation Greyhound
8. Pardon cannot be extended to one of the following instances.
A. Murder C. Brigandage
B. Rape D. Impeachment

9. It refers to commission of another crime during service of sentence of penalty imposed for
another previous offense.
A. Recidivism C. delinquency
B. Quasi-recidivism D. City prisoner
10. A person who is detained for the violation of law or ordinance and has not been convicted is
a-
A. Detention Prisoner C. Provincial Prisoner
B. Municipal Prisoner D. City Prisoner
11. Forms of executive clemency, EXCEPT
A. commutation C. reform model
B. amnesty D. probation
12. It is that branch of the administration of Criminal Justice System charged with the
responsibility for the custody, supervision, and rehabilitation of the convicted offender.
A. conviction C. corrections
B. penalty D. punishment

13. Pardon cannot be exercised in which of the following instances

A. before conviction C. before trial
B. after conviction D. before conviction and before trial

14. This is a procedure which permits a jail prisoner to pursue his normal job during the week
and return to the jail to serve his sentence during the weekend or non-working hours.
A. amnesty C. good conduct time allowance
B. probation D. delayed sentence15. The following are the justifications of punishment,
EXCEPT
A. Retribution C. deterrence
B. Happiness D. expiration or atonement
16. Pardon is exercised when the person is ___________________________.
A. already convicted C. not yet convicted
B. about to be convicted D. serve the sentence

17. This kind of punishment will be given to the offender by showing to others what would
happen to them if they have committed the heinous crime.
A. Protection C. Deterrence
B. Lethal injection D. Stoning
18. For a convicted offender, probation is a form of ______________________.
A. Punishment C. Treatment
B. Enjoyment D. Encarceration
19. For amnesty to be granted, there should be ____________________.
A. Recommendation from U.N. C. Recommendation from C.H.R.
B. Application D. Concurrence of the congress
20. The highest official of the bureau of corrections.
A. Director C. Secretary of the DND
B. Chief of Executive D. Prison Inspector
21. It plays a unique role in the moral and spiritual regeneration of man
A. vocation C. work
B. education D. religion
22. It is a penalty wherein a convicted person shall not be permitted to enter the place designated
in the sentence or within the radius therein specified, which shall not be more than 250 and not
less than 25 kilometers from the place designated. A. P 30.00/day C. P 25.00/day
B. P 22.00/day D. P 19.00/day
23. Punishing a criminal to serve as example to others is a theory of ______________.
A. Self-defense C. Social defense
B. Exemplary D. Equality
24. The purpose of the decree on probation shall be to
A. provide an opportunity for the reformation of a penitent offender
which might be less probable if he were to serve a prison sentence.
B. Prevent the commission of offenses
C. Promote the correction and rehabilitation of an offender by providing him with individualized
treatment
D. All of these
25. The most common problem of the National prison is
A. Excessive number of escapes C. Overcrowding
B. Disagreement about their mess D. Lack of adequate funding26. Nobody can assume the
suffering for a crime committed by others.
A. Justice C. Personal
B. Legal D. Certain
27. These are the factors considered in diversification, EXCEPT;
A. Age of offenders C. Mother of offender
B. Sex of offenders D. Medical condition

28. This branch takes charge of the preparation of the daily menu, makes foodstuff purchases,
prepares and cooks the food and serves it to the inmates. It maintains a record of daily purchases
and consumption and submits a daily report to the Warden.
A. General Services Branch C. Mittimus Computing Branch
B. Budget and Finance D. Mess services Branch

29. Under Article VII, Section 10 paragraph (B) of the Philippines Constitution, pardoning
power is vested with the
A. Department of Justice C. Judiciary
B. Chief Executive D. Legislative
30. It is a temporary stay of execution of sentence.
A. reprieve C. pardon
B. communication D. amnesty

31. Parole is not matter of _____________________.

A. privilege C. right
B. grace D. requirement

32. This group consists of chronic troublemakers but not as dangerous as the super
security prisoners. They are not allowed to work outside the institution.
A. maximum security prisoners C. super security prisoners
B. minimum security prisoners D. medium security prisoners

33. Parole is granted by the

A. President C. Board of Pardons and Parole
B. Director of Prison D. Court

34. A recipient of absolute pardon is ________ from civil liability imposed upon him by the
sentence.
A. partially exempted C. exempted
B. conditionally exempted D. not exempted

35. It is an act of clemency which changes a heavier sentence to a less serious one or a longer
term to a shorter term.
A. Amnesty C. commutation
B. Reprieve D. none of these

36. ____________ is an act of grace and the recipient is not entitled to it as a matter of right.
A. pardon C. parole
B. probation D. none of these
37. In probation system’s philosophy and concept, it is stated that the individual has the ability to
_________ and to modify his anti-social behavior with the right kind of help.
A. challenge C. none of these
B. change D. aggravate his behavior

8. The Bureau of Corrections is under the _________________.

A. Department of Social Welfare and Development
B. Department of Justice
C. Department of the Interior and Local Government
D. Department of Health

39. A person who is sentenced to serve a prison term of over three (3) years is a
_________________.
A. Municipal prisoner
B. Detention prisoner
C. National or Insular prisoner
D. City prisoner

40. The Head of Bureau of Corrections is known as -

A. Chief of the Bureau of Corrections
B. Director of the Bureau of Corrections
C. Superintendent of the Bureau of Corrections
D. None of these

41. What are the type of Jails under the Supervision of the BJMP?
A. Provincial and sub-Provincial Jails
B. City and Municipal Jails
C. District Jails
D. Insular Jails

42. Provincial Jails were first established in 1910 under the American Regime. At present, who
supervises and controls the said jails?
A. BJMP C. Provincial Government
B. DOJ D. LGU

43. What is the primary purpose of imprisonment?

A. Rehabilitation and Reformation C. to stand trial
B. Punishment D. socialization

44. A place of confinement for persons awaiting trial or curt action and where the convicted
offenders serve short sentences or penalty of imprisonment is known as:
A. Jail C. Lock-up
B. Penitentiary D. Detention Cells

45. A warrant issued by the court bearing its seal and signature of the judge directing the jail or
prison authorities to receive the convicted offender for service of sentence or detention is known
as -
A. Mittimus C. Detention Mittimus
B. Sentence Mittimus D. Detention Warrant

46. The maintenance of care and protection accorded to people who by authority of law are
temporarily incarcerated for violation of laws and also those who were sentenced by the court to
serve judgment is called -
A. custody C. safe-keeping
B. classification D. caring
E. protection

47. Which of these refers to the assigning or grouping of offenders according to their sentence,
gender, age, nationality, health, criminal record, etc.?
A. classification C. custody
B. security D. safe-keeping
48. The open institution usually a penal farm or camp is known as the
A. NBP C. Medium Security Institution
B. Maximum Security Institution D. Minimum Security Institution49. What is the act of grace
from a sovereign power inherent in the state which exempts an individual from the punishment
which the law imposes or prescribes for his crime, extended by the President thru the
recommendation of the Board of Parole and Pardon?
A. Amnesty C. Parole
B. Pardon D. Probation

50. Under the prison service manual, the prescribed color of prison uniform for maximum
security prison is -
A. Orange C. Yellow E. Stripe Orange
B. Blue D. Pink

51. When an inmate is given a “shakedown” before admission it meant

A. Process of identification, record, fingerprint and photograph
B. Examination for contraband
C. His commitment paper are delivered to record clerk
D. All of these

52. An inmate maybe granted parole if he -

A. earned good conduct time allowance credit
B. serve minimum sentence
C. earned good behavior while serving prison term
D. all of these

53. Aside from protecting the public, imprisonment has for its latest objective, the -
A. reformation of offenders C. Deterrence
B. segregation of offender D. Confinement of Offenders

54. In the New Bilibid Prison, the medium security prisoners are confined at -
A. NBP Main Prison C. Camp Bukang Liwayway
B. Camp Sampaguita D. Medium Security Prison

55. Who is charged for the hearing of disciplinary cased in prison?

A. Classification Board C. Parole Board
B. Administrative Board D. Disciplinary Board

56. The form of conditional release that is granted after a prisoner has served a portion of his
sentence in a correctional
A. Conditional pardon C. Probation
B. Parole D. Commutation

57. Which of the following is the function of the Custodial Division?

A. Supervision of prisoners C. escort
B. Keep records D. all of the above
58. The putting of offenders in prison for the purpose of protecting the public and at the same
time rehabilitating them by requiring the latter to undergo institutional treatment program is
referred to as:
A. imprisonment C. trial
B. conviction D. detention

59. The Sablayan Penal Colony and Farm, a National Penitentiary in the Philippines under the
BUCOR is located in _________________.
A. Palawan C. Zamboanga
B. Davao D. Occidental Mindoro
60. In Babylon, about 1990 BC, credited as the oldest code prescribing savage
Punishment but in fact ____ is older.
A. Hammurabic Code C. Sumerian Code
B. Justinian Code D. Code of Draco

61. The penalty imposed for offenders must be certain. This means that:
A. The guilty one must be the one to be punished, no proxy.
B. No one must escape its effect
C. It must be equal for all persons
D. The consequence must be in accordance with law.

62. The following are the duties of the custodial force in prison, except:
A. Censor offender’s inmate
B. Escort inmates
C. Inspect security devices
D. Conduct disciplinary hearing

63. When a jailbreak, escape or riot is in progress or has just been perpetuated in the jail, the
officer at the control centers shall immediately:
A. Sound the alarm C. locked prisoners in their respective cells
B. Notify the nearest police precinct D. call the warden or the director

64. In case of mass jailbreak, all members of the custodial force shall be immediately
issued firearms and assigned to critical posts to:
A. plug off the escape routes C. to shoot the escape
B. protect the other inmates D. to give warning shots

65. Which of these is known as the Adult Probation Law, which grants probation to
prisoner sentenced to term in prison of not more than six (6) years -
A. PD 603 C. RA 6127 E. PD 968
B. PD 869 D. PD 698

6. The continuing relationship between probation officer and probationer is known as -

A. Affiliation Guidance C. Pre-sentenced Investigation
B. Supervision D. Probation Guidance
67. Those who have been once on probation under the Probation Law:
A. are qualified to apply for probation
B. are disqualified to apply for probation
C. may be granted for another probation
D. should be confined in prison

68. This pillar/component of our criminal justice system is responsible in the confinement,
rehabilitation and reformation of convicted offenders.
A. law enforcement C. prosecution
B. court D. corrections

69. The traditional and most basic goal of corrections.

A. retribution C. deterrence
B. incapacitation D. rehabilitation

70. The attempt to prevent future crimes through fear of punishment.

A. retribution C. deterrence
B. incapacitation D. rehabilitation
71. The task of changing an offender’s attitude so that he or she may not commit
another crime in the future.
A. retribution C. deterrence
B. incapacitation D. rehabilitationThe Bureau of Corrections (Filipino: Kawanihan ng
mga Bilangguan, literally "Bureau of Prisons", which was the old name of the agency
from 1905 to 1989; abbreviated BuCor) is an agency of the Department of Justice
which is charged with the custody and rehabilitation of national offenders, who have
been sentenced to three years of imprisonment[1] or more. The agency has its
headquarters in the New Bilibid Prison Reservation in Muntinlupa City.[2] It is
headed by Director Franklin Jesus Bucayu and the bureau has 2,862 employees, 61%
of whom are custodial officers, 33% are administrative personnel and 6% are
members of the medical staff.[1] Mission

To maximize the assets' value of the BuCor to effectively pursue its responsibility in
safely securing transforming national prisoners through responsive rehabilitation
programs managed by professional Correctional Officers.[3] Mandate

The Principal task of the Bureau of Corrections is the rehabilitation of National Prisoners.[3]

The Bureau carries out the following task to carry out its mandate:[3]

 Confine persons convicted by the courts to serve a sentence in national

prisons.
 Keep prisoners from committing crimes while in custody.
  Provide humane treatment by supplying the inmates' basic needs and
implementing a variety of rehabilitation programs designed to change
their pattern of criminal or anti-social behavior.
 Engage in agro-industrial projects for the purpose of developing prison
lands and resources into productive bases or profit centers, developing
and employing inmate manpower skills and labor, providing prisoners
with a source of income and augmenting the Bureau's yearly
appropriations.

Units

The Bureau of Corrections currently have 7 operating units located nationwide:[1]

 The New Bilibid Prison in Muntinlupa City

 The Correctional Institution for Women (CIW) in Mandaluyong City / and The
CIW Mindanao, Panabo, Davao
 Iwahig Prison and Penal Farm in Puerto Princesa City, Palawan
 Sablayan Prison and Penal Farm in Occidental Mindoro
 San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm in Zamboanga City
 Leyte Regional Prison in Abuyog, Leyte
 Davao Prison and Penal Farm in Panabo, Davao

History

Spanish Rule

Old Bilibid Prison circa 1900

The Old Bilibid Prison which was located on Oroquieta Street in Manila was established in 1847
and by a Royal Decree formally opened on April 10, 1866. On August 21, 1870 the San Ramon
Prison and Penal Farm was established in Zamboanga City for Muslim and political prisoners
opposed to the rule of Spain.

American Colony

the Iuhit penal Settlement now known as Iwahig Prison and Penal Farm was established in 1904
by the Americans in 28,072 hectares of land. The land areas expanded to 40,000 hectares in the
late 1950s.[4] and expanded again to 41,007 hectares by virtue of Executive Order No. 67 issued
by Governor Newton Gilbert on October 15, 1912.
The Bureau of Prisons was created under the Reorganization Act of 1905 as an agency under the
Department of Commerce and Police. The Reorganization Act also re-established the San
Ramon Prison in 1907 which was destroyed during the Spanish-American War in 1888. The
prison was placed under the Bureau of Prisons and receive prisoners in Mindanao.[4]

The Correctional Institution for Women was founded on November 27, 1929 by virtue of Act
No. 3579 as the first and only prison for women in the Philippines.[4] Later, on January 21, 1932,
the bureau opened the Davao Penal Colony in Southern Mindanao.[4]

The New Bilibid Prison was established in 1935 in Mutinlupa due to the increased rate of
prisoners.[4]

Proclamation No. 72 issued on September 26, 1954, established the Sablayan Prison and Penal
Farm in Occidental Mindoro, and the Leyte Regional Prison was established on January 16,
1973, under Proclamation No. 1101.[4]

History

Spanish Rule

Old Bilibid Prison circa 1900

The Old Bilibid Prison which was located on Oroquieta Street in Manila was established in 1847
and by a Royal Decree formally opened on April 10, 1866. On August 21, 1870 the San Ramon
Prison and Penal Farm was established in Zamboanga City for Muslim and political prisoners
opposed to the rule of Spain.

American Colony

the Iuhit penal Settlement now known as Iwahig Prison and Penal Farm was established in 1904
by the Americans in 28,072 hectares of land. The land areas expanded to 40,000 hectares in the
late 1950s.[4] and expanded again to 41,007 hectares by virtue of Executive Order No. 67 issued
by Governor Newton Gilbert on October 15, 1912.

The Bureau of Prisons was created under the Reorganization Act of 1905 as an agency under the
Department of Commerce and Police. The Reorganization Act also re-established the San
Ramon Prison in 1907 which was destroyed during the Spanish-American War in 1888. The
prison was placed under the Bureau of Prisons and receive prisoners in Mindanao.[4]
The Correctional Institution for Women was founded on November 27, 1929 by virtue of Act
No. 3579 as the first and only prison for women in the Philippines.[4] Later, on January 21, 1932,
the bureau opened the Davao Penal Colony in Southern Mindanao.[4]

The New Bilibid Prison was established in 1935 in Mutinlupa due to the increased rate of
prisoners.[4]

Proclamation No. 72 issued on September 26, 1954, established the Sablayan Prison and Penal
Farm in Occidental Mindoro, and the Leyte Regional Prison was established on January 16,
1973, under Proclamation No. 1101.[4]

New Name

The Administrative Code of 1987 and Proclamation No. 495, issued on November 22, 1989,
changed the agency's name to the current Bureau of Corrections from Bureau of Prisons.[4]

Logo

The logo presented here, is symbolic of the Bureau's mandate, the rehabilitation of inmate. The
logo focuses on the man in prison as the main concern of rehabilitation. It presents man behind
bars, but who looks outwards with the hope of rejoining the free community. The rays of the sun
and the color green are symbolic of hope. The color orange is symbolic of happiness. The bar of
justice represents the justice system. (jrcp)[4] Bureau of Corrections

SECTION 26. Bureau of Corrections.—The Bureau of Corrections shall have its principal task
the rehabilitation of prisoners. The Bureau of Corrections shall exercise such powers and
functions as are now provided for the Bureau of Prisons or may hereafter be provided by law.

SECTION 27. Structural and Personnel Organization.—The Bureau of Corrections shall be

headed by a Director who shall be assisted by two (2) Assistant Directors, one for Administration
and Rehabilitation and one for Prisons and Security. The Director and Assistant Directors of the
Bureau shall be appointed by the President upon recommendation of the Secretary.

The Bureau shall carry out its functions through its divisions and its seven (7) Penal institutions
namely—New Bilibid Prisons, Correctional Institution for Women, Iwahig, Davao, San Ramon
and Sablayan Prisons and Penal Farms and the Leyte Regional Prisons.

n the late 1980s, institutions for the confinement of convicts and the detention of those awaiting
trial included a variety of national prisons and penal farms as well as numerous small local jails
and lockups. In general, the national prisons housed more serious offenders, and those serving
short-term sentences were held in local facilities. The prison system at the national level was
supervised by the Bureau of Prisons of the Department of Justice. The bureau was responsible
for the safekeeping of prisoners and their rehabilitation through general and moral education and
technical training in industry and agriculture. The bureau also oversaw the operation of prison
agro-industries and the production of food commodities. In 1991 the newly formed Philippine
National Police took over administration of local jails.
The government maintained six correctional institutions and penal farms. The nation's largest
prison was the National Penitentiary at Muntinlupa, Rizal Province, near Manila, which also
operated the Manila City Jail. The penitentiary served as the central facility for those sentenced
to life imprisonment or long-term incarceration. It was divided into two camps to separate those
serving maximum and minimum penalties. The Correctional Institution for Women was located
in Metropolitan Manila. Combination prison and penal farms also were located in Zamboanga
City, and in Palawan, Mindoro Occidental, and in several Mindanao provinces. Prison conditions
in the Philippines were generally poor, and prison life was harsh.

Some prison inmates were eligible for parole and probation. Before serving their sentence,
felons, who were not charged with subversion or insurgency, or had not been on probation
before, could apply for probation. Probationers were required to meet with their parole officers
monthly, to avoid any further offense, and to comply with all other court-imposed conditions.
After serving an established minimum sentence, certain prisoners could apply to their parole
board for release. The board could also recommend pardon to the president for prisoners it
believed to have reformed and who presented no menace to society.

In 1991 crime still was a serious, if somewhat reduced, threat to the general peace and security of
society and was aggravated by corruption in the police and court systems. The politicization of
the military was seen as a long-term problem and the threat of a military coup remained
significant. The threat of a CPP-led takeover seemed to be receding as NPA guerrilla strength
ebbed. The socioeconomic roots of the revolutionary movement remained and promised to make
the insurgency a problem for some time to come, despite its slow decline. The government also
recognized the continuing threat posed by well-armed Filipino Muslim rebels, although few
feared a near-term resurgent Moro uprising. External security threats were not perceived.

* * *

A series of well-researched books published in the late 1980s added immensely to the available
body of work on the Philippine communist insurgency. William Chapman's Inside the Philippine
Revolution offers unique insights on the revolutionary movement. Richard Kessler's Rebellion
and Repression in the Philippines provides a thorough review of the insurgency, especially its
social and cultural roots. Gregg Jones's Red Revolution combines discussions of the CPP's
historical development with revealing interviews with communist leaders and first-hand reports
on guerrilla commanders and political cadres in the field. Although predictably dogmatic, books
by CPP founder Jose Maria Sison--Philippine Society and Revolution and The Philippine
Revolution--present the theoretical underpinnings of the insurgency (the former appears under
his nom de guerre, Amado Guerrero). Annual updates on the progress of the communist
movement can be found in the Yearbook on International Communist Affairs.

Comprehensive studies of the Philippine military are few. Richard Kessler's Rebellion and
Repression in the Philippines provides the most thorough examination of the Armed Forces of
the Philippines and their strengths and weaknesses. The history of Philippine civil-military
relations is explored by two doctoral dissertations: Donald L. Berlin's "Prelude to Martial Law"
and Carolina Hernandez's "The Extent of Civilian Control of the Military in the Philippines."
More current information on the military's role in politics can be found in the Far Eastern
Economic Review, Asian Defence Journal, and Pacific Defence Reporter.
Standard references on military capabilities include annual editions of The Military Balance,
prepared by the International Institute for Strategic Studies, and the United States Arms Control
and Disarmament Agency's World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers. Jane's Infantry
Weapons, Jane's Armour and Artillery, Jane's All the World's Aircraft, and Jane's Fighting Ships
also are useful. The military's human rights performance is reviewed annually by the Amnesty
International Report and by the United States Department of State's Country Reports on Human
Rights Practices. (For further information and complete citations, see Bibliography.)

Data as of June 1991

What are fingerprints?

Fingerprints are reproductions of the patterns formed by the papillary ridges located on the palm
side of the fingers and thumbs.

The established facts show that the chance against one finger producing a
print identical with that of another finger, whether on the same hand or on the
hand of another person, is so astronomical in number that for all practical
human purposes it is reasonable to conclude that such a chance will never
materialise. It has been computed that, theoretically, two identical prints
would be found only once during a period longer than that which astronomers
estimate is needed for the sun to grow cold. The History of Fingerprinting

Three great Englishmen — Sir William Herschel (1833 - 1917), Sir Francis Galton (1822 -
1911), and Sir Edward Henry (1859 - 1931) — were outstanding in their contributions to the
science of fingerprint identification.

It was Herschel who proved that the groupings of the papillary ridges (they are formed in the
first few months of foetal life) remain constant from birth to death. This he did by taking test
prints at intervals, ranging over a long period, of his own fingers and those of other people. The
result of these tests established the reliability of fingerprints as a means of human identification.

Galton did much pioneer research work, chiefly from data supplied by Herschel, but it was
Henry who produced a workable system. In 1901 his system was officially adopted and the same
year saw the inception of the Fingerprint Bureau at Scotland Yard.

Henry's system displaced Bertillon's anthropometric method of identification by means of bodily

measurements, and its superiority soon became recognised.
The new system of the registration of habitual criminals was implemented by
directions to the governors of prisons to take and forward to Scotland Yard
the fingerprints of prisoners convicted and sentenced to one month's
imprisonment or more. Later the scope of registration was extended to
include persons sentenced to imprisonment at lower courts for lesser
offences. How fingerprints are taken

For official use fingerprints are recorded on a special form with spaces for impressions of all the
digits. The spaces are numbered from one to ten. The prints taken in these spaces are called
rolled impressions because they are obtained by rolling each finger from side to side on an inked
plate and then repeating the same process with the inked finger during the taking of the
impressions on the form.

The reason for the rolling action is to obtain the largest picture possible of the area of the skin
ridges which lies between the edges of the nail and the flexure of the distal (first) joint of the
finger, thus ensuring the inclusion of all data necessary for classification purposes. Below the
rolled impressions are taken what are known as plain impressions. These are obtained by inking
the fingers of each hand simultaneously and pressing them with the fingers held together in the
spaces provided on the form. The thumbs held side by side are treated in a similar manner.

The purpose of taking the plain impressions is to ensure that the rolled impressions have been
taken in the correct order. A misplaced impression could result in an incorrect classification
formula. After all the impressions have been taken the prisoner signs the form and immediately
after the signature a print of one of his fingers is taken as a check that the prints are his. New
methods of taking prints are being sought, but, at present, the method described is universal.

Fingerprint patterns

Fingerprints are divided into four main groups of patterns: arches, loops, whorls, and
compounds. There are variations of each pattern.

The arch1, as the name implies, the ridges are arranged in an archlike fashion; a variation of this
type is the tented arch2.

The loop3 is the most common type of print. The point indicated by the arrow is called the delta.
The ridges lying between the delta which cut a direct line to the core are counted. As the number
varies in different prints it provides useful data for classification.

Whorls4 have a circular arrangement of the ridges. There are two deltas in all whorls; one only in
loops. Whorls are sub-divided by tracing to the right the course of the lower limb of the left-hand
delta and noting whether it passes inside the right-hand delta, meets it, or drops below it. The
cores of some whorls are more or less elongated.
Compounds5 possess features of other patterns. There are two deltas and sometimes more. They
are classified in the same manner as whorls. Extra deltas lying between the two outer deltas are
ignored.

Ridge characteristics

When two prints are of the same pattern it does not follow that they originated from the same
finger. Identity or non-identity is determined by comparing the order in which the ridge
characteristics appear in each print. Characteristics comprise such features as ending ridges,
forking ridges, and ridges forming lakes and islands.

When the expert finds a number of these appearing in the same order in each print he knows that
both prints were made by the same finger and that the remaining characteristics will coincide.
Ridge characteristic data remain constant unless disturbed by a deep-seated injury that leaves a
permanent scar. Superficial damage to the epidermis is more or less transient and subsequently
leaves little or no trace of such injury.

Classification

The four main types of pattern form a basis for the primary classification of fingerprints. For this
purpose the patterns are placed in two categories. Whorls and compounds are given a numerical
value according to the number of the digit on which they occur. Arches and loops have no value
numerically. By this arrangement 1024 primary groups are arrived at.

Further subdivisions are obtained by using the delta ridge tracing of whorls
and compounds and by counting the ridge lines in loops. Many permutations
result from the intercombination of the ridge tracing and ridge counting
formulas. The presence of arches and radial loops provides additional data in
some sub-groups. Filing and searching

The place a set of prints will occupy in a collection depends firstly on the primary classification
number. This may be any one of the 1024 groups referred to. Reference is then made to the
secondary classification derived from the methods used for subdividing patterns. If a tertiary
classification appears in the formula it must be consulted next, and finally the set of prints is
arranged according to the number of ridges in loops, if they are present, on the little fingers and
thumbs.

If a person has been previously convicted and providing he has given his correct name when he
is again fingerprinted, the location of his prints in the collection is a matter of a few minutes.
Should he give an alias the task is much more difficult.

Developments in computers and technology has certainly sped matters up.

Henry Faulds: the Invention of a Fingerprinter

With the publication of Colin Beavan's Fingerprints: The Origins of Crime Detection and the
Murder Case that Launched Forensic Science (Hyperion, 2001) a great deal of attention has
once more been focused on the role that the Scottish physician Henry Faulds played, while a
medical missionary to Japan, in the discovery of fingerprint identification. The combative
Faulds (1843-1930) tirelessly promoted his own priority in the history of fingerprinting, and after
his death his case was taken up by the enthusiastic Scottish barrister George Wilton Wilton
(1862-1964), who wrote a book and a stream of pamphlets on the subject. This was well-
ploughed ground before Beavan, casting about for a subject, started digging in it. A careful
researcher would have been suspicious at once, especially since the issue has been caught up in
the bluster of Scottish Nationalism, Faulds having been born and raised in the small town of
Beith, Ayrshire. Beavan's book has since been seized on by partisans of Faulds, including a
Faulds society based in Beith, which intends to have a monument erected to his memory. Most
reviews of the book have been positive, though the specialist journals have shown little
interest. Some simple searches on the Internet reveal that Beavan has found many enthusiastic
admirers, who accept most if not all of his arguments. The trouble is that few of these admirers
appear to have taken the trouble to read anything at all about this subject other than Beavan's
book.

Beavan's complaint is that the true inventor of the fingerprint method is really Henry Faulds,
who was cheated of his claim by a conspiracy among the leading scientists of the day. He insists
that there was a "secret pact" between Francis Galton and William Herschel - who are commonly
credited with pioneering the modern use of fingerprints - to discredit Faulds. Beavan insists that
Galton stole Faulds' research, passing it off as his own. To bolster this argument, he supplies a
considerable deal of secondary detail, largely consisting of capsule biographies of personages
connected with the history of fingerprinting, and racy accounts of gruesome murder cases. He
accepts, without criticism, all of Faulds' own contentions about his role in the development of
fingerprinting. Since Beavan's stated intention was to write a popular story, and not a scholarly
account, he has not conducted any original research in the area.. He adds nothing to the
controversy that was not already stated by previous Faulds enthusiasts. The bibliography he
supplies is rather incomplete and sometimes plainly inaccurate, and he often misrepresents his
stated sources. There is nothing in his material to substantiate the charges he makes against
figures like Galton, and no reason to reverse the settled judgment of Faulds - that he was an
interesting but minor figure. Henry Faulds is not without interest; one of those delightfully
eccentric characters who enlivened Victorian science, brimming with original ideas, a talent for
scientific observation, diverse interests and peculiar personality traits. Born in 1843 into a
Presbyterian family then successful in trade, he was well-educated until the business folded, after
which work in menial jobs saw him through medical training in Glasgow, briefly under the
renowned Joseph Lister. Deeply religious, though somewhat at odds with his scientific training,
he worked abroad as a Presbyterian missionary doctor, first in India (where he quarreled with the
church authorities) and then in Japan from late in 1873 to the mid 1880s. It was in Japan that he
first stumbled on fingerprints, after noticing (as he tells it) the patterns in signature impressions
left by Japanese potters in their work. It is hard to pin down the precise date that this
happened. From his very first publication it seems that it was sometime in early 1879, perhaps
late 1878. Faulds' publications prior to this (1878a, 1878b) make no mention of fingerprints, so it
is reasonable to suppose that the correct date is no earlier than late 1878. After gathering some
prints from his students, he noticed that they seemed distinct, and he hit upon the idea of using
impressions of fingerprints to find their owners. Exactly how thoroughly he investigated this is
hard to determine, as we have only his own description of this to go on, and he supplied little
detail until 1905 and later, after which he had already become embroiled in public controversies
about his role. There is generally a lack of independent corroboration for many of Fauld's claims,
and it appears that the secondary literature that has built up around this topic has not provided
much more than repetition of the story told by Faulds himself. Faulds certainly did not publish
any detailed accounts of his research in the medical or scientific journals of the time. He wrote
to Charles Darwin early in 1880, but Darwin plead illness, and forwarded the letter to his cousin
Francis Galton. The letter seems to have made little impression on Galton, who was then at his
busiest scientifically, so he forwarded it to the Royal Anthropological Society, who took no
interest in it (the letter would later be returned to a surprised Galton, who had evidently forgotten
all about it, in 1894). Beavan seems unaware that Galton forwarded the letter, and informs his
readers that Galton simply buried it; if he had consulted Pearson's definitive three volume
biography of Galton (1914, 1920, 1930) or even the popular biography by Forrest (1974), he
would have discovered the contrary, but Pearson isn't even mentioned in the bibliography or the
text at any stage. The idea that Galton deliberately buried the Faulds letter is an essential part of
Beavan's conspiracy theory, and is repeated several times in the text. Later in 1880, Faulds
published a letter in Nature (Oct. 28) titled "On the Skin-furrows of the Hand", in which he
described how he had noticed human and later animal fingerprints, and racial differences in the
patterns (1880). He described how to take impressions using printer's ink, and mentioned some
conjectures about the use of prints in ethnological classification, in forensic identification of
criminals, and in determining identity through prints of relatives. Most importantly, he
mentioned in closing the "for-ever-unchangeable finger-furrows of important criminals".

Faulds gave two concrete instances where he had used prints forensically to establish the identity
of people at "crime" scenes. Here we have only his descriptions of the events to go on. The first
involved theft of surgical alcohol from a bottle in his hospital, which he was able to trace through
a set of ten greasy prints on the bottle to one of his employees. The second involved a sooty
palm print left on a hospital wall by a burglar, which he was able to show did not match someone
accused of the burglary. At least, that is the way the second incident has been commonly told,
following Faulds' own description in Nature. However, many years later Faulds corrected this
second case (1912), stating that the sooty palm print contained no discernible fingerprints! In
fact, he based his analysis on the general outline of the hand, and this second case has nothing to
do with fingerprint analysis. Neither Beavan nor anyone else appears to have noticed this crucial
correction. Obviously Faulds' own reports of his use of fingerprints should be treated with
caution.

As later research has shown, some of Faulds' ideas about fingerprints were on the right track, but
others were not. For example it is true that fingerprints do not change, but Faulds gave no reason
exactly why he believed that to be true. The careful reader would have noted that early in his
letter Faulds stated that that "I was led, about a year ago, to give some attention to the character
of certain finger-marks". How could Faulds have reached such far-reaching conclusions about
the permanence and uniqueness of fingerprints on the basis of just one year of experience? This
was picked up at once by William Herschel, who wrote a follow-up letter to Nature (1880) in
which he stated that he had used fingerprints in India for identification "for more than twenty
years", and that he doubted if the method could be used to reliably identify the race of an
individual. As Herschel diplomatically put it, "the conclusions of your correspondent seem,
however, to indicate greater possibilities of certainty". After this exchange, the scientific study
of fingerprints for identification seems to have sunk without a trace, until it was revived in
1888. Nobody else seems to have taken any notice of the letters from Faulds and Herschel.

Faulds published nothing further on the subject of fingerprints, anywhere, until 1894, when he
sent a highly controversial letter to Nature. His first publication containing any detail, a book,
appeared in 1905. Exactly what Faulds was doing about this between 1880 and 1905 is
unclear. His own writings indicate that he resigned himself to defeat after sending several letters
to police forces around the world urging the use of fingerprints to identify criminals. After 1884
he left Japan (except for a very short return) and settled in England, where he later founded
several unsuccessful journals, and wrote a book describing his experiences in Japan. It is curious
that this book, Nine Years in Nipon, contains no mention of fingerprints, or even of the pottery
fragments that formed an essential part Faulds' retelling of the story (1885). There are many
other details, including memorable meals that Faulds had, interesting places he had visited, and
descriptions of plants and animals; but nothing on fingerprints. It seems likely that he did not
then realize how important the study of fingerprints would become, and did not appreciate the
ramifications of the research effort required to turn it into a science. It can be inferred from his
writings that whatever collection of prints he had undertaken in Japan was not pursued, apart
from "observations from time to time ... to confirm my early results" (1911: 326), when he
returned to England (suffering, he says, from "exhausting illness from climate and overwork",
though it appears that he had really fallen out with the Church authorities about the future of the
mission in Japan). One can collect prints anywhere in the world, so there was no inherent reason
why, if he intended to pursue the matter, he could not have enlarged his collection in
England. Nor is there any reasonable explanation, apart from his own inactivity in the field, for

Faulds was briefly in contact with Scotland Yard to advocate the use of fingerprints for forensics,
in 1888, but evidently nothing came of this. The police may have considered Faulds a harmless
crank, an impression that might have been reinforced by his aggressive personality. With
hindsight it is clear that his problems included a lack of evidence. People would not believe that
fingerprints were permanent or unique until the evidence was substantial - after all, body features
can change remarkably with age. Official bodies are conservative by nature and require a great
deal of evidence and persuasion to budge. The lack of interest shown in Faulds is also something
of a problem for Beavan's story, since if nobody took Faulds seriously there is no obvious reason
to believe that a conspiracy was needed to silence him. By 1894 Faulds was so out of touch with
the whole idea of identification by fingerprinting that he only became aware of it again through
newspaper reports about the parliamentary committee appointed to investigate its use. The
critical period in the development of the science of fingerprinting was from 1888 to 1893, so this
places Faulds in a very marginal position. His later accounts showed some awareness that this
was a problem for his story, and he claimed to have been troubled by doubts, worried that
fingerprinting might be misused to wrongly convict people, if the method was not sound. This is
rather at odds with his first flush of enthusiasm, and the idea, which Beavan subscribes to, that
Faulds spent a great deal of time advocating its use. Regardless of this, he certainly did not
publish any evidence or account of a system which could be used reliably. If he did have
evidence, he had the means, knowledge and opportunity to publish it, and he published a great
deal of other material during this period.

Galton had shown little interest in the letter from Faulds forwarded by Darwin, or in the
exchange between Herschel and Faulds in Nature in 1880. He was drawn into the field eight
years later by another route, the field of anthropometry. Galton had been a pioneer in
anthropometry, as part of his general interest in identifying and measuring variable traits, with a
view to establishing their heritability (his Anthropometric Laboratory at the Kensington Museum
of Science collected a vast number of measurements, the greater part of which were not fully
analyzed till 1985). The French criminologist Bertillon had devised a system for identifying
criminals based on a comprehensive set of measurements, and Galton had been asked to deliver a
talk on the method. Galton doubted whether Bertillon's system was theoretically sound, since
body measurements are not independent, greatly reducing the number of possible (measurable)
combinations. This was unknown to Bertillon. Galton himself was only then pioneering the
statistical formulation of correlation and regression. Galton cast around for alternatives to
"Bertillonage", as it was called, and was led to re-examine the use of "finger marks". In his
Memories, Galton recalls that he sent a letter to the editor of Nature requesting more information
about fingerprints (1908). This letter cannot be traced now, and the editor may have put him
directly in touch with Herschel, who agreed to give him access to all the material he had
collected in India, on condition that he be given due credit. This material from Herschel was
invaluable to Galton, who was keenly aware of the need for solid evidence of the permanence of
fingerprints, collected over a substantial period of time. He was able to supplement this evidence
with prints of his own, collected through his Anthropometric laboratory, and by the early 1890s
had the most comprehensive collection of prints in the world. eavan concocts a peculiar
explanation for the collaboration between Herschel and Galton, attributing it to a preference on
Galton's part for working with members of the Victorian elite: "Though Faulds had published a
far more significant and valuable contribution on fingerprints, Galton, ever the elitist, preferred
associating with Herschel" (Beavan: 104). Beavan gives no supporting evidence for this venture
into Galton's mind. A far simpler explanation (the letter to Nature) is available from Galton
himself, in his autobiography (Galton, 1908). Since Herschel had a collection of prints
stretching over many years, this supplied what Galton wanted: hard evidence. There is no way
of knowing why Faulds did not enter the picture. It is possible that Galton did not take Faulds
very seriously because his claims made in his letter to Nature were left unsupported. Galton is
known to have been severe on others for omitting hard evidence; his reviews of The Weather
Book, by Admiral FitzRoy of Voyage of the Beagle fame, roundly criticized FitzRoy's penchant
for making unsupported assertions (1863a, 1863b). In the Athenaeum Galton was especially
severe:

"He asserts the influence of various laws, but is careless of adducing the evidence by which he
himself was originally induced to recognise their existence. Here is the fatally weak point of the
whole of Admiral FitzRoy's reasonings ... the character of Admiral Fitzroy's arguments conveys
an idea, whether rightly or wrongly, the his meteorological convictions are based on no surer
ground than vague observation; that without caring to fortify his impressions by a rigorous
appeal to fact, he has contented himself with quasi-reasons for their justification." (1863b: 117)
There was (and still is) also no indication that Faulds was still actively at work in the field in
1888, in a scientific sense. Moreover, Galton is known to have collaborated readily when the
opportunity arose. He worked with Dr. F. A. Mahomed on pthisis portraiture and the collection
of family records, and with Joseph Jacobs on composite portraiture; he pioneered the collection
of scientific data from the general public through circulars, questionnaires and prizes for
submissions. It is unlikely that he would knowingly have passed up hard data simply out of spite
or snobbery.

Beavan has confused creative writing here with history, and this is a continual problem
throughout his book. He assures us that Galton did not title his "Personal Identification" lecture
"Bertillonage" because he "couldn't bring himself to selflessly glorify someone else's work"
(2001: 102), which is just invention on Beavan's part. Likewise we are told that Fauld's musings
about the racial aspect of fingerprints was "all Galton needed to kindle his interest" (2001: 103),
but Beavan does not trouble his readers with the evidence. Later we learn that "with Galton's
encouragement, Herschel came to consider that he, not Faulds, deserved to be known as the true
inventor of the fingerprint idea", but Herschel is not a character in a novel and Beavan has no
way of knowing this, nor does he ever tell us how and where, precisely, Galton is known to have
"encouraged" Herschel in this way. In the most bizarre claim in the book, Beavan goes even
further, to claim that there was actually an organized conspiracy between Galton and Herschel:
"Herschel and Galton privately agreed to promote themselves as fingerprinting's pioneers,
according to a letter Herschel wrote to the Times many years later." (2001: 104-5) Elsewhere in
the book Beavan refers to this as a "secret pact".

In return for Herschel's assistance, Galton would tell the world that Herschel had put the "finger-
print system into full and effective work ... as early as 1877, after some 20 years' experimenting
for this one definite purpose." ... Promoting Herschel as the originator of fingerprinting had its
advantages for Galton. Claiming he took his lead from Herschel, Galton need never credit Henry
Faulds with the ethnographical and criminal identification ideas Galton intended to develop. He
could say that they were the natural extensions of Herschel's ideas, which he pursued with
Herschel's blessing. By the version of events they agreed upon, Herschel would be the system's
originator, and Galton its developer. They left Henry Faulds out in the cold. (Beavan: 105) The
trouble with this remarkable "pact" is that Beavan has invented it. The letter referred to is known
and easily consulted (1909), though Beavan was somehow unable to date it accurately in his list
of references. There is no mention of a secret pact in it. Herschel states simply that he agreed to
turn over his original data to Galton if Galton would give him credit for it, which Galton was
happy to do. The quid-pro-quo referred to Beavan is not mentioned there at all. Galton's
published works on fingerprints (e.g. 1892b) contain numerous detailed references to prior work
in the field, and Galton never claimed to be the first to study them. Aside from Herschel, he
credits the Czech Purkenje, and many others, including a brief mention of Faulds himself. Why,
then, would Galton need to engage in complicated agreements to denigrate Faulds, who had
published nothing but a short letter on the subject? Simply asserting that Faulds was not part of
the Victorian elite will not do. The claim that "Galton appropriated Fauld's ideas without giving
him credit" is baseless, as a closer examination of Galton's contributions shows.
Galton's study of fingerprints aimed to establish some basic propositions that he considered
prerequisites if they were to be a reliable method for identifying individuals. It had to be proved
that fingerprints:

1. persisted over a long period of time (decades, at least);

2. were unique to an individual;
3. could easily be classified, stored and matched in large numbers.

Galton established all three of these propositions over a period of 7 years, producing three books
about fingerprints and more than a dozen scientific papers and popular articles. The data
originally collected by Herschel was critical in proving the first proposition
(persistence). Herschel had been quite taken with fingerprinting, and had obtained prints from a
number of his associates and friends several decades before; these were now retested and it was
clear that their prints remained substantially the same. Galton himself collected a very large
collection of prints, first from his anthropometric laboratory (thumb prints) and then more
generally, ranging over several races. It appears that he continued, like Herschel, to do this for
many years, carrying a small fingerprinting apparatus with him and imposing himself on those he
met for their prints. This collection came to number over 8000 prints, enough for Galton to
establish that exact repetition of fingerprint patterns was at most exceedingly rare; by making
some simple assumptions, he was able to show that the odds against any single fingerprint
occurring in any finger of any individual are at least 39 to 1. Pearson raised this by many powers,
by considering minutiae in the print (1930). The third proposition (indexing and retrieval) led
Galton to devise a classification, storage and retrieval scheme that was later adapted by E. R.
Henry and put into use internationally.

Beavan tries to amplify his charge that Galton stole Faulds' ideas, by emphasizing the
speculations that Faulds had made in 1880 about the racial character of fingerprints, which
Faulds thought would be a useful way to identify the race of an individual (he also thought that
the prints of a close relative could identify an individual) . Here Beavan gets almost all of the
story wrong. Galton had been investigating the racial character of any human trait he could
measure for decades before he turned to fingerprints, and hardly needed suggestions from Faulds
in this regard. What his research on fingerprints themselves showed was that, while there is some
small variation in patterns, it is not useful in practice. Even if Fauld's article had made any
impression on Galton, this amounts to a disproof of Faulds' racial hypothesis, and Galton
considered that line of inquiry a dead end (Herschel had also raised his doubts in 1880 about
Faulds' confident assertions regarding racial identification by fingerprints). Later work has
shown that Galton was correct about the small, though certainly present, racial variation in print
patterns. Galton's promotion of fingerprinting led to its consideration by a Parliamentary
committee in 1894, and despite initial resistance it was put into use in the courts as early as 1895
(Times 1895). Shortly after the committee issued its report, Faulds entered the field again,
apparently after reading about its activities in the newspapers. Faulds seems to have been
resigned to the fact that the police would never adopt his ideas about fingerprints. He was
furious now that his thunder had been stolen by others. Since he also had no knowledge of any
of Galton's publications in the field, it is reasonable to assume that Faulds was squarely outside
the scientific mainstream in 1894, and even beyond the pale of the general reading public; Galton
had published very widely on the topic, from proceedings of learned societies like the Royal
Institution (1888b) and the Royal Society (1891e), to Nature, the Times (1893f), and even
popular magazines of the day like the Nineteenth Century (1891c). Faulds had evidently seen
none of these articles, nor had he seen Galton's two books on the subject (1892b, 1893a).

Faulds wrote an angry letter to Nature (1894), insisting on his priority as founder of the science
of fingerprinting. Faulds referred now for the first time to Herschel, calling his claims
allegations, and challenging him to produce an official document he had sent in 1877: "a copy of
that semi-official report would go far to settle the question of priority, as its date is nearly two
years previous to my having noticed the finger-furrows". Faulds wanted to know: "What
precisely did he do, and when?" This letter backfired on Faulds. Herschel promptly published a
curt reply, including a copy of the "semi-official report" in question, dated "Hooghly, August 15,
1877". Referring to Faulds' original research, he was skeptical:

"To the best of my knowledge, Mr. Faulds letter of 1880 was, what he says it was, the first notice
in the public papers, in your columns, of the value of finger-prints for the purpose of
identification. His statement that he came upon it independently in 1879 (? 1878) commands
acceptance as a matter of course. At the same time I scarcely think that such short experience as
that justified his announcing that the finger-furrows were "for-ever unchanging." (1894).

Even though Herschel readily agreed that Faulds was the first to publish on the subject, and even
though Galton readily acknowledged the same, Faulds would always return to this in his later
writings as if it was still in dispute and required some demonstration, which he could always
supply convincingly; evidently he would not take "yes" for an answer. Wilton repeats this
argument too, many times over, producing a sense of fatigue in the reader, which is intensified
when all of Wilton's many works about Faulds are read in conjunction with Faulds' own
publications.

Faulds did not reply to Herschel, and published nothing further on fingerprints until 1905, after
which he still refused to accept Herschel's document of 1877, insisting in a letter to the
Birmingham Post that the recipient was not identified by name (1905b). However, as Pearson
later pointed out, this could easily have been established from the publicly available India List of
that year (1930). Still, during this silent period from 1894 to 1905, Faulds was not exactly
inactive: as Beavan reports, he spent a considerable amount of time badgering government
departments for some sort of official recognition, without success. With age, the conviction that
he had been cheated grew till it consumed him. His enthusiastic champion, George Wilton
Wilton, who devoted 30 years to championing his cause, was moved to describe one of Faulds'
self-vindicatory pamphlets as "pathetic to read" (1938). Faulds even went so far as to petition
Winston Churchill (then the Liberal Home Secretary) for a knighthood! He was prompted,
apparently, by Galton's own elevation. When this was refused, he had his M. P. put questions in
the House to Churchill, asking for an explanation.

By 1905 fingerprinting was well-established. Galton himself had more or less withdrawn from
the field by the late 1890s, devoting his attention once again to biometry and genetics, and then
to the surge of interest in eugenics after the turn of the century. Faulds re-emerged in 1905, and
proceeded to publish several books and pamphlets on the subject, and a number of articles in
popular journals. He even founded another journal of his own, financed on his own meagre
income and devoted exclusively to fingerprinting, which had a short run. This requires some
explanation: what did Faulds hope to achieve at this late stage? Possibly to write himself back
into a position of prominence in the field. His first full-length publication on the subject (1905a)
simply left out any mention of Galton's influential books. An account he wrote for the popular
magazine Knowledge (reprinted in Scientific American) gives a simple progression from his own
work in Japan to the appointment of the parliamentary committee of 1894, to the adoption of
fingerprints internationally (1911). In between, Galton merits a sentence. This self-inflation
drew a rare reaction from Galton, who preferred to avoid public controversies. Up till now
Faulds had been at odds with Herschel, but never with Galton, who would assiduously avoid him
in the future and advise others to do the same. Galton's annoyance showed now in his review of
Faulds' first book, published in the supplement to Nature (1905). Beavan claims that this review
was "unsigned", and so afforded Galton a "veil of anonymity" to mask an attack on Faulds. Not
so: inspection of the review shows that it is signed "F. G.", as Galton's reviews in Nature usually
were, initials which were not only well-known to readers of Nature but especially so to those
interested in fingerprints.

Before considering Galton's own review, it is worth mentioning the review by Arthur Shadwell
in the Times Literary Supplement, who describes Fauld's book as "desultory" and complains that
it is larded with too many unnecessary quotations with no relevance. Faulds himself is identified
as "a man with a grievance" given to "tedious, silly-clever sarcasms" and Shadwell warns us that
"if Mr. Faulds thinks his case will be assisted by writing of this kind he must have a pretty poor
opinion of his readers". Of Faulds' original work on fingerprints, Shadwell writes:

"It does not go very far. The thing was not taken up; Mr. Faulds does not appear to have applied
it practically himself, and though he subsequently worked out a system of classification, he has
not published it. From his own account, it is not the system worked out several years later by
Mr. Galton and published in 1892, nor the system adopted in Bengal in 1894, extended to the
whole of India in 1897, and subsequently to Great Britain." (1905)

In this context, Galton's review seems mild. Galton credits Faulds as "a zealous and originator
investigator of fingerprints" when stationed in Japan, and says that he appeared to be "the first
person who published anything, in print, on this subject", but that his proposals "fell flat"
because of a lack of evidence:

"It was necessary to adduce better evidence than opinions based on mere inspection, of the vast
variety in the minute details of those markings, and ... for purposes of criminal investigation, it
was necessary to prove that a large collection could be classified with sufficient precision ... ."
(1905)

alton then refers his readers to the controversy in Nature between Herschel and Faulds, and says
of Faulds that "he overstates the value of his own work, belittles that of others, and carps at
evidence recently given in criminal cases". Here Galton is referring to the quixotic campaign
that Faulds had launched against the use of single-print matches in criminal convictions, even
going so far as to sign up as an "expert witness" for the defense in a trial which included a single-
print match. Faulds did not testify in the trial; the defense had deliberately kept his testimony to
the last (not surprisingly, given the nature of their witness); in the end they did not have to resort
to him. Faulds repeatedly refers to this one-print problem in his writings, reiterating the fact that
he had advocated taking all ten prints of criminals in his letter of 1880. He gives the impression
that others did not take all ten prints, but this is not true: Galton had collected all ten since
1891. He seems to have confused the indexing scheme used by Galton with the number of prints
actually taken, but this has nothing to do with the use of a single print match.

Given a single (latent) finger print taken from a crime scene, if all ten prints of a criminal are
available then this increases the chance of a positive match, but taking fewer does not increase
the probability of a false match: that depends entirely on the likelihood that one print will match
another by pure chance. Galton had established that a perfect match between two single prints
was highly unlikely to happen by pure chance, and if enough points of comparison were present,
a single print would certainly be good enough. This presents another problem for Beavan, who
artfully turns his discussion to the question of whether the police were then using enough points
of comparison. Regardless of that distraction, Faulds was simply and flatly against using single
prints at all, and further alienated himself from Scotland Yard as a result. In a letter to Nature in
1917, an aggressive response to Herschel's brief book on fingerprinting (1916), he repeated this
claim:

"A most curious confusion has arisen from an original police blunder that no two single finger
patterns are ever alike, for which, I think, Sir William himself is mainly responsible. I am quite
sure that there is no scientific basis for such an assertion. My syllabic system of classification,
applied to a large collection, would enable such an assertion to be severely tested, but I know of
no other method in existence which could do so." (1917a)

Faulds insists then that all ten prints should match.

Faulds had an unshakeable faith in his own abilities and
in the correctness of his "system", even if he was plainly
proven wrong by research in a field that he did not keep
pace with. To this day no duplicate fingerprints have
ever been found, despite international collections of tens
of millions of prints. If forensic fingerprinting really had
required a ten print match it would have been stillborn.

Faulds soldiered indefatigably on - as seen above, he was

still having a go at Herschel in Nature even as late as
1917 - publishing several self-vindicatory pamphlets and
articles. He died embittered and financially embarrassed
in 1930, no longer able to practice medicine due to
infirmity. His tragedy lay in his inability to put a
promising idea into practice, because of his own
misjudgments, shortcomings, and some bad luck. After
his death he acquired an untiring champion in the form
of George Wilton Wilton, who tried manfully to convince the world that his fellow Scot really
did invent fingerprinting, even as we know it. Wilton published an entire book on Faulds (titled
Fingerprints: History Law and Romance even though it is almost entirely about Faulds, and
mostly based on Faulds' own material) and then bombarded the government and the public with a
long series of self-published pamphlets and petitions, ringing with declamations of injustice and
wrong, calling forofficial recognition for Faulds and his surviving daughters (see the example
opposite). In the end this pamphlet campaign and Wilton himself, who died at age 101, nearly
outlived the aged Faulds daughters.

Beavan is merely continuing the Wilton Wilton tradition, but with less regard for the
niceties. Even if Faulds continues to attract sympathy and interest today, it is rash to boost his
reputation, as Beavan does, by sleight of hand, with little sense of skepticism or critical
judgment, and at the expense of those to whom Faulds was in the end little more than an
annoyance.

AAFS – American Academy of Forensic Sciences.

Abrasion – An injury to the skin that removes the epithelial layer.

Accelerant – A flammable substance used to create and spread fire.

Accident Reconstruction – Using physical evidence a re-create a crime or accident

scene.

Acid Phosphate Test – A test to reveal the presence of seminal fluid, appearing
purple when positive.

Adipocere – A waxy, soap-like substance that forms on corpses during decomposition

under specific conditions. Also known as ‘grave wax’.

FIS – Automated Fingerprint Identification System.

Aggravating Circumstances – Conditions which make a crime more serious.

Agglutination – The tendency of blood cells to clump together in reaction to an

antibody.

Algor Mortis – The reduction in body temperature after death.

Allele – Any of multiple forms of a gene located at the same point on a particular pair
of chromosomes.

ALS (Alternative Light Source) – Any alternative source of light generally used for
enhancing latent prints, biological fluid, and trace materials.

Antemortem – Prior to death.

Anthropology – The science of the origin, culture, and development of human
beings. In forensics, this mainly involves the analysis and identification of skeletal
remains.

Anthropometry – Devised by Alphonse Bertillon, a method of using a person’s key

body measurements as a means of identification.

Apnoea – See ‘asphyxia’.

Arches – A characteristic pattern of fingerprint ridges, possessed by approximately

5% of the population.

Arson – Intentionally causing a fire to destroy the property in a criminal manner.

Asphyxia – Death caused by suffocation as a result of the lack of oxygen and increase
of carbon dioxide in the blood. Also known as apnoea.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy – A method of analysing gunshot residue.

Autoerotic Accident – A death usually occurring from asphyxia produced by

masturbatory rituals.

Autopsy – The internal medical examination of a body used to determine the cause
and circumstances of death.

Autoradiograph – Also known as an autorad, this is the final product in DNA

analysis, having a similar appearance as a barcode.

Ballistics – The science of projectiles, particularly bullets.

Barefoot Morphology – The science of reading footprints in order to establish the

pace, size, and body weight of the individual.

Bertillonage – Invented by Alphonse Bertillon, a now obsolete method of classifying

human beings by a set of body measurements.

Blood Analysis – See ‘serology’.

Blood Group – One of the four ways to categorise a person based on the antibodies
and antigens in their red blood cells; A, B, AB, and O.

Blood Pooling – The congestion of blood in the lowest areas of a dead body. See
‘hypostasis’.
Blood Spatter – The impact of blood on surfaces.

Blood Spatter Pattern Analysis – The examination of blood spatter patterns to

determine the events which took place before, during and after the spilling of the
blood.

Bloodstain Interpretation – The interpretation of the shape, size, orientation, and

distribution of bloodstains.

Botany – The scientific study if plants, relevant to forensics in terms of plant matter
found at a crime scene or on an item of evidence.

Brainprint – Technology used to determine whether a brain registers a memory,

particularly a criminal act.

Buccal Swab – A swab taken from the mouth to collect epithelial cells for DNA
analysis.

Bullet Track – The path a projectile takes as it passes through matter.

Bullet Wipe – A dark, ring-like mark found around an entrance wound, composed of
lead, carbon oil and dirt.

Cadaveric Spasm – The sudden rigidity of the muscles immediately after death.

Calibre – The internal diameter of the gun barrel or bullet, expressed in hundredths of
an inch.

Capital Punishment – The death sentence.

Cartridge Case – A small cylinder of metal or pasteboard which holds a charge of

powder and often a bullet.

Case Linkage – The discover of links between cases which were previously thought
to be unrelated.

Cast-off Stains – Blood spatter produced when a bloodied object is pulled back from
a blow.

ause of Death – An injury or disease that ultimately leads to death of the individual,
generally determined by medical examiners or coroners.
Chain of Custody – A method of keeping track of who has handled a piece of
evidence, when, and for what purpose. Vital in ensuring evidence is not damaged or
altered in any way.

Character Disorder – A personality disorder manifested in patterns of behaviour.

Choke – The constriction of a shotgun barrel to reduce the spread of the shot, thus
increasing its range.

Chromatography – A technique used to separate a sample into its components based

on the speed at which they move through a stationary matrix.

Chromosome – A component found inside most human cells consisting of long coils
of DNA. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent.

Circumstantial Evidence – Evidence from which a logical conclusion of a fact may

be drawn.

Clavicle – The collarbone linking the scapula and sternum.

CODIS – The Combined DNA Index System, the FBI database of genetic
information.

Cold Case – An unsolved case which is still open but no longer being actively
investigated.

Comparison Microscope – Two compound microscopes combined into a single unit,

allowing objects to be placed under each and viewed side by side through a single
eyepiece.

Composite Drawing – A sketch composed of a suspect produced from one or more

eyewitness description.

Compound Microscope – A basic microscope composed of two lenses which focus a

magnified image of the subject on the retina of the observer’s eye.

Computer Forensics – The application of computer technology and techniques to aid

legal investigations.

Concentric Fractures – Patterns of cracks in glass pierced by a projectile such as a

bullet which runs between the radial fractures.
ontact Wound – A wound occurring when the firearm is fired whilst placed against a
surface.

Contusion – A soft haemorrhage from a blunt trauma.

Coroner – A medical examiner or elected official who may, in some jurisdictions,

lead a death investigation.

Corpus Delicti – The essential body of facts that suggest a crime has occurred. From
the Latin ‘body of crime’.

Cortex – The central portion of a hair containing the pigment which gives hair its
colour.

Crime Scene Reconstruction – The use of evidence to determine the events which
occurred at a crime scene.

Crime Scene Staging – The alteration of a crime scene in order to reduce its
evidentiary value.

Criminalistics – The field of science applying science to law and criminal

investigations.

Criminal Profiling – The analysis of the crime scene and crime patterns to assign
relevant characteristics to a perpetrator in order to aid law enforcement in narrowing
the field of suspects.

Criminology – The study of criminal activity and legal procedure.

Cuticle – The protective outer sheath of a hair, composed of a series of overlapping

scales.

Cyanide – A highly poisonous water-soluble chemical composed of carbon and

nitrogen.

Dactyloscopy – The development and identification of fingerprints.

Decomposition – The disintegration of body tissues after death.

Delta – A characteristic junction in a loop ridge fingerprint pattern.

Density Gradient Tube – Equipment used for measuring the distribution of different
particles in a soil sample by establishing the point at which they are suspended in a
tube filled with layers of liquid of different densities.

Density Test – A test in which glass fragments are floated to establish if they are from
the same source.

Dental Stone – A casting material commonly used for making impressions of

footprints and tires.

Diatom – Microscopic algae found in bodies of water, beneficial in narrowing down

the source of a water sample.

Diminished Capacity – A psychological defence indicating the inability of an

individual to understand the nature of a crime or to control their actions.

Disarticulation – The separation of bone joints.

DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid. The genetic material contained in cells.

DNA Profile – A composite of genetic markers uniquely characterising an individual.

DNA Profiling – Creating a DNA fingerprint from a biological sample for use in
comparison and the identification of an individual.

Dry Drowning – Death caused by asphyxiation resulting from muscular paralysis

brought on from the shock of the victim falling into the water.

Electroencephalograph – A device used to measure the electrical activity of the

brain, converting the information into a readable report.

Electron Microscope – A microscope which uses a beam of electrons to focus a

specimen.

Electrophoresis – A technique used to separate DNA fragments. The DNA is placed

in a charged gel, the charge causing the fragments to move towards one pole at
different rates.

Entomology (forensic) – The scientific study of insect evidence to aid a legal

investigation.

quivocal Evidence – Evidence that supports more than one theory.

Evidence – Any items, documents and statements that are included in a legal
investigation for the jury’s or judge’s consideration in the determination of an
individual’s guilt or innocence.

Expert Witness – An individual with a specialised knowledge of a certain field that

can assist in the understanding of complicated information or offer an expert opinion.

Femur – The thighbone, the longest bone in the body. In anthropology, this may be
measured and used as a guide to the height of the individual.

Fibre – A thin, threadlike material, often from some kind of fabric.

Fingerprint – The unique pattern created by the ridges found on the palm side skin of
fingers and thumbs.

Firing Pin – A device in a gun which strikes the primer, igniting the projectile’s
propelling charge.

Floater – A corpse found in water, often floating due to the built up on gas in the
abdomen resulting from decomposition.

Forensic Science – The application of all forms of science to aid legal investigations.

Forgery – An attempt to replicate the original item and pass it off as authentic.

Formaldehyde – A pungent gas used as a disinfectant, antiseptic, and fixative for

tissues.

Gas Chromatography – A method of breaking down a compound into its individual

components as they travel through a non-reactive gas.

Gel Electrophoresis – A method used to divide a DNA sample into its components
through the application of an electric charge.

Gene – The segment of DNA that codes for the production of a particular protein.

Geographic Profiling – The utilisation of the geographic relationship between crime

scenes to conclude any similarities or other points of interest.

Graphology – The art of determining individual characteristic traits of a person based

on his or her handwriting.
Grid Search – A crime scene searching pattern. The scene is segmented into smaller
areas, each of which is individually searched for evidence.

Gun Shot Residue – Also known as GSR. The unburned powder propelled from a
gun when a bullet is fired. It will often be found on the clothing or skin of the shooter
or victim.

Hemastix – A presumptive blood testing tool.

Haemoglobin – The protein in a red blood cell responsible for carrying the oxygen in
the bloodstream.

Haemorrhage – A severe bleed.

High-Risk Victim – An individual who is continuously exposed to danger, such as

drug users and prostitutes.

HITS – Homicide Investigation racking System, Washington State’s database used to

link violent crimes through signature analysis.

HOLMES – The Home Office Large/Major Enquiry System, the UK’s main police
computer system.

Homicide – Murder, a death caused by another person.

Hyoid – A u-shaped bone at the base of the tongue which supports the tongue
muscles.

Hypostasis – Also known as lividity. The pooling of blood at the lowest parts of the
body. Usually commences between six and eight hours after death has occurred.

Hypoxia – Decrease in oxygen to the brain.

Immunoassay – A test which utilises antibodies to identify and quantify substances.

Impression Evidence – The evidence left by anything that leaves a kind of

impression at the scene or on an item, such as footprints, tire tracks, or toolmarks.

Indent – An impression left on paper caused by the force from a pen tip.

Infrared – A band of the electromagnetic spectrum which cannot be seen by the

human eye.
Infrared Spectroscopy – A type of spectroscopy using infrared light.

Inorganic Compound – A substance that is not carbon-based.

Insanity – The legal term for a mental disease or defect that may essentially absolve
the person of responsibility.

Iodine Fuming – A form of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of iodine.

Ion Detector – A device that detects the presence of accelerants in the air.

IP Address – The specific numeric address of a computer.

Jurisdiction – The authority to exert power legally within a specific area.

Kastle-Meyer Test – A presumptive blood test.

K9 – A specialised evidence response team utilising specially trained dogs to train

certain scents, such as drugs, accelerants, and individuals.

Laceration – The splitting or tearing of the skin.

Larvae – The young of an insect prior to metamorphosis.

LASER – Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A device used to

produce a beam of optical radiation by stimulation of electronic, ionic, or molecular
transitions to create energy.

Latent Fingerprint – A fingerprint left by deposits of the skin’s oils, usually

requiring some form of treatment in order to visualise it.

Lie Detector – See “polygraph”.

Ligature – An object used to bind or strangle someone.

Livescan – Technology allowing the fingertips to be scanned rather than rolled in ink
to obtain a fingerprint.

Lividity – See “hypostasis”.

Livor Mortis – See “hypostasis”.

Locard’s Exchange Principle – Every contact leaves a trace. A theory stating that
anyone who enters a crime scene will leave something behind or take something
away.

Locus – A specific site on the chromosome.

Low Copy Number – LCN. A new technique used to obtain a DNA profile from a
fingerprint or small amount of tissue.

Luminol – A chemical reagent used to visualise latent blood stains.

Manner of Death – The way in which death was caused; homicide, suicide,
accidental, natural, or undetermined.

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.

Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a

criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.

Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A

psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.

NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding
the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark

impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the

skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.

Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.

Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.

Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.

Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a

suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.
Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.

Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens

towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for

obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.

Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.
Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.

Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off

period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.
Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.

Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.

Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.

Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.
Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those
within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.

Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.

Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,

meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

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Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.

Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a

criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.
Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A
psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.

NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark

impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the
skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.

Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.

Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.

Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.
Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a
suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.

Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.

Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens

towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for

obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.
Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.

Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.

Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off
period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.

Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.

Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.

Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.
Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.

Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those

within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.

Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.

Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,

meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

o Accounting
o Anthropology
o Archaeology
o Art
 o Bloodstains
o Biology
o Botany & Geology
o Computing
o Crime Scenes
o Detection Dogs
o DNA Analysis
o Engineering
o Entomology
o Explosives
o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
o Forensics In Court
o Impressions
o Laboratory Techniques
o Latent Prints
o Linguistics
o Nursing
o Odontology
o Pathology
o Photography
o Psychology
o Questioned Documents
o Reconstruction
o Toxicology
o Trace Evidence
o Other
o Careers & Education
o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
o Interviews
o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.
Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a
criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.

Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A

psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.

NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark

impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the

skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.

Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.

Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.
Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.

Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a

suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.

Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.

Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens

towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for
obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.

Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.

Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.

Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.
Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off

period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.

Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.

Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.
Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.

Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.

Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those

within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.

Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.
Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,
meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

o Accounting
o Anthropology
o Archaeology
o Art
o Bloodstains
o Biology
o Botany & Geology
o Computing
o Crime Scenes
o Detection Dogs
o DNA Analysis
o Engineering
o Entomology
o Explosives
o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
o Forensics In Court
o Impressions
o Laboratory Techniques
o Latent Prints
o Linguistics
o Nursing
o Odontology
o Pathology
o Photography
o Psychology
o Questioned Documents
o Reconstruction
o Toxicology
o Trace Evidence
o Other
o Careers & Education
o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
 o Interviews
o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.

Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a

criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.

Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A

psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.

NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark
impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the

skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.

Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.
Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.

Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.

Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a

suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.

Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.
Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens
towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for

obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.

Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.

Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.
Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off

period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.

Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.
Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.

Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.

Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.

Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those

within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.
Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.

Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,

meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

o Accounting
o Anthropology
o Archaeology
o Art
o Bloodstains
o Biology
o Botany & Geology
o Computing
o Crime Scenes
o Detection Dogs
o DNA Analysis
o Engineering
o Entomology
o Explosives
o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
o Forensics In Court
o Impressions
o Laboratory Techniques
o Latent Prints
o Linguistics
o Nursing
o Odontology
o Pathology
o Photography
 o Psychology
o Questioned Documents
o Reconstruction
o Toxicology
o Trace Evidence
o Other
o Careers & Education
o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
o Interviews
o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.

Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a

criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.

Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A

psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.
NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark

impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the

skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.
Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.

Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.

Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.

Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a

suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.
Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.

Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens

towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for

obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.

Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.
Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.

Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off

period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.
Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.

Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.

Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.

Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.
Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those
within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.

Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.

Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,

meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

o Accounting
o Anthropology
o Archaeology
o Art
o Bloodstains
o Biology
o Botany & Geology
o Computing
o Crime Scenes
o Detection Dogs
o DNA Analysis
o Engineering
o Entomology
o Explosives
o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
 o Forensics In Court
o Impressions
o Laboratory Techniques
o Latent Prints
o Linguistics
o Nursing
o Odontology
o Pathology
o Photography
o Psychology
o Questioned Documents
o Reconstruction
o Toxicology
o Trace Evidence
o Other
o Careers & Education
o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
o Interviews
o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.

Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a

criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.
Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A
psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.

NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark

impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the
skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.

Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.

Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.

Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.
Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a
suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.

Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.

Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens

towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for

obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.
Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.

Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.

Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off
period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.

Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.

Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.

Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.
Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.

Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those

within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.

Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.

Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,

meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

o Accounting
o Anthropology
o Archaeology
o Art
 o Bloodstains
o Biology
o Botany & Geology
o Computing
o Crime Scenes
o Detection Dogs
o DNA Analysis
o Engineering
o Entomology
o Explosives
o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
o Forensics In Court
o Impressions
o Laboratory Techniques
o Latent Prints
o Linguistics
o Nursing
o Odontology
o Pathology
o Photography
o Psychology
o Questioned Documents
o Reconstruction
o Toxicology
o Trace Evidence
o Other
o Careers & Education
o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
o Interviews
o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.
Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a
criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.

Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A

psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.

NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark

impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the

skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.

Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.

Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.
Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.

Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a

suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.

Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.

Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens

towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for
obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.

Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.

Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.

Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.
Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off

period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.

Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.

Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.
Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.

Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.

Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those

within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.

Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.
Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,
meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

o Accounting
o Anthropology
o Archaeology
o Art
o Bloodstains
o Biology
o Botany & Geology
o Computing
o Crime Scenes
o Detection Dogs
o DNA Analysis
o Engineering
o Entomology
o Explosives
o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
o Forensics In Court
o Impressions
o Laboratory Techniques
o Latent Prints
o Linguistics
o Nursing
o Odontology
o Pathology
o Photography
o Psychology
o Questioned Documents
o Reconstruction
o Toxicology
o Trace Evidence
o Other
o Careers & Education
o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
 o Interviews
o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.

Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a

criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.

Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A

psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.

NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark
impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the

skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.

Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.
Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.

Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.

Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a

suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.

Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.
Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens
towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for

obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.

Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.

Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.
Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off

period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.

Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.
Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.

Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.

Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.

Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those

within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.
Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.

Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,

meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

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o Art
o Bloodstains
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o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
o Forensics In Court
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 o Psychology
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o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
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o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.

Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a

criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.

Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A

psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.
NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark

impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the

skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.
Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.

Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.

Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.

Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a

suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.
Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.

Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens

towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for

obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.

Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.
Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.

Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off

period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.
Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.

Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.

Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.

Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.
Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those
within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.

Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.

Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,

meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

o Accounting
o Anthropology
o Archaeology
o Art
o Bloodstains
o Biology
o Botany & Geology
o Computing
o Crime Scenes
o Detection Dogs
o DNA Analysis
o Engineering
o Entomology
o Explosives
o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
 o Forensics In Court
o Impressions
o Laboratory Techniques
o Latent Prints
o Linguistics
o Nursing
o Odontology
o Pathology
o Photography
o Psychology
o Questioned Documents
o Reconstruction
o Toxicology
o Trace Evidence
o Other
o Careers & Education
o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
o Interviews
o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

Mass Killer – An individual who kills many people at the same time.

Mass Spectrometry – A method of identifying the components of a compound by

bombarding the sample with electrons. Medical Examiner – In some locations, the
individual who runs a death investigation or performs autopsies.

Microspectrophotometry – A method of identifying a sample by emitting a beam of

electrons over the specimen and analysing the election emissions created.

Mitigating Circumstances – Factors that may diminish the degree of guilt in a

criminal offence, such as age or influence of drugs.

Mitochondrial DNA – A form of DNA found in the mitochondria, indicating

maternal heritage only.

MO – Method of operation, from the Latin Modus Operandi. The method by which a
crime is committed.
Multiple Personality Disorder – Also known as dissociative identity disorder. A
psychological condition in which the individual appears to have two or more distinct
personas.

Mummification – The desiccation of a body due to very hot and dry conditions, or
exposure to very cold temperatures.

NCAVC – National Centre for the Analysis of Violent Crime. A subdivision of the
FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit.

NDNAD – National DNA Database, the UK’s database of DNA profiles.

Neutron Activation Analysis – A technique used on trace evidence by bombarding

the sample with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus – The section of the cell containing the DNA and RNA.

Odontogram – A file containing an individual’s dental information.

Odontologist – An individual specialising in dentistry, particularly bite mark

impressions.

Odontology – The study of the teeth, including their anatomy, growth and diseases.

Orthotolidine – A solution used to determine whether a stain contains blood.

Ossification – The process by which bone is formed. A mesh of collagen fibres is

formed, after which a polysaccharide is produced. Finally, small calcium salt crystals
are placed in this polysaccharide to form the bone.

Ouchterlony Test – A test used to determine whether a blood stain is of animal or

human origin.

Palynology – The study of pollens.

Pathology – A branch of medical science studying the cause, nature and effect of
diseases.

Pattern Evidence – Evidence which can be read from a specific pattern, such as a
show impression.

Perimortem – The period of time immediately before death.

Petechial Haemorrhage – A minute, pin-like haemorrhage that occurs beneath the
skin.

pH – The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.

Phenolphthalein – A substance used alongside hydrogen peroxide which produces a

deep pink colour in the presence of blood.

Phrenology – A now discredited theory that believes the shape of an individual’s

head can indicate their personality.

Physical Evidence – Any object relevant to the occurrence of a crime.

Plasma – The standard constituent of blood in which the various blood cells are
carried.

Polygraph – A machine used to monitor bodily functions which may change when an
individual lies.Not admissible in court.

Polymer – A long-chain molecule composed of many repeated units.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR. A technique that replicates a section of a DNA

strand, allowing millions of copies to be produces from a minute sample.

Portrait Parle – A 19th century system for regularising verbal descriptions of a

suspect’s facial features.

Postmortem – After death.

Postmortem Interval – PMI. The time since death.

Precipitin Test – A test used to determine whether a blood sample is of animal or

human origin, done so by the treatment of human anti-serum.

Primary Flaccidity – The general relaxation of the entire muscular system after
death. This will usually only last between two to eight hours.

Probe – A fragment of DNA which carried the complementary code for a base
sequence.

Prostate Specific Antigen – PSA. A substance in human seminal fluid used to

confirm the presence of human semen.
Psychological Profile – A method of gathering speculative information regarding a
suspect’s psychological makeup in order to aid the investigation.

Psychological Stress Evaluator – A device used to measure stress levels in a

recorded voice.

Psychopathy – A personality disorder defined by specific antisocial behaviour and

often including a lack of guilt or remorse.

Puncture Wound – An injury caused by the piercing of the body, often by a hand-
held object.

Putrefaction – One of the final changes to take place in the human body, essentially
the anaerobic bacterial digestion of the remains.

Questioned Documents – Any item containing writing that requires analysis to

confirm the likes of authorship or authentication.

Radial – A pattern formation in a fingerprint in which a loop forms and opens

towards the thumb.

Radial Fractures – Star-shaped fractures formed when a sheet of glass is pierced by a

bullet, originating on the opposite side to the initial impact.

Radius – The outer and shorter of the two human forearm bones.

Rape Kit – A collection of items used to process a rape victim for items of evidence
that may indicate the perpetrator.

Refractive Index – The measure of degree through which light passes through a
particular substance.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - The original method for

obtaining a DNA profile, in which the molecule is cut into pieces and the different
lengths analysed.

Rhesus Factor – The presence of absence of a particular antibody, allowing for

further differentiation between blood of different individuals.

Ridge Characteristics – The endings, bifurcations, enclosures and similar ridge

details in a fingerprint.

Rifling – The lands and grooves cut into the barrels of a gun.
Rigor Mortis – The stiffening of the body after death due to a chemical reaction
occurring in the muscles. Usually appears between two and eight hours after death,
lasting between sixteen and twenty-four hours.

Saponification – A process which may occur during putrefaction in which parts of

the body are converted into adipocere (see “adipocere”).

Scanning Electron Microscope – A device which uses beams of electrons to form

the image of a specimen.

Scent Pad – Used to store a scent for use with trailing dogs.

Sciatic Notch – The characteristic shape of the part of the hipbone which may
indicate the sex of a skeleton.

Secondary Flaccidity – The secondary relaxation of the body’s muscles following

death.

Seminal – Pertaining to semen.

Serrated – Saw-like. Having a row of sharp, tooth-like projections.

Serial Crime – Any type of crime occurring in a pattern indicating a single offender.

Serial Killer – An individual who has murdered three or more people with a cooling-
off period in between.

Serology – The analysis of bodily fluids such as blood, saliva and semen.

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) – A method used to obtain a DNA profile after
replication through PCR has occurred. STRs are short sequences in the DNA
molecule that repeat themselves at numerous points in the genome.

Signature Crime – A crime scene bearing the individual ‘stamp’ of a particular

offender.

Slippage – The sloughing off of the flesh on a cadaver.

Spalling – The cracking of concrete in a fire, indicating how hot it burned.

Spectrometry – The detection of wavelengths of light.

Speculative Search – A search based on information rather than actual evidence.

Spree Killer – An individual who murders numerous people with no cooling-off
period in between.

Stippling – Minute burn marks left by gunpowder as it leaves the gun, also known as
tattooing.

Strangulation – The prevention of respiration by the compression of the air passage.

Striations – Fine markings left behind on an item, such as on a bullet, caused by

rifling in the barrel.

Super Glue Fuming – A method of developing latent fingerprints using the fumes of
cyanoacrylate or a similar substance, which adheres to the oils in the fingerprint,
visualising it.

Swap File – A file used to temporarily store information when a system’s memory is
low.

Tape Lift – An adhesive used to lift trace evidence from a crime scene or object.

Tattooing – See “stippling”.

Thin-Layer Chromatography – A technique used for separating a sample into its

components based on the speed at which they move up a plate coated thinly with
silica gel.

Tibia – The shin bone, commonly used to calculate the height of an individual’s
skeletal remains.

Tomography – Obtaining an X-ray image of a selected layer in an object.

Toxicology – The study of drugs, poisons and their effects on the body.

Trace Evidence – Minute pieces of evidence found at the crime scene, including
fibre, hair, glass, seed, and soil.

Trajectory – The path of a fired projectile.

Trauma – A physical injury caused by external violence.

Ulnar – A loop pattern in a fingerprint which opens towards the little finger.
Ultra Violet – UV light, used to fluoresce various substances, including urine, saliva
and semen.

Vertebrae – One of the twenty-four segments of the human spinal column.

ViCAP – Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the FBI’s nationwide data

information centre.

Victimology – The study of victim information in order to obtain details of a

perpetrator’s opportunity and selection process.

Visceral Temperature – The Temperature of the internal organs, particularly those

within the abdomen and thorax.

Vitreous Humor – The fluid filling the eyeball. This changes after death, potentially
being useful in determination of the post-mortem interval.

Voiceprint – A graph electronically composed of the amplitude and vibrations of the

human voice.

Whorls – A pattern within a fingerprint in which the ridge makes at least one
complete circuit.

Wick Effect – The effect of an individual’s body fat feeds a smouldering flame,
burning the person to ash without surrounding items being burned.

Wisdom Teeth – The third molar teeth, usually erupting in the late teens to early
twenties.

Y Incision – An incision made during an autopsy, a cut from shoulder to shoulder,

meeting at the sternum, and down to the groin. This exposes the internal organs for
examination.

Zoology – The study of animals, their life and behaviour.

Navigation

o Accounting
o Anthropology
o Archaeology
o Art
 o Bloodstains
o Biology
o Botany & Geology
o Computing
o Crime Scenes
o Detection Dogs
o DNA Analysis
o Engineering
o Entomology
o Explosives
o Fire Investigation
o Firearms
o Forensics In Court
o Impressions
o Laboratory Techniques
o Latent Prints
o Linguistics
o Nursing
o Odontology
o Pathology
o Photography
o Psychology
o Questioned Documents
o Reconstruction
o Toxicology
o Trace Evidence
o Other
o Careers & Education
o Case Studies
o Forensic Science History
o Glossary
o Interviews
o Suggested Reading

Twitter: Forensic News

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