12th Social-geography-India People and Economy

INDIA
People and Economy
Textbook in Geography for Class XII
AUTHOR
S.K. SHARMA
EDITOR
R.P. MISHRA
List of Illustrations and Maps
India: Physical
India: Administrative Divisions, 2001
1.1. India: State-wise Distribution of Area and Population

(in percentage), 2001 2
1.2. India: Density of Population, 2001 4
1.3. India: Decadal Growth of Population, 1901-2001 8
1.4. India: Growth of Population, 1991-2001 10
1.5. Proportion of In-migrants in India, 1991 12
2.1. India: Urbanisation, 2001 16

2.2. India: Age and Sex Structure, 1991 17
2.3. India: Sex Ratio in India and Selected Countries, 2001 18
2.4. Sex Ratio in India, 1901-2001 18
2.5. India: Sex Ratio, 2001 19
3.1. Distribution of Scheduled Caste Population in India, 1991 25

3.2. India: Distribution of Scheduled Tribe Population, 1991 27
4.1. India: State-wise Distribution of Literacy, 2001 36

4.2. India: State-wise Distribution of Female Literacy, 2001 37
4.3. India: Incidence of Poverty, 1999-2000 40
5.1. India: Distribution of Rural Population according to

Village Size, 1991 45
5.2. Patterns of Villages: Rectangular, L-shaped, Square-shaped,
Checker Board, Hollow-rectangular, Hollow-square shaped 46
5.3. Patterns of Villages: Circular, Polygonal, Hollow Circular,
Radial, Horse Shoe Shaped, String Pattern 48
5.4. Patterns of Villages: Double Village, Fragmented,
Elongated, Fan-shaped, Fortified, Amorphous 49
6.1. Class-wise Distribution of Urban Population of India, 2001 54

6.2. Metropolitan Cities of India, 2001 56
7.1. Interaction between Human, Culture and Environment

(After Zimmermann) 61
7.2. Resource Endowments in High and Low Level Cultures 61
vi
7.3. Classification of Resources (After B. Goodall, 1987) 62

7.4. Classes of Resources after Renner 63
8.1. Utilisation of Potential Ground Water 69

8.2. India: Water Scarcity Area 70
8.3. India: Net Sown Area under Irrigation, 1997-98 72
8.4. Net Area under Irrigation by Sources 73
8.5. Water Harvesting: 77
(a) Recharge Through Hand Pump
(b) Recharge Through Abandoned Dug Well
(c) Recharge Through Trench
(d) Section of Cement Nala Bund
8.6. Watershed Development Model of Sukhomajri, Haryana 78
9.1. India: Land Use 1950-51 and 1998-99 81

9.2. India: Pattern of Net Sown Areas, 1998-99 82
9.3. India: Intensity of Cropping 83
9.4. India: Rice Growing Areas 87
9.5. India: Wheat Growing Areas 89
9.6. India: Sugarcane Producing Areas 92
9.7. India: Tea and Coffee Growing Areas 94
9.8. India: Cotton and Jute Growing Areas 96
10.1. India: Coal Fields 103

10.2. India: Oil Refineries 107
10.3. (a) India: Installed Capacity of Electricity, 1998-99 112
(b) India: Gross Generation of Electricity, 1998-99 112
10.4. India: Consumption of Electricity in Percentage, 1999-2000 113
10.5. India: Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants 117
11.1. India: Iron and Steel Plants 123

11.2. India: Cotton Textile Industry 127
11.3. India: Software Technology Parks 131
11.4. India: Industrial Regions 133
13.1. India: Super Highways 150

13.2. India: National Highways 151
13.3. India: Distribution of Railways 154
14.1. India: Major Ports 167

14.2. India: Air Routes 169
CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS v
1. Population: Distribution and Growth 1
2. Population Composition 14
3. Social and Cultural Attributes of Population 23
4. Human Development 32
5. Rural Settlements 43
6. Urban Settlements 52
7. Natural Resources : Theoretical Background 60
8. Water Resources 67
9. Agriculture 80
10. Mineral and Power Resources 100
11. Manufacturing Industries 119
12. Development Planning 139
13. Transport and Communication Network 148
14. International Trade 160

15. Poverty and Environmental Degradation 171

CHAPTER
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
AND GROWTH
India is one of the most populous countries It is a gigantic task to tend social services
of the world, next only to China. It however and amenities to all these village settlements.
ranks seventh in the world in terms of area. The rapid growth of population has multiplied
India has 1027 million persons (in 2001), these problems. Further, most of the rural
which is 16.7 per cent of the world population, population is engaged in small-scale
but it has only 2.4 per cent of the world land agriculture. By its very nature, agriculture
area. How large is India’s population can be cannot absorb a fast growing population.
gauged from the fact that it is more than the
total population of North America, South
America and Australia put together. This huge DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
size of population dependent on a narrow
resource base carries a wide range of social, India’s population is unevenly distributed.
political and economic implications. The Plains have more population than the
country could have emerged as a strong mountains, deserts and forested lands. In
economic power, had its population growth general, the larger the state in area, the
rate been lower and population size smaller. greater is the population. But this rule is
applicable only if the natural resource base,
Census of Population particularly the land is the same. Population
is, therefore, relatively more in the states and
Population data are mostly collected
districts located in river basins and coastal
through censuses in different countries of
the world. In India, the first census was plains and also in those, which have
held in 1872. The first complete census, experienced urbanisation.
however, was taken in 1881 only. Since If we look at the state-wise distribution
then censuses have been held regularly at of population in India, we find great
every tenth year. variations. This is largely because the area
of states varies widely and the resource base
Large size of population means heavy too varies widely. For example, Sikkim, a
pressure on resources – natural as well as Himalayan mini-state has less than one
human-made. Poverty and environmental million (0.54 million) population. As against
degradation, the two major problems India this, Uttar Pradesh has a 166.05 million
faces today have much to do with population population. Ten states have more than 50
size. Besides size, ethnic diversity, rural million people each. Just five major states
character and uneven distribution are the (Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West
other aspects of population affecting the Bengal and Andhra Pradesh) contain half the
process and pace of socio-economic population of the country. This does not,
development. however, mean that the states with large
India is a land of villages. Over two-thirds areas have proportionately large population.
(72.2 per cent) of the population lives in more Rajasthan, the biggest state in terms of area,
than 581 thousand villages of different sizes. accounts for only 5.50 per cent of total
India People and Economy

Fig. 1.1 India: State-wise Distribution of Area and Population (in percentage), 2001
2
Population Distribution and Growth

population of the country. Similarly, Madhya second and Kerala (819 persons), third. States
Pradesh, the second largest state in terms of with very high density are located in the
area, has 5.88 per cent of population on 9.37 Satluj-Ganga plains. Kerala (819) and Tamil
per cent of area of the country. Contrary to Nadu (478), the two coastal states in south
it, Uttar Pradesh supports 16.17 per cent of India also have high density of population
population on only 7.26 per cent of area of (Fig. 1.2).
the country. Bihar has 8.07 per cent of The peninsular states except Tamil Nadu
population on 2.86 per cent of area (Fig. 1.1). and Kerala are marked with medium density
In all, in eleven states and six union of population. Maharashtra has 314 persons
territories population size is much larger in per sq. km., Orissa has 236 persons, and
comparison to the areas. Consequently, states of Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnatka and
pressure of population per unit of area is Gujarat have 200 to 300 persons per sq. km.
higher than the national average in these The population density ranges between 100
states. On the other hand, in Jammu and and 200 persons per sq. km. in Madhya
Kashmir, only 0.98 per cent population Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttaranchal, Chhattisgarh,
resides in 6.76 per cent of area of the country. Nagaland, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur and
Arunachal Pradesh has 0.11 per cent of Meghalaya. The states which have less than
population on 2.55 per cent of area. 100 persons per sq. km., are Jammu and
Kashmir (99), Sikkim (76), Mizoram (42) and
Arunachal Pradesh (13).
DENSITY OF POPULATION
The density of population is, however, not
a true reflection of pressure of population on
State Level Analysis
land. While no land is useless, only the
Density of population is expressed as man- arable/cultivable land sustains more people.
land ratio i.e., number of persons per unit of If the arable land is taken into account, a
geographical area. For example, population of different picture emerges. Madhya Pradesh a
Delhi (in 2001) is 1,37,82,976 and area 1,483 thinly populated state emerges as thickly
sq. km. and therefore, density works out to be populated because much of the state is hilly,
9,294 persons per sq. km. The density of dissected and forested. Density does however
population of India is 324 persons per sq. km. give a generalised picture of the situation. It
(in 2001). It is higher than that of China, which reflects not only the role of agricultural land
had 129 persons per sq. km. in 1997. Among but also the social, economic and other
the most populous ten countries of the world, demographic factors responsible for regional
India stands third in density; the first and variation in density.
second being Bangladesh (849 persons) and Urbanisation, industrialisation, and other
Japan (334 persons). Thus heavy pressure of non-far m activities and consequential
population on land is one of the serious immigration of people also alter density
problems of the country. What worries us is patterns. West Bengal, Kerala, and Delhi
the fact that the density of population is present typical examples of the impact of
increasing. In 1921, it was only 81 persons these factors.
per sq. km.; it increased to 117 persons in
District Level Analysis
1951, 177 persons in 1971, 267 persons in
1991 and 324 persons in 2001. It is expected States are often too large in area to give a
to be close to 400 persons by 2011. realistic picture of population density. Some
The state-wise population density varies states with low density of population have very
from 13 persons in Arunachal Pradesh to 904 high density districts. The vice versa is also
persons in West Bengal. According to 2001 true. The range in district level densities is
census, West Bengal is the most thickly very wide. The highest density of 29,395

populated state. Bihar (880 persons) stands persons per sq. km. is in Northeast Delhi
3

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of Surveyor General of India. © Government of India Copyright, 2003
The territorial water of India extends into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles
measured from the appropriate baseline.
The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh.
The interstate boundaries between Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the North-Eastern
Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971, but have yet to be verified.
The interstate boundaries between Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh and Bihar and Jharkhand have not
been verified by the Governments concerned.
The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.

Fig. 1.2 India: Density of Population, 2001
4

district and lowest is only 02 persons per sq. In south, density is high to very high in
km. in Lahul and Spiti districts of Himachal 33 districts of Kerala and the Tamil Nadu
Pradesh. uplands. In Kerala, density is higher than
The ten most densely populated districts 850 persons per sq. km. It is also high
of the country include Northeast Delhi, in urbanised districts of Tamil Nadu.
Central Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, East Delhi, Development of agriculture and dispersal of
Mumbai, Mumbai Suburbs, Hyderabad, West household industries to small towns have
Delhi and North Delhi. All these are urban been responsible for the high density of
districts. Density of population in these population. Urbanisation has also facilitated
districts varies from 29,395 persons per sq. the concentration of population.
km. in Northeast Delhi to 12,996 persons per The third cluster of high density districts
sq. km. in North Delhi. These districts is located in deltaic plains of Mahanadi,
together account for 3 per cent of the country’s Godavari and Krishna on the east coast and
population. parts of the Gujarat and Maharashtra plains
Contrary to it, in ten districts density does on the west coast. These areas are
not exceed 13 persons per sq. km. Out of 593 agriculturally well developed. Industrialisation
districts of the country, nearly half have lower has also influenced the distribution of
and the other half have higher than the population in the Gujarat and Maharashtra
national average density; Dhaulpur district plains. As discussed earlier, the highly
of Rajasthan has the national average density. urbanised districts of the country have
Keeping in view the average density, three unusually high densities of population. Such
types of population density districts may be districts are scattered throughout the
recognised: country.
(a) Districts of high density, more than 400 It is evident from the above discussion that
persons per sq. km. the high density areas are confined to the
(b) Districts of moderate density, 200 to 400 traditional agricultural belt of the Satluj-
persons per sq. km. and Ganga plain and the fertile coastal plains. The
(c) Districts of low density, below 200 persons industrial and urban development in the post-
per sq. km. Independent period has superimposed
extremely high densities in some districts of
High Density Districts the traditional agricultural belts. In the
There are 254 districts in the country which interior Tamil Nadu, industrialisation and
have a density of more than 400 persons per urbanisation are largely responsible for the
sq. km. These districts are found in three maintenance of high densities of population.
clusters. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
Moderate Density Districts
adjoining districts of Haryana, Punjab and
Delhi constitute the first cluster. This is the There are 172 districts which have population
largest compact belt of high density of density between 200 and 400 persons per sq.
population. Here the density varies between km. These are the medium density districts.
400 and 700 persons per sq. km. Majority of In the northern states, they are close to the
the districts of this belt have density higher high density districts. In peninsular India,
than 500 persons per sq. km. It is moderate density areas extend over entire
predominantly a rural tract except eastern Maharashtra, major part of Gujarat,
and western extremities where urban and Telangana and coastal Andhra Pradesh.
industrial developments in and around Southern Karnataka, parts of Rayalseema in
Kolkata and Delhi have created huge Andhra Pradesh, and contiguous parts of
concentration of population. Agriculture is, Tamil Nadu form another compact area of
however, not so well developed in this track moderate density. These areas are

except in the upper Ganga plain. characterised by undulating topography,
5

relatively less fertile soils and paucity of water (a) Physical factors
for irrigation. Urban industrial development (b) Socio-economic factors
has, however, helped the region in supporting (c) Demographic factors
moderate density. Another sizable area of
Physical Factors: The nature of terrain, soil,
medium density covers parts of Punjab and
climate and availability of mineral resources
Haryana plains and norther n parts of
are major physical factors affecting the
Rajasthan. These plains were the main
distribution of population. Level lands with
beneficiaries of the green revolution of post-
thick fertile soils, receiving sufficient rainfall
Independent period.
or having irrigation facilities, are usually
Low Density Districts densely populated.
Regions suffering from physical constraints Socio-Economic Factors: Humans have tried
such as mountainous, aridity and forest cover to modify the physical forces through their
are sparsely populated and hence density is technological know-how and socio-political
low to very low (below 200 persons per sq. organisation. Supporting capacity of different
km.). Such regions are not attractive to countries therefore varies widely. Primary
human habitation. There are 167 districts in activities cannot support a high density of
this category. In some districts the density is population, as do the secondary and tertiary
not even 10 persons per sq. km. Prevalence activities. As such, highly urbanised and
of subsistence tribal economy, low level of industrialised districts have very high density
socio –technical development and adverse of population. Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi are
physical conditions are some of the factors typical examples of such areas. Similarly,
responsible for the low density of population. districts adopting modern high yielding crops
Major parts of Rajasthan, Madhya have high density of population. Western
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and western Orissa fall Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab fall in
within the area of low density. Eastern this category.
Karnataka and central parts of Andhra Demographic Factors: Among the
Pradesh form another area of low density of demographic factors affecting the distribution
population. Here the topography is hilly and
of population are fertility, mortality and
dissected, the soils are shallow and poor in
migration. Immigration plays a crucial role
fertility, the rainfall is low and availability of
in concentration of huge population in
water is scarce.
metropolitan cities. High density in urbanised
To sum up, the Satluj-Ganga plain is the
and industrialised districts is mainly due to
largest tract of high and very high density of
population. Comparable high density is in large scale migration of population.
the coastal plains in the south. Density is
very low in hilly and mountainous tracts, GROWTH OF POPULATION
desert area and ill-drained areas. It is also
low in undulating areas of shallow soils. The The net change in population between two
most extensive tract of low density extends points of time expressed as per cent of
from the Aravallis in the west to Orissa in population at a given period of time is called
the east. The tracts of moderate density growth rate. The growth rate may be
usually occur in between areas of high and negative if the population declines and
low densities. positive, if it increases during the period
under consideration. Births, deaths and
Factors af fecting Distribution of
migration cause a change in population.
Population
The population of India has increased more
Factors af fecting the distribution of than four fold (330.8 per cent) during the

population can be grouped into three classes: last century (Table 1.1).
6

Table 1.1: India: Growth of Population 1901–2001
Census Population Absolute Change Average Progressive

Year ( in millions) change (%) annual growth over
(in millions) growth (%) 1901 (%)
1901 238.40 — — — —
1911 252.09 13.70 5.75 0.56 5.75
1921 251.32 -0.77 -0.31 -0.03 5.42
1931 278.98 27.66 11.00 1.04 17.02
1941 318.66 39.68 14.22 1.33 33.67
1951 361.09 42.43 13.31 1.25 51.47
1961 439.23 78.15 21.64 1.96 84.25
1971 548.16 108.92 24.80 2.20 129.94
1981 683.33 135.17 24.66 2.22 186.64
1991 843.39 163.06 23.86 2.14 255.03
2001 1027.02 180.63 21.34 1.93 330.80
1. Period of stagnant growth rate [before

The Demographic Transition 1921],
The process of change in a society’s 2. Period of steady growth rate [1921-1951],
population is called the demographic 3. Period of rapid growth rate [1951-1981],
transition. This transition has a beginning, and
middle and end. It consists of four stages. 4. Period of declining growth rate [after
Stage 1 – High death and birth rates, low 1981].
growth rate; Stage 2 – Rapid decline in
death rate, continued high birth rate, very 1. Before 1921 the increase in population
high growth rate; Stage 3 – Rapid decline was sporadic, irregular and slow. After
in birth rate, continued decline in death 1921 it has increased steadily. Hence,
rate, growth rate begins to decline; and the year 1921 is called demographic
Stage 4 – Low death and birth rates, low divide in the population study of India.
growth rate. 2. During 1921-51, the population
increased steadily with the development
in medical facilities which reduced
Phases of Population Growth in India deaths caused by epidemics like plague,
cholera and malaria. Deaths due to
The population of India was 238.40 million famines declined and sanitation and
in 1901, which increased to 1027.02 million medical facilities improved. Developed
in 2001 (Fig. 1.3). Thus, 788.62 million means of transport were able to meet
persons were added in the last century. India’s the exigencies of food shortage.
population has grown steadily since 1901 The agricultural economy showed
except during 1911-21 when it declined substantial improvement. Consequently,
slightly. At the same time, the decadal growth crude death rate declined, but crude
rate of population has been consistently birth rate remained high (Table 1.2). It
increasing till 1981. It started declining is called mortality induced growth.
thereafter. The Indian demographic history 3. The population of India nearly doubled
can thus be divided into the following four during 1951 to 1981. Average growth

phases: rate was about 2.2 per cent per annum
7

Fig. 1.3 India: Decadal Growth of Population, 1901-2001
8

Table 1.2: India: Changing Birth Rates, Death Rates and Natural Increase, 1911-2001.
Year Crude Birth rate per Crude Death rate per Natural rate of increase
thousand thousand per thousand
1911 49 43 6
1921 48 47 1
1931 46 36 10
1941 45 31 14
1951 40 27 13
1961 42 23 19
1971 37 15 23
1981 34 12 22
1991 31 11 20
1999 26 9 17
during this period. Such an 64.41 per cent in Nagaland (Fig. 1.4). States
unprecedented growth resulted from recording high growth (more than 2.0 per cent
the acceleration of developmental per annum) are located in a continuous belt
activities and further improvement in and cover northern half of the country.
health facilities. The living conditions Northeastern states also recorded high
of the people improved enormously. growth. Contrary to these, all major states of
Death rates, however, declined faster the south witnessed slow growth of
than the birth rates. This situation population. Kerala recorded the lowest growth
resulted in high natural increase. rate (only 0.90 per cent per annum) in the
Thus, it was fertility induced growth. country. This north-south difference in the
4. Though high increase in population growth of population is due to differences in
continued after1981, the rate of the level of socio-economic development. The
growth started declining gradually. It southern states have high literacy rates, more
signals the beginning of the new era urban population, and comparatively a more
in the country’s demographic history. developed economy. The birth rate is
During this period, birth rate declined comparatively lower in the southern states.
rapidly, from 34 per thousand in 1981 Urban-Rural Differences: Apart from births
to 26 per thousand in 1999. Declining and deaths, migration also plays a significant
trend of death rate continued but at a role in the growth of population. People from
slower rate. The difference between rural areas migrate to urban areas in large
birth and death rates narrowed to 17. numbers. Hence, growth has always been
This declining trend is a positive lower in rural areas than in urban areas.
indicator of the official efforts of birth (Table 1.3)
control and people’s own inclination According to the census of 2001 there are
to opt for smaller families. wide regional variations in rural population
growth rates. They are 1.5 per cent in Delhi,
Spatial Differences in Growth Rate
10.05 per cent in Kerala, 63.37 per cent in
Inter-state Differences: The average growth Nagaland, -2.16 per cent in Goa, and -5.20
of population in the country was 21.34 per per cent in Tamil Nadu. This slow growth may
cent during 1991-2001. At state level, the be ascribed to out-migration from rural areas

growth varies from 9.42 per cent in Kerala to to urban centres and other states.
9


Fig. 1.4 India: Growth of Population, 1991-2001
10

Table 1.3: India: Decennial Growth (%) of to the intending migrants to come over are
Rural and Urban Population, 1951-2001 known as pull factors. Millions of people were
attracted by big cities like Mumbai, Kolkata
Year Rural Urban Total
and Delhi because of the opportunities they
could provide for better living conditions. As
1951 8.80 41.40 13.31
against this, the factors compelling people to
1961 20.64 26.41 21.64
leave the place of residence are called push
1971 21.86 38.23 24.80 factors. Heavy pressure of population, poverty
1981 19.32 46.14 24.66 of the peasantry and high incidence of
1991 20.01 36.47 23.86 unemployment are among these factors.
2001 17.97 31.13 21.34
Only 27.4 per cent of total population (i.e.,
230 million out of 843 million persons) were
enumerated as migrants by 1991 census. The
Growth of urban population has remained percentage was 30.6 in 1971 and 31.2 in
higher than that of the rural population. 1981. Out of the total migrant population
Dadra and Nagar Haveli presents the highest 62.14 per cent were born within the district
growth (330.33 per cent) of urban population of enumeration. It is called intra-district
in the country. Among major states, migration. More than one-fourth (26.05 per
Arunachal Pradesh (101.29 per cent) cent) were born in other districts of the same
witnessed the highest growth. Contrary to it, state and slightly more than one-tenth (11.82
in Andhra Pradesh (14.63 per cent) and Kerala per cent) in other states of the country. Thus,
(7.64 per cent), the growth of urban proportion of migrants declines with the
population was rather low and sluggish. High increasing distance.
and very high growth in urban population is
ascribed to extension of urban boundaries, Causes of Migration
recognition of new towns and influx of
Among the people who shifted their residence,
immigrants mainly from rural areas.
more than half moved due to marriage and
about 15 per cent moved along with their
MIGRATION OF POPULATION families (Table 1.4). Contrary to it, only about
9 per cent people migrated for employment
The change of place of residence for a and 2.0 per cent for education. Nearly one-
comparatively long period of time is known third of the male migrants left their last
as migration. Local movement, movement for residence for other socio-economic reasons.
short durations and circular movements are Among the total in-migrants, males
not treated as migration. A migrant is one who constitute slightly more than one-fourth,
is enumerated at a place other than the place while females nearly three-fourths. Thus,
of his birth. different people migrate for different reasons
Population movement is related to the and the proportion of this migration varies
changes in social, political and economic between males and females.
environments, in the region of origin or in the
receiving region. People migrate in search of Types of Migration
better economic opportunities, jobs, and On the basis of direction of movement
better living conditions. But non-economic migration can be of five types, viz.,
factors, such as marriage, social insecurity, (a) rural to urban
political disturbances, inter-ethnic conflicts,
(b) urban to urban
and better social, cultural and health facilities
also drive people away from their places of (c) rural to rural
residence. The conditions of the recipient (d) urban to rural, and
region that offer attraction and inducement
11
(e) international migration.

Table 1.4: India: Proportion of In-migrants according to Causes of Migration, 1991
Reasons of Total migrants % of Total % of male % of female

Migration (Lakh persons) in-migrants in-migrants in-migrants
Marriage 1303 56.1 4.0 76.1

Shifting of family 356 15.3 26.6 11.0
Employment 204 8.8 27.0 1.8
Education 45 2.0 4.8 0.8
Business 53 2.3 6.0 0.5
Other reasons 360 15.5 31.6 9.8
Source: Census of India 1991, Migration Tables, Vol. V, Part 1.

Fig. 1.5 Proportion of In-migrants in India, 1991
12

The last type is not being discussed here. the place of the husbands. That is why out
Of the total in-migrants, 82.3 per cent have of the total in-migrants, nearly three-
their places of birth in rural areas and only fourths moved from one village to another,
17.7 per cent were born in towns and cities. only one-fifth from rural to urban centres,
But nearly one-third (29.5 per cent) of the about 11.7 per cent from one town to
total in-migrants came to urban centres another and very few from urban centres
while villages received 70.5 per cent of the to rural areas (Fig. 1.5). This situation
in-migrants. varies with distance and gender. In-
In this connection, we should keep in migration becomes male selective and
view that almost all the women after urban oriented when distance of movement
marriage migrate from the place of birth to and risk of migration increases.
EXERCISES
Review Questions
1. Answer briefly the following:
(a) State the place of India in the world in terms of population size and density.
(b) Name four most populous states of the country.
(c) Compare population size and area size of four large states.
(d) Why is the density of population increasing in every successive census?
(e) Explain the causes of concentration of dense population in the Satluj-Ganga
plains.
(f ) Highlight the significance of socio-economic factors affecting the distribution
of population.
(g) Which areas are not attractive for human habitation in India?
(h) Why is the pressure of rural population on agriculture comparatively high in
north-western and northern states of India?
(i) What is meant by the growth of population?
( j) State the four phases into which Indian demographic history is divided.
(k) How far the trend of birth and death rates in India has determined the
growth of population?
(l) What are the major reasons of population migration in India?
2. Distinguish between:
(a) Intra-district and inter-district migration.
(b) Pull and push factors affecting human migration.
3. Discuss the causes of uneven distribution of population in India.
4. Describe the regional patterns of density of population in India.
5. Discuss the trend of growth of population in India during the last hundred years.
6. Discuss the factors affecting migration of population in India.
Project Work
7. (a) Find out the growth of population of your state/union territory since 1951.
(b) Represent the data by bar diagram.
(c) Prepare a report on the causes of growth of population.
8. (a) Collect a district-wise map of your state/union territory.
(b) Collect district level data of population.
(c) Represent the data in the map by choropleth method.
(d)

Prepare a write up on the distribution of population.
13
CHAPTER
POPULATION COMPOSITION
Population composition refers to the physical, Haryana, all eastern and northeastern states
socio-cultural and economic attributes of the except West Bengal, and all the states of
population, such as age, sex, place of central India have higher proportion of rural
residence, language, religion, marital status, population than the national average. Among
ethnicity, literacy, education and occupation. union territories the highest proportion of
In the present chapter, place of residence, age, rural population is in Dadra and Nagar Haveli
sex, and occupation of population are (77.11 per cent), followed by Andaman and
discussed. The remaining attributes will be Nicobar Islands (67.33 per cent).
discussed in the next chapter. Rural population is scattered in about 581
thousand villages (1991). Average size of
villages in terms of population ranges from
RURAL-URBAN COMPOSITION 207 persons per village in Arunachal Pradesh
to 15476 persons in Kerala. Each village
Place of residence deter mines most of consists of many hamlets. Rural population,
the demographic and socio-economic therefore, is highly scattered. The growth rate
characteristics of population. Nearly three- of general population is declining for the last
fourths of the people in India live in villages. several decades, even if slowly. This is largely
Urban population constitutes a little more because of higher mortality rates and
than one-fourth of the total population. increasing rural to urban migration of people.
Rural-Urban Composition Urban Population

The rural folk differ from the urban folk in About 285.35 million people live in urban areas
occupations, way of life, attitudes and the (2001). They constitute 27.78 per cent of the
world-view. The rural population is engaged total population of the country. Contrary to
in primary activities, namely, agriculture, rural population, the proportion of urban
forestry and livestock and has a well-knit population has been increasing since 1901. But
social relations. The urban population, on the rate of addition was slow up to 1941 when
the other hand, is engaged primarily in non- it reached 13.86 per cent of total population
agricultural activities, and the urban way
from 10.85 per cent in 1901. It jumped to 17.29
of life is fast and social relations are formal.
per cent in 1951 and 27.78 per cent in 2001.
Still India is one of the least urbanised countries
in the world. Nearly 45 per cent of world
Rural Population
population lives in urban centres.
Of the total 1027 million persons of the The urban population of India increased
country (2001), 741.66 millions live in rural from 25.85 million in 1901 to 285.35 million
areas. It is slightly less than three-fourths in 2001, recording an eleven-fold increase
(72.22 per cent) of the total population. The during the last 100 years. Average growth rate
proportion of rural population to the total of urban population, thus, was 100.37 per
population varies from 50.23 per cent in Goa cent per decade, while average growth rate of
to 94.50 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh. All rural population was only 24.89 per cent per
states of north India except Punjab and decade during the same period. Such a rapid
Population Composition

growth was the consequence of rural to urban its urban population is large (34.5 million
migration. The growth rate of urban persons). Next five states, namely, Gujarat,
population, however, started declining from Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
1980s. It grew by 31.13 per cent only during Bihar and union territory of Delhi together
1991-2001. Chandigarh, Delhi and Haryana account for 30.7 per cent of urban population
in the north, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and of the country. Remaining eighteen states and
Nagaland in the northeast and Tamil Nadu six union territories contain only 18.2 per cent
in the south registered comparatively higher of the urban population of India.
rate of growth. Smaller states with low
proportion of urban population recorded
AGE COMPOSITION
higher growth.
Urbanisation Based on age, population is generally

categorised into three broad groups, namely,
The process of society’s transformation young, adultd, and old. Usually population
from a predominantly rural to a
below 15 years of age is designated as young
predominantly urban population is known
as ‘urbanisation’. It includes two things — and that over 60 years as old. The adult group
an increase in the number of people living (15 to 59 years of age) is called ‘working age-
in urban settlements, and an increase in group.’
the percentage of the population engaged According to 1991 census, more than 36.5
in non-agricultural activities, living in such per cent of total population of India is young,
places. below 15 years of age, and 15.4 per cent is
below 6 years of age. In developed countries
Degree of urbanisation varies widely the young do not constitute more than 25 per
among the states of the country. Goa, having cent of the population. High proportion of
49.77 per cent of its population in urban young population is due to high birth rate and
areas, is the most urbanised state in the rapidly declining infant and child mortalities.
country. Among the larger ten states, Tamil Since this group is economically unproductive,
Nadu with 43.86 per cent population being it forms part of dependent population. About
urban, tops the list. It is followed by 6.8 per cent of India’s population is classed as
Maharashtra (42.40 per cent). The degree of old (60 years and above). The remaining 56.7
urbanisation is high in southern, western and per cent of the population constitutes adult
northwestern states. All union territories are group (15 to 59 years). The adult age group is
highly urbanised except Dadra and Nagar biologically most reproductive, economically
Haveli, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. most active and spatially most mobile. It
On the other hand, degree of urbanisation is supports the population in the other two
low in all major states of north, central and groups. The dependency ratio – the ratio
northeastern India (Fig. 2.1). Only one-fifth between the adults and the young plus aged –
(20.78 per cent) of the population resides in in 1991 was 79.4.
urban places of Uttar Pradesh, the most The age and sex pyramid of the Indian
populous state in the country. Urban centres population for 1991 presents a very
play an important role in bringing new ideas broad base tapering off towards the top.
and technologies to their rural hinterlands. (Fig. 2.2).
To sum up, more than half (51.1 per cent) The declining birth and death rates are
of the total urban population of India lives in changing gradually the age composition of
five states of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, population of the country. The proportion of
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra young population declined from 42.0 per cent
Pradesh. It is pertinent to mention that Uttar of the total population in 1971 to 36.5 per
Pradesh figures in this list, although it is one cent in 1991. Contrary to it, proportion of the
of the least urbanised states. This is because adults increased from 36.6 per cent to 40.9
15


Fig. 2.1 India: Urbanisation, 2001
16

Fig. 2.2 India: Age and Sex Structure, 1991
per cent and of the old from 6.0 per cent to SEX COMPOSITION
6.8 per cent during 1971-1991. The
proportion of the young and the old is The sex composition of a population is usually
comparatively higher in rural areas than in expressed in terms of sex ratio i.e., number
urban places. The dependency ratio, of females per thousand males. Sex
therefore, is higher in rural than in urban composition is considered an important
areas. This situation can be ascribed to at indicator of inequality between males and
least three factors: higher birth rate in rural females in a society. Out of total population
areas than in urban centres, migration of of 1027.0 millions (2001), 531.3 millions are
adult people from rural to urban centres males and 495.7 millions are females. The
and return of the aged (old) persons to their sex ratio for the country is 933 (Fig. 2.3). It is
rural homes.
17
an improvement over the sex ratio of 927 in

1991. The sex ratio at the beginning of the a marginal increase, but thereafter it declined
twentieth century was 972, which declined again. It has fluctuated marginally around
continuously until 1941. In 1951, there was 930 (Fig. 2.4).
Fig. 2.3 Sex Ratio in India and Selected Countries

Fig. 2.4 Sex Ratio in India, 1901-2001
18


Fig. 2.5 India: Sex Ratio, 2001
19

In India alive male births are more than
Declining Sex Ratio
the females. This disparity between sexes at
the time of birth gets perpetuated due to There is a paucity of females in India. A
higher female mortality. More females in number of causes are responsible for this.
India die at infancy as well as in the • More males are born than females;
reproductive age group (15-49 years). • More females die at infancy and dur-
Adverse sex ratio in the past has been ing the reproductive period;
• General neglect of females is largely
attributed to the practice of female foetus
responsible for high female mortality at
termination (infanticide) and recurrence of childhood;
epidemics that took heavy toll of children. • Pre-birth sex determination leads to
This legacy of the past still has its impact female foeticide.
on the sex composition. How does declining sex ratio affect Indian
Sex ratio is however not adverse society?
everywhere and among all sections of
population. Rural areas in the country have
a more favourable sex ratio (946) while urban WORKERS AND NON-WORKERS
areas have a much lower ratio (901). In most
of the states and union territories urban sex The population of India on the basis of their
ratio is lower than the rural sex ratio. The productive work is divided into three groups,
rural-urban differential in sex ratio is mainly viz., main workers, marginal workers and non-
a product of male selective migration to workers. The main worker is a person who is
cities. But there are exceptions. Manipur, engaged in any economically productive work
Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram, Pondicherry, for at least 183 days in a year; a marginal
Daman and Diu, Delhi and Chandigarh, have worker is one who is engaged for less than 183
higher sex ratio in urban areas than in rural days; and a non-worker is one who does not
areas. work for earning his/her livelihood at any time
Among the states, Kerala records the during the year. Proportion of workers to total
highest sex ratio of 1058 and Haryana has population is expressed as participation rate.
the lowest sex ratio of 861. If the union In India, 30.5 per cent of the people are main
territories and the states are taken together, workers, 8.7 per cent marginal workers, and
the lowest sex ratio is in Daman and Diu 60.8 per cent non-workers. Thus, there is an
(709). Sex ratio is higher than the national acute problem of high dependency on the one
average in 17 states including 2 union hand and underemployment and
territories (Fig. 2.5). Most of the southern unemployment on the other.
and the northeastern states record higher Participation rate (main workers +
sex ratio than the national average. Only marginal workers) increased from 36.77 per
Kerala and Pondicherry have above parity cent in 1981 to 39.26 per cent in 2001. This
sex ratios. Only Himachal Pradesh (970) and increase is an indicator of widening
Uttaranchal (964) from north India have sex opportunities of work and loosening of the
ratio above the national average. Contrary social stigma attached to manual work.
to it, all the states and union territories of The participation rate varies widely among
northern, western and central India record the states. Proportion of main workers ranges
a lower sex ratio than the national average. from 25.87 per cent in Kerala to 37.7 per cent
Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in in Arunachal Pradesh. Thirteen states and
the northeast also have lower sex ratio. We two union territories have the proportion of
can then generalise and say that sex ratio main workers above national average (34.1
in India declines from south to north and per cent) Almost entire Deccan peninsula
excepting the state of Kerala, northeastern

from east to west.
20

states excepting Tripura and Assam, Sikkim,
Occupational Classification of
Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh have
Population in India
proportion of main workers above average
national. As against this, the proportion of 1. Cultivation
workers is less than 30 per cent in the belt 2. Agricultural labourer
extending from Rajasthan in the west to Bihar 3. Livestock, forestry, fishing, hunting,
in the east. The coastal state of Kerala also falls plantation, orchards and allied activities
4. Mining and Quarrying
in this category. These are agricultural belts
5. Manufacturing/processing
where other means of employment are limited.
(a) Household industry
One typical feature of the Indian workforce (b) Other than household industry
that differentiates the country from the 6. Construction
developed world is the wide disparity in the 7. Trade and commerce
participation rates of males and females. In 8. Transport and storage
India the female participation in economically 9. Other services
gainful activities is only nominal. More than In 1981 and 2001, the Census of India
half (45.34 per cent) of males are classed as published its data dividing the workers into
main workers, while only 14.68 per cent of four main categories, namely,
females fall in this category. The joint family (a) Cultivators,
system, low level of education among the (b) Agricultural labourers,
females, frequent child births, greater family (c ) Household industrial workers. and
responsibility, and limited job opportunities (d) Other workers
are some of the factors responsible for poor
female participation in work in India. agricultural activities is only 41.65 per cent. It
The proportion of main workers varies not only establishes the primacy of agriculture
from 39.83 per cent of males in Manipur to in the country’s workforce but also highlights
52.28 per cent in Tamil Nadu. In the case of the incapability of the secondary and tertiary
female workers, the range is 11.92 per cent sectors in absorbing the labour force rendered
in Punjab to 33.62 per cent in Nagaland. It surplus by agriculture.
can be concluded that variation in proportion Sex-wise, the female workers prefer the
of male workers among states is not as high primary sector. More than 71.9 per cent of
as it is in the case of female workers and that female workers are engaged in agriculture as
spatial variation in participation rate, in against 51.8 per cent of male workers.
general, is largely due to the variation in the Further, only 28.1 per cent of female workers
female participation rates. are engaged in non-agricultural sectors as
against 47.8 per cent of male workers.
It is significant to note that proportion of
OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE
agricultural workers declined from 69.49 per
The occupation of an individual refers to his Table 2.1: India: Occupational Structure of
or her profession, trade, and type of work. Workers (%), 2001
The occupational structure of the population
Occupations Persons Males Females
of India is the product of a number of factors.
The occupation is often classified into Cultivators 31.71 31.34 32.50
primary, secondary and tertiary. Agricultural 26.69 20.82 39.43
More than half of the main workers in the Labourers
country are engaged in agricultural activities. Household 4.07 3.02 6.37
Cultivators alone account for 31.71 per cent industries
and agricultural labourers for 26.69 per cent Other Workers 37.58 44.72 21.70
of the working force. On the other hand, share
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

of the total workers engaged in non-
21

cent in 1971 to 58.4 per cent in 2001. The There is a wide variation among the states
household industries too lost their significant in their proportion of workers in different
workers in this category; it was only 4.07 per occupations. Cultivators for example constitute
cent in 2001. This shift towards other non- only 0.47 per cent of main workers in
farm activities is a good symptom. India has Chandigarh. In Nagaland, the percentage is
too many people dependent on agriculture 68.23. The proportion of agricultural labourers
and allied activities. During the last two also varies significantly between a maximum of
decades, number of non-agricultural workers 39.63 per cent in Andhra Pradesh and a
engaged in manufacturing, trade and minimum of 0.11 per cent in Chandigarh.
commerce, transport, storage and Agricultural labourers present an inverse
communication and other services grew relationship with that of the cultivators. This
phenomenally. They account for 37.53 per segment of workers comes from the weaker
cent of the total workers. The workers in the sections of the society and remains
tertiary sector are more in towns and cities. underemployed for major part of the year.
EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) What are the major demographic attributes of human population?
(b) In which part of the country is the proportion of rural population higher than
the national average?
(c) What is the dependency ratio and how is it calculated?
(d) Mention the salient characteristics of age pyramid of India.
(e) State the distributional changes in age composition of Indian population in
the recent past.
( f ) State the distributional pattern of sex ratio in the country.
(g) Describe the distributional pattern of the proportion of cultivators in India.
(h) Define the limits of young, adult and old age groups.
2. Describe the age composition of population of India and mention its implications.
3. Examine the trend of sex ratio in India in the last century.
4. Discuss the regional pattern of sex composition of Indian population and name the
clusters of high sex ratio.
5. Discuss the salient features of occupational structure of population of India.
(a) Main and marginal workers
(b) Working age-group and reproductive age-group
(c) Primary and tertiary economic activities.
Project Work
7. (a) Collect data about occupational structure of population of your state / union
territory.
(b) Represent the data by a wheel diagram.
(c) Prepare a brief write up on the occupational structure.
22
!
CHAPTER
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL

ATTRIBUTES OF POPULATION
India’s population comprises a variety of blend in India. But of late they have divided
ethnic, religious and socio-economic groups. the people too. At the time of Independence,
Division of population in four varnas in India was divided on religious lines. Pakistan
ancient times has now been highly distorted was also divided on linguistic lines into
into a pernicious caste system. In order to Pakistan and Bangladesh.
ensure their due rights, communities forming
the lowest social stratum of the society have SOCIAL COMPOSITION
been listed in the Indian constitution. They
are referred to as Scheduled Castes (SC) and
Scheduled Castes
Scheduled Tribes (ST). Scheduled Castes are
integral part of the Hindu society. The The term ‘Scheduled Caste’ appeared for the
Scheduled Tribes constitute a mixed group first time in the Government of India Act,
racially, socially and economically. They are 1935. The Scheduled Castes are specified in
not necessarily non-Hindus. accordance with Article 341 of the Indian
A variety of languages are spoken and Constitution. At the time of independence,
even written in India through the ages. Apart Scheduled Caste population in India was 51.7
from Hindi – the official language of the million, it increased to 104.7 million in 1981
country – seventeen other Indian languages and 138.2 million in 1991, recording a growth
have been listed in the Eighth Schedule of of 32.0 per cent during 1981-91. According
the Constitution, as regional languages. to 1991 census, Scheduled Caste population
Linguistic diversity does come in the way of constitutes 16.48 per cent of total population
smooth interregional communication but it of the country.
has never been a source of weakness. There Scheduled Caste is a heterogeneous group
is a common thread of cultural unity that runs consisting of 542 Castes. As regards their
through them. social and economic status vis-à-vis the rest
Multiplicity of religious faiths is another of the population, they are homogeneous to
characteristic of India. Hinduism is the main some extent. Majority of them are poor, live
religion of the country. It is, however, so in rural areas (81.28 per cent) and are
tolerant that it has always welcomed people engaged in agriculture.
of other religions to co-exist. Three other Distributional Pattern (1991): Scheduled
major religions that originated within the Castes are not confined to one or two states;
country are Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. they are distributed all over the country. Uttar
Islam and Christianity are also followed by a Pradesh has 29.3 million of them, followed
fairly large section of the population. There by West Bengal with 16 million. These two
are other religions like Zoroastrians, Jews and states account for nearly one-third (32.8 per
Bahais. Religions and languages have played cent) of the Scheduled Caste population of
a major role in producing a unique cultural the country. Other states with large size of

the Scheduled Caste population are Bihar, much lower than that of Scheduled Tribe
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya workers (49.30 per cent). Participation rate
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, among males and females is 51.48 and 25.98
Karnataka, Punjab and Orissa. (Fig. 3.1). per cent, respectively.
In terms of the percentage of Scheduled More than three-fourths of the Scheduled
Caste population to the total population, Caste main workers are engaged in primary
Punjab with 28.31 per cent tops the list. Other economic activities, 9.83 per cent in
states with more than one-fifth of population secondary activities and 13.06 per cent in
being Scheduled Caste are Uttar Pradesh, tertiary activities. Farming is the principal
Himachal Pradesh and West Bengal. The primary economic activity. Agricultural
percentage is low (5 to 10 per cent) in Kerala, labourers constitute about half (49.06 per
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Sikkim and Assam. The cent) of the main workers. The Scheduled
Scheduled Caste population is negligible (less Caste labourers constitute more than one-
than 5 per cent) in northeastern states, Goa, third (38.7 per cent) of total agricultural
and the union territories of Daman and Diu labourers of the country.
and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. There is no Proportion of Scheduled Caste workers in
Scheduled Caste population in Nagaland and the secondary activities is not only low but
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. has also declined in the last decade. On the
other hand, the percentage of main workers
Literacy: Literacy among the Scheduled
engaged in tertiary activities has increased
Castes is relatively low. Nearly half of the
from 10.78 per cent in 1981 to 13.06 per cent
males (49.91 per cent) and one-fourth of the
in 1991. This is because of the decline of
females (23.76 per cent) of the Scheduled
traditional manufacturing goods like earthern
Castes are literate (Table 3.1). Literacy among pots, leather goods, etc.
Scheduled Castes is better than that among
the Scheduled Tribes. In general, the states Tribal Population (Scheduled Tribes)
with high literacy rate also have high literacy
Tribal communities of India display a profile
among the Scheduled Castes. Literacy is very
of ethnic diversity. They belong to different
low in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar;
ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. They
medium in Haryana, Karnataka, Orissa,
also vary in terms of rituals, faiths, beliefs
Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh and
and economic pursuits. Most of the tribal
other states. people live in inaccessible areas and their life
Occupational Structure: About 39.25 per and livelihood are closely linked with their
cent of total Scheduled Caste population is environment. A few of them are nomadic.
classed as worker. This is slightly higher than India perhaps has the largest tribal population
that of total population (37.5 per cent) but in the world. The Constitution Order 1950
Table 3.1: India: Comparison of Literacy Rates (%) among Total Population,
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, 1991
Variables Total Population Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes
Total Literacy 52.21 37.41 29.60

Male Literacy 64.2 49.91 40.65
Female Literacy 39.19 23.76 18.19
Literacy in Rural 44.54 33.25 27.38
Population
Literacy in Urban 73.01 55.09 56.60

Population
24
Social and Cultural Attributes of Population


Fig. 3.1 Distribution of Scheduled Caste Population in India, 1991
25

declared 212 tribes (living in fourteen states) country. Sikkim, Assam, and Daman and Diu
as Scheduled Tribes. By the amendment of also have tribal population ranging from 10
1976, area restrictions for most of the to 25 per cent. In the northern plains and in
Scheduled Tribes have been removed. Now the southern states, the percentage of tribal
this list includes some 550 Tribes living population is less then 10.
through out the country.
Literacy: Literacy is still very low among
In 1951, the population of Scheduled
tribes in comparison to other segments of
Tribes in India was 22.5 million i.e. 5.6 per
cent of total population. It reached 67.7 population. In 1991, less than one-third (29.6
million in 1991, accounting for 8.08 per cent per cent) of the tribal population above 6 years
of the total population. Growth rate of the of age was literate as against 52.2 per cent of
Scheduled Tribe population is rather high. total population and 37.4 per cent of
While the total population of the country grew Scheduled Caste population (Table 3.1). Male-
only 2.3 times during 1951-91 (Table 3.2), female difference in literacy is very wide. Only
the growth of tribal population was 2.6 times 18.2 per cent of tribal females were literate
during the same period. as against 40.7 per cent of males. Major
High rate of growth of the Scheduled Tribe causes of prevailing illiteracy among tribes
population during 1951-61 and 1971-81 was are poverty, inaccessibility to education and
mainly due to the inclusion of more tribes in socio-economic backwardness.
the list of the Scheduled Tribes. The tribal literacy varies greatly from state
to state; it is more than 40% in Kerala and in
Distributional Pattern: Tribal communities northeastern states of Meghalaya, Nagaland,
tend to concentrate in hilly, dissected and Manipur and Mizoram. Literacy is low and
forested areas. Therefore, their distribution very low in major tribal belts of central and
is very uneven. They are concentrated in two western India. Low level of literacy is a major
belts, one extending from Rajasthan in the obstacle in development.
west to Orissa in the east, and the other
comprising northeastern states. According to Occupational Structure: The proportion of
1991 census Goa with just 376 tribal people main workers to the total population is 42.0
is at the bottom and Madhya Pradesh with per cent among tribes as against 34.1 per cent
15.4 million tribal people is at the top. Punjab, for the whole country. About 7.3 per cent of
Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi and Pondicherry tribal population is categorised marginal
had no Scheduled Tribes. As against this workers. Thus nearly half (49.7 per cent) of
94.75 per cent of Mizoram’s population is tribals work to earn their livelihood. There is
tribal. The proportion of tribal population is no social stigma attached to work among the
more than 50.0 per cent in most of the females of the tribal communities and hence
northeastern states, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, their participation is very high (43.7 per cent).
and Lakshadweep (Fig. 3.2). Four major The tribal community is an open society where
states, namely, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, male, female and children enjoy equal status
Gujarat, and Rajasthan together share more and participate in work according to their
than half of the tribal population of the capacity.
Table 3.2 : India: Growth of Population of Scheduled Tribes 1951-1991
Attributes 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991
Population (in millions) 22.5 29.9 38.0 53.6 67.7

Share in country’s population (%) 5.6 6.8 7.2 7.76 8.08
Growth during the decade (%) NA 32.9 27.1 41.05 26.31

Growth of national population (%) NA 21.64 24.80 24.66 23.86
26


Fig. 3.2 India: Distribution of Scheduled Tribe Population, 1991
27

Agriculture is the mainstay of tribal As per 1991 census, Hindi along with
people. About 54.5 per cent of the main its variations is the mother tongue of
workers are cultivators and 32.7 per cent are 337.27 million persons, who constitute
agricultural labourers. Females work 40.42 per cent of the total population of
primarily as agricultural labourers. Only 1.0 the country. Next to Hindi is Bengali, which
per cent of the main workers are engaged in is spoken by 8.30 per cent of the total
household industries and manufacturing. population. Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu,
Majority of them work as semi-skilled and Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya,
unskilled labourers in tertiary activities. Punjabi and Assamese are other major
Their participation in government and non- languages spoken in the country. The
government services has increased in recent Constitution has r ecognised Hindi in
years. Devanagari script as the national language,
and Hindi and English as the of ficial
languages of the Indian Union. A three-
LINGUISTIC COMPOSITION
language formula – mother tongue, Hindi
and English – has been followed as a
Language is an important indicator of ethnic
compromise for changing over to Hindi.
identity. At the same time, it is a strong
integrating force in the society. The people of Table 3.3: India: Comparative Strength of
India display a high degree of diversity in Scheduled Languages in 1991
their languages and dialects. Because of its
Languages Persons speaking % of total
unifying power, language was accepted as the
specified in VIII as mother tongue popula-
basis of reorganisation of states after Schedule (in millions) tion
independence. In 1961 census, 1652
languages were listed as mother tongues in 1. Hindi 337.27 40.42
India. Out of them, speakers of 23 languages
together accounted for 97 per cent of total 2. Bengali 69.60 8.30
population of the country. Of these, eighteen 3. Telugu 66.02 7.87
languages besides English are specified in
4. Marathi 62.48 7.45
the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of
the country. The Scheduled languages and 5. Tamil 53.00 6.32
the number of persons who use them as their
6. Urdu 43.41 5.18
mother tongues (in 1991) are presented in
the Table 3.3. 7. Gujarati 40.67 4.85
8. Kannada 32.75 3.91
Promotion of Languages 9. Malyalam 30.38 3.62
Language being the most important medium 10. Oriya 28.06 3.35
of communication and education, its 11. Punjabi 23.38 2.79
development occupies an important place
in the National Policy on Education and 12. Assamese 13.08 1.56
Programme of Action. Financial assistance
13. Sindhi 2.12 0.25
is given to voluntary organisations and
individuals to bring out publications like 14. Nepali 2.08 0.25
encyclopedias, dictionaries, books of
knowledge, original writings on linguistics, 15. Konkani 1.76 0.21
literacy, Indological, social anthropological 16. Manipuri 1.27 0.15
and cultural themes for the development of
modern Indian languages. 17. Kashmiri 0.06 0.01
28
18. Sanskrit 0.05 0.01

Classification of Languages and their less diverse than the other language families
Distribution of India. The four languages mentioned above
account for 96 per cent of the total Dravidian
Major languages of the Indian Union belong to
speaking population of India. The rest include
two major families, namely, the Indo-Aryan and
minor speech communities.
Dravidian. The former are spoken and written
in north and central India, while the latter are Austric Languages: These languages are
spoken and written in south India. The Indo- spoken by the tribal groups of Meghalaya,
Aryan languages are spoken by about 73 per Jharkhand and western Satpura. There are
cent, and the Dravidian languages by about 20 two branches of this family: Munda and Mon-
per cent of the total population of the country. Khmer. Of the two, Mon-Khmer (Khasi) is
Besides these, other languages and dialects confined to Khasi and Jaintia hills and
spoken belong to the Austric (1.38 per cent) and Nicobarese to the Nicobar Islands. On the
Sino-Tibetan (0.85 per cent) families. Thus, the other hand, Munda language is spoken by
Indian languages belong to the following four tribals of Jharkhand and the wester n
families: Satpura region.
1. Indo-European (Aryan), Sino-Tibetan Languages: The languages of
2. Dravidian, this family consist of several branches, groups
3. Austric, and and sub-groups, and are confined to certain
4. Sino-Tibetan. small pockets in the north-eastern states, and
in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions
Aryan Languages: Nearly three-fourths of
of the north and the northwest.
the total population speaks one or the other
The speakers of the Sino-Tibetan family
form of the Aryan languages. Languages of
in India belong to three main branches:
this family are concentrated over the northern
Tibeto-Himalayan, Arunachal Pradesh and
states including Gujarat and Maharashtra
Naga-Myanmari. The first branch consists of
(Table 3.3). In ter ms of the number of
the Bhutia and the Kinnauri groups; the
speakers, Hindi occupies fourth place in the
second branch of the Aka, Dafla, Miri and
world. It consists of several dialects; Khadi
Abor groups; and the third of the Bodo, Naga
Boli is one of them. Urdu is very akin to Hindi
and Kuku groups.
and is widely spoken in this belt. Other
As the states of India are language-based,
languages of this group are Punjabi, and
the Scheduled languages are spoken by
Gujarati concentrated in the states of Punjab
majority of the population in respective states.
and Gujarat, respectively.
In Kerala, for instance, 96 per cent of the
Kachchi and Sindhi, belong to this family;
population speak Malayalam, and in Andhra
they are spoken in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Pradesh more than 85 per cent of the people
The concentration of Marathi is in
speak Telugu. Thus, every Scheduled
Maharashtra. Oriya, Bengali and Assamese
language has its specific region and core of
are languages of the eastern group and are
these exists in specific state. The boundary
spoken in eastern India, mainly in Orissa,
of a linguistic region is, however, not a
West Bengal and Assam, respectively.
demarcated line but a transitional zone over
Kashmiri, Kohistani, Shina and Dardi are
which one language gradually loses its
spoken in different parts of Jammu and
dominance and gives way to another. There
Kashmir.
is an intermingling of languages among the
Dravidian Languages: About one-fifth of various linguistic groups. People are often bi-
total population speaks in Dravidian lingual or tri-lingual in several areas. Further,
languages. Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam in many states, the major language of one of
languages are concentrated in Tamil Nadu, the adjacent states is the second most
Karnataka and Kerala. Telugu is spoken in important language spoken by the second
Andhra Pradesh. The Dravidian languages are
29
largest group of people in the state. For

example, in Kerala, Tamil is the second most Table 3.4: India: Population by Religion in
important language; in Tamil Nadu, it is 1961 and 1991
Telugu; in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh it
is Urdu. Religious 1961 1991
groups
Million Per Million Per
Persons cent Persons cent
RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION
Hindus 366.5 83.5 687.6 82.00
Religion plays a crucial role in socio-cultural Muslims 46.9 10.7 101.6 12.12
life of people. Religious multiplicity is one of
Christians 10.7 2.4 19.6 2.34
the important characteristics of India. As
stated earlier, India is the birth-place of four Sikhs 7.8 1.8 16.3 1.94
major religions — Hinduism, Buddhism, Buddhists 3.2 0.7 6.4 0.76
Jainism and Sikhism. Hinduism is the oldest Jains 2.0 0.5 3.4 0.40
religion of the world. It evolved out of human’s Others 1.6 0.4 3.3 0.39
continuing interaction with nature and his
Total 439.2 100.0 838.6* 100.00*
search for the meaning of life. ‘Hindustan’,
the land of the Hindus, is one of the names *Excludes Jammu & Kashmir.
by which India came to be known to the Christians constitute 2.34 per cent, while
outside world. The other Indian born religions Sikhs 1.94 per cent of the total population.
are very close to Hinduism in philosophy and Buddhists and Jains constitute 0.76 and 0.40
approach to life. per cent of total population, respectively.
Successive waves of people of other Hindus and Muslims are widely distributed
religious faiths came to India. Many of them but other religious groups are localised in
adopted the prevailing Indian religion and certain pockets only.
enriched it. But some have maintained their
identity. The Syrian Christians appeared on Hindus: Among the states of the country, the
the west coast of India in the first century AD. proportion of Hindus in total population is
They are still there in Kerala. The Arab traders highest in Himachal Pradesh (95.9 per cent)
brought Islam to the west coast of India in the and lowest in Mizoram (5.0 per cent). It is
seventh century. Muslim invaders from West higher than the national average in Andhra
Asia accelerated the spread of Islam in India. Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,
In terms of the number of followers, the Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
four major religions are Hinduism, Islam, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Tripura,
Christianity and Buddhism. Jainism, while it is much lower in northeastern states,
Sikhism, and Zoroastrianism and numerous Jammu and Kashmir, and Punjab.
minor faiths continue to prosper in India. All Muslims: The largest number of Muslim
of them are great religions and we should try population is in Uttar Pradesh (24.1 million)
to know as much about them as possible. followed by West Bengal (16.1 million) and
Population of India by religion in 1961 and Bihar (12.8 million). The proportion of Muslim
1991 is given in Table 3.4. population to total population ranges from 0.6
Distribution of Religious Groups per cent in Mizoram to 68.3 per cent in Jammu
and Kashmir (in 1981) and 94.3 per cent in
More than 82.0 per cent of total population Lakshadweep. The proportion is higher than
of India is Hindu. They are distributed the national average in Assam, Bihar (including
throughout India, but in a few areas they are Jharkhand), Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala,
out-numbered by the people of other faiths. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) and
Muslims are second in terms of numbers. West Bengal. These states stretch over the
They constitute 12.12 per cent of total northern Great Plains. Only Jammu and
population excluding Jammu and Kashmir.
30
Kashmir and Kerala fall outside this belt.

Christians: The largest concentration of the The largest concentration of Jain
Christian population is in Kerala (5.6 million population is in Maharashtra (0.97 million or
or 28.6 per cent of the total). Christians are 28.8 per cent of total). About 75 per cent of
more than one million each in Kerala, Tamil the Jain population resides in Maharashtra,
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya and Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
Nagaland.
Sikhs: Out of 16.3 million Sikhs of the
country, 12.8 million (78.5 per cent) are in Role of Religion in India’s Unity
Punjab alone. Besides Punjab, neighbouring
The Hindu shrines and holy places, the
districts of Haryana and Rajasthan also have
Islamic mosques and dargahs, the Jain
concentration of Sikh population. They are teerthasthalas, the Buddhist monasteries
also concentrated in the Tarai region of and the Christian churches draw their
Uttaranchal and in Delhi. devotees from many parts of India. Some
Buddhists and Jains: Of the total Buddhist of the shrines in Varanasi, Rameshwaram,
Ajmer, Bodh Gaya, and old Goa are of
population of the country, 79 per cent live in
national status and draw their devotees
Maharashtra alone. Traditional pockets of from all over India, even people of other
Buddhism are Ladakh area of Jammu and religions.
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura.
EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) What is the percentage of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in total
population of the country?
(b) How do Scheduled Tribes differ from other communities?
(c) Name two states which have very high proportion of Scheduled Caste population.
(d) Why are Scheduled Castes concentrated in areas of good agricultural lands?
(e) Name three states where tribal population is more than three–fourths of the
state population.
( f ) Why is work participation rate high among the Scheduled Tribes?
(g) Name the four language families to which Indian languages belong to.
(h) Which are the principal Dravidian languages and their area?
( i ) Name the language family to which the languages of the northeastern states
belong to.
( j ) Which major religions originated in India?
2. Discuss the distribution of Scheduled Caste population in India.
3. Compare the occupational structure of the Scheduled Caste population with that
of the Scheduled Tribe population.
4. Discuss the male-female difference and regional variation in tribal literacy.
5. Describe the distributional pattern of various religious groups in India.
Project Work
6. (a) In the state and union territory map of India shade the states, which have
more than 20 per cent of the Scheduled Caste population, and more than 50
per cent of the Scheduled Tribe population.

(b) Prepare a brief write up on their distribution.
31
"
CHAPTER
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The well-being of people must be the goal of also essential but in a different perspective.
development. Money alone cannot bring about The basic tenet behind this is that it is the use
well-being of people in it’s broad perspective of income and not income itself that is decisive
e.g. – economic, social, cultural. The UN in expanding human choices. Since the real
advocated the concept of Human Development wealth of nations is their people, the goal of
(HD) as the goal of all member countries. The development should be the enrichment of
United Nations Development Programme human life.
(UNDP), in its first Human Development There has been a conceptual broadening
Report published in 1990, defined human of the notions of human well-being and
development as the process of enlarging deprivation in recent years. The notion of well-
people’s choices. The most important being has shifted away from just material
elements of HD are long and healthy life, attainments, or the means for development,
education and decent standard of living. to outcomes that are either desirable in
Additional choices include political freedom, themselves or desirable because of their role
guaranteed human rights, and various in supporting better opportunities for people.
ingredients of self-reliance and self-esteem. Similarly, poverty is viewed not only in terms
These are the essential choices, the absence of lack of adequate income, but as a state of
of which can block many other opportunities.
deprivation spanning the social, economic
Human development thus is a process of
and political dimensions of the life.
widening people’s choices as well as raising
the level of well-being. Thus men, women, and
children must be the centre of attention in WHY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT?
the process of development. The development
must be woven around people, not people According to Paul Streeten, human
around development. Moreover, development development is necessary on account of the
must be participatory and for this, people following reasons.
must have the opportunity to invest in the 1. The ultimate purpose of the entire exercise
improvement of their capabilities in health, of development is to improve the human
education, and training. They must also have conditions and to enlarge people’s choices.
the opportunity to put their capabilities to 2. Human development is a means to higher
use, by participating fully in community productivity. A well-nourished, healthy,
decisions and to enjoy human, economic and educated, skilled, alert labour force is the
political freedom. most productive asset. Therefore,
The basic difference between the concepts investments on these sectors are justified
of economic growth and the human on grounds of productivity too.
development is that the first focuses 3. It helps in reducing the rate of growth of
exclusively on the increase in income, while population.
the second embraces the widening of all 4. Human development is friendly to the
aspects of human life – economic, social, physical environment also. Deforestation,
cultural or political. For any such development desertification and soil erosion decline
to take place, economic growth is obviously when poverty declines.
Human Development

5. Improved living conditions and reduced attainments of women, and the Human
poverty contribute to a healthy civil Poverty Index to evaluate the state of
society, enhanced democracy and greater deprivation in the society.
social stability. Several other variables have gradually
6. Human development also helps in been added to the above sets of indicators.
reducing civil disturbances in the society Among them, health indicators related to
and in increasing political stability. longevity are birth rate, death rate with special
Thus, the concept of human development reference to infant mortality, nutrition, and
embraces not just the economy but has life expectancy at birth. Social indicators
holistic connotations. The political, cultural include literacy particularly female literacy,
and social factors are given as much enrolment of school-going children, drop out
importance as the economic factors. Besides, ratio, and pupil-teacher ratio. Economic
a careful distinction is maintained between indicators are related to wages, income, and
ends and means of development. While employment. Per capita Gross Domestic
expansion of human options is regarded as Product, incidences of poverty and
the criteria of development, the expansion of employment opportunity are also favoured
income is treated as an essential means to it. indicators in this group. They are converted
The entire process has been made into a composite index to present the holistic
anthropocentric. picture of the Human Development.
HDI of India
INDICATORS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
As compared to the pre-independence days
India has done well in development in general
The quality of life and the level of human well- but it ranks 115th among 162 countries in
being are difficult to measure quantitatively. terms of the UNDP’s Human Development
However, in search of a comprehensive Index (HDI) and is placed in the group of
measure that could capture the various countries with ‘Medium Human Development’
dimensions of human development, the United (HDI of 0.571 in 2001). India’s comparative
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has position on Human and Gender Development
developed a composite index, now known as is given in Table 4.1.
the Human Development Index (HDI). It Not only developed countries surpass
includes (i) longevity of life, (ii) knowledge base, India in respect of human development, even
and (iii) a decent material standard of living. countries like Sri Lanka and Indonesia are
To keep the index simple, only a limited far better than India. Similarly, the index of
number of variables are included. Initially, life gender development, though improved in
expectancy was chosen as an index of 2001 as compared to 1992, is still low.
longevity, adult literacy as an index of Low level of human development is evident
knowledge and per capita Gross National from the value of the principal indicators
Product adjusted for Purchasing Power Parity usually employed to calculate Human
(PPP) as an index of decent life. These variables Development Index (HDI). Some of them are
are expressed in different units. Therefore, a discussed below.
methodology was evolved to construct a
composite index rather than several indices.
In India, three sets of indicators have been HEALTH INDICATORS
selected for preparing the Human
Development Report 2001. Among them, a Health is a major component of human
core set of composite indices presents the development. It is measured in terms of birth
state of human development for the society rate, death rate (with special reference to
as a whole. Besides, Gender Equality Index infant mortality rate) nutrition, and life
has been estimated to reflect the relative
33
expectancy at birth.

Table 4.1: India’s Global Position on Human and Gender Development
Country Human Development Index Gender Development Index

1992 2001 1992 2001
Norway 0.933 0.939 0.911 0.937

Australia 0.927 0.936 0.901 0.935
China 0.594 0.718 0.578 0.715
India 0.439 0.571 0.401 0.533
Pakistan 0.483 0.498 0.360 0.466
Bangladesh 0.364 0.470 0.334 0.459
Niger 0.207 0.274 0.196 0.260
The crude death rate (number of deaths The birth rates have also declined but at
per thousand population in a particular year) a slower rate. It came down from 40.8 per
in India has declined rapidly from 25.1 in 1951 thousand in 1951 to 26.1 in 1999, (decline of
to 8.7 per thousand in 1999. But crude birth 14.7 points) while death rate declined by 16.4
rate did not decline appreciably. Decline in points. Simultaneously, total fertility rate also
infant mortality rate (number of deaths of registered decline from 6 children per woman
children under one year of age per thousand of child-bearing age in 1951 to 2.9 in 1999.
live births) was less than half in 1999 of what
it was in 1951. Child (0-4 years) mortality rate Life Expectancy: With the declining vital
declined from 51.9 per thousand in 1971 to rates (birth, fertility and death rate) life
22.5 in 1999. It means risk of death has expectancy at birth has gone up. It was only
declined at each stage of life. Certainly it is a 37.1 years for male and 36.2 years for female
definite improvement in health. A comparative in 1951; it went up to 62.30 and 65.27 years,
statement showing the demographic indicators respectively, during 1996-1999. Increase in
from 1951 to 1999 is given in Table 4.2. case of female life expectancy has been more
Table 4.2: India: Selected Health Indicators of Human Development
Indicator 1951 1971 1981 1991 1999

Birth rate (per thousand) 40.8 36.9 33.9 29.5 26.1
Death rate (per thousand) 25.1 14.9 12.5 9.8 8.7
Infant mortality rate 148 129 110 80 70
(per thousand live births)
Child (0-4 year) mortality rate NA 51.9 41.2 26.5 22.51
Total fertility rate 6.0 5.2 4.5 3.6 2.9

Expectation of life at birth:
Male 37.1 46.4 54.1 60.6 62.30
2 3
Female 36.2 44.7 54.7 61.7 65.27
1. The data relates to the year 1998

2. The data relates to the year 1961-71
3. The data relates to the year 1991-96
34
Human Development

remarkable. It was lower than that of males female differentials are also wide. Only 54.16
in 1951, but it is now higher. This progress is per cent of the females are literate as against
attributed to increasing food security on one 75.85 per cent of males. The state-wise
hand, and expansion of medical and health distribution of female literacy is given in Fig.
facilities on the other. For example, per capita 4.2. In rural area proportion of literate females
per day availability of cereals and pulses is only 46.70 per cent as against 73.20 per
increased from 394.9 gm in 1951 to 417 gm cent for those in urban areas. The progress
in 2001. At the same time, number of in literacy rates in the country since 1951 is
allopathic hospitals and dispensaries per lakh presented in Table 4.4.
population has gone up to 4, and that of
Table 4.4: India: Progress in Literacy Rates
hospital beds to 94 in 1999. Growth of health
in per cent, 1951-2001
institutions is presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: India: Growth of Health Census Year Person Male Female
Institutions, 1961-1992
1951 18.33 27.17 8.86
(Number in thousand)
1961 28.30 40.40 15.35
Type of 1961 1971 1981 1991 1992 1971 34.45 45.96 21.97
Institution
1981 43.57 56.38 29.76
Primary 2.6 5.1 5.7 20.4 20.7 1991 52.21 64.13 39.29
Health Centres
2001 65.38 75.85 54.16
Community –– –– 0.2 2.1 2.2
Health Centres Source: Provisional Population Totals,
Hospitals 3.1 3.9 6.8 11.2 13.7 Paper-1 of 2001, Census of India, 2001.
Dispensaries 9.4 12.2 16.8 27.4 27.4 There has been remarkable progress in
Hospital beds 230 349 569 810 835 literacy. For the first time since independence,
Doctors 84 151 269 394 411 the absolute number of illiterates has declined
by over 31.9 million in the last decade.
Dentists 3.6 5.5 8.6 10.8 11.3
Population in 7+ age group increased by 171.6
Nurses 36 81 154 340 385 million during 1991-2001, while 203.6 million
persons have become literate during this
decade. Now, 562.01 million persons are
SOCIAL INDICATORS literate. Literacy rate of total population
increased by more than three times during
Education is universally recognised as a major 1951-2001. But the female literacy increased
component of human development. As such, more than six times, from only 8.86 per cent
a certain minimum level of literacy seems to in 1951 to 54.16 per cent in 2001. It is the
be essential for a population to break out of outcome of the ef forts made by the
the vicious circle of poverty. Human government aiming at providing universal
Development is therefore assessed in terms education to all including females.
of literacy and related indicators.
Regional Variations in Literacy Rates
Literacy
There are wide regional disparities in literacy
The literacy rate in India increased from 18.33 rate. It varies from 47.53 per cent in Bihar to
per cent in 1951 to 65.38 per cent in 2001. 90.92 per cent in Kerala (2001). Kerala
The state-wise distribution of literacy (2001) maintains its top position closely followed by
is given in Fig. 4.1. Only 59.4 per cent of the Lakshadweep (87.52 per cent) and Mizoram
rural population are literate while 80.30 per (85.99 per cent), while Bihar ranks last in

cent of the urban population is literate. Male- literacy among the states and union territories
35


Fig. 4.1 India: State-wise Distribution of Literacy 2001
36
Human Development

0° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°
42°
36°
32° 38°
28° 34°
24° 30°
24° 26°
20° 16°
16° 12°
12° 8°
72° East of Greenwich 80° 84° 88° 92°

Fig. 4.2 India: State-wise Distribution of Female Literacy 2001
37

of India. Total 22 states and union territories percentage of GDP also rose from 0.7 per
are above the national average while 13 are cent in 1951-52 to 3.94 per cent in 1999-
below it. Literacy is very high (above 72 per 2000.
cent) in nine states and union territories viz., Total enrolment at the primary stage (I-
Kerala, Mizoram, Lakshadweep, Goa, Delhi, V) increased by 5.91 times, from 19.2 million
Chandigarh, Pondicherry, Andaman and in 1950-51 to about 113.61 million in 1999-
Nicobar Islands and Daman and Diu. These 2000. Out of this the relative share of girls’
are most urbanised states/union territories enrolment increased from 28.1 per cent in
and some of them are highly influenced by 1950-51 to 43.6 per cent in 1999-2000. Total
social and religious organisations. Highest enrolment at the upper primary levels
level of literacy in Kerala may be attributed (VI-VIII) increased from 3.1 million to 42.06
to the states’ long tradition of education due million during this period. (Table 4.5).
to enlightened administration and high There is a vast disparity amongst the
proportion of non-agricultural workers. states and union territories in terms of
Elementary Education enrolment. At primary level, Dadra and
Nagar Haveli registers highest percentage
It has now been recognised as a basic (153.43) for boys and Sikkim registers the
Human Right. Universalisation of Elementary highest percentage (138.48) for girls in 1999-
Education (UEE) has been accepted as a 2000. Gross enrolment exceeds 100 per cent
national goal. As a result of the efforts made as some pupils enrolled are below or above
by the Central and State governments, 94 the country’s standard primary school age
per cent of the country’s rural population (i.e., 6 to 11 years). Chandigarh registers
has primary schools (grade I-V) within one lowest enrolment ratio (66.3 per cent) for
km. and 85 per cent of rural population has boys and Uttar Pradesh registers lowest
upper primary schools (grade VI-VIII) within enrolment ratio (50.18 per cent) for girls.
a distance of 3 km. The number of primary Overall, proportion of children of eligible age
schools has gone up by three times, from group enrolled in the primary schools is
2.1 lakh to 6.42 lakh, and of upper primary lowest in Uttar Pradesh (64.97 per cent) and
schools by about 15 times, from 13596 to highest in Sikkim (138.91 per cent). The
1.98 lakh during 1950-51 and 1999-2000, national average is 94.90 per cent.
respectively. Number of teachers in these Enrolment ratio in upper primary schools
schools has also increased from 6.24 lakh ranges from 32.36 per cent in Bihar to 95.61
in 1950-51 to 32.17 lakh in 1999-2000. per cent in Kerala with national average of
Expenditure on education as a whole as 58.79 per cent in 1999-2000. Rajasthan
Table 4.5: India: Literacy and Enrolment Ratio in Primary and Upper Primary Schools
Literacy Ratio Enrolment Ratio Enrolment Ratio Drop-Out P-T Ratio

Primary Upper Primary Ratio
Year P M F B G T B G T Pr. U.Pr Pr. U.
1950-51 18.3 27.2 8.86 60.6 24.8 42.6 20.6 4.6 12.7 64.9* 78.3* 1:24 1:20
1999-2000 65.4 75.9 54.2 104.1 85.2 94.9 67.2 49.7 58.8 40.2 54.2 1:43 1:38
Abbreviations: P = Person. M = Male. F = Female. B = Boy. G = Girl. T = Total.

Pr. = Primary School. U. Pr. = Upper Primary. P-T = Pupil’s Teacher *For 1960-61
Source: Government of India: Economic Survey 2001-2002
38
Human Development

records highest ratio (105.89 per cent) and ratio is 27.09 per cent in rural areas, 23.62
Bihar registers lowest ratio (41.38 per cent) per cent in urban areas, and 26.10 per cent in
for boys. In case of girls, highest enrolment the country as a whole. The percentage of the
ratio is (95.69 per cent) in Andaman and people living below the poverty line has
Nicobar Islands and lowest is 22.04 per cent declined steadily from 55 in 1973-74 to 36 in
again in Bihar. The national average is 67.15 1993-94 and 26 in 1999-2000. Still 260 million
per cent for boys and 49.66 per cent for girls. people are poor. Further, there are wide rural-
In all, nearly 79 per cent of children of 6-14 urban and inter-state disparities (Fig. 4.3).
age group are attending schools. One of the dimensions of the human
development is the choice of opportunity to
work. The data provided by the National
ECONOMIC INDICATORS
Sample Survey Organisation reveal that the
average annual growth rate of overall
An essential part of the human
employment (in both organised and
development is economic productivity. The unorganised sectors) was 2.73 per cent per
ultimate goal of development is the human annum in the period from 1972-73 to 1977-
progress and economic growth is one of the 78 but declined to 1.54 per cent per annum
means to achieve this goal. Growth in during 1983-84 to 1987-88. It further
economy and productivity can be assessed declined to 1 per cent per annum during
with the help of Gross National Product and 1993-94 to 1999-2000. Total employment in
per capita income. GDP at constant price 1999-2000 was 397 million. Of this, about 5
(1993-94) was Rs1404.66 billion in 1950- per cent were in the public sector.
51 and Rs 11485.0 billion in 1999-2000. Employment in this sector has been declining.
Accordingly, per capita net national product Nearly 93 per cent employment was in the
(per capita income) at constant price unorganised sector, which fluctuates with the
increased from Rs 3687 in 1950-51 to Rs overall economic situations.
10067 in 1999-2000, recording growth of Inter-state disparities in level of human
nearly 3.4 per cent per annum (Table 4.6). development are evident from Table 4.7.
This growth is much lower than the Kerala has the highest level of HDI. Besides
stipulated rates. Kerala, Punjab, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Level of poverty is synonymous with poor and Haryana with HDI of over 0.509 have
quality of life, deprivation, malnutrition, done well. In general, HDI is better in smaller
illiteracy and therefore, low human states and union territories. The states with
development. The eradication of poverty has lower than 0.509 HDI are Bihar (including
been an integral component of the strategy of Jharkhand), Orissa, Uttar Pradesh (including
economic development in India. According to Uttaranchal) and Madhya Pradesh (including
the latest (1999-2000) estimation, the poverty Chhattisgarh). It is seen that the economically
Table 4.6: India: Growth in Gross Domestic Product and Net Per Capita National Product
1950-51 to 1999-2000
Economic Indicators 1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 1999-2000
GDP at Current Prices (Rs Billion) 95.47 422.22 5109.54 17556.38

GDP at Prices of 1993-94 (Rs Billion) 1404.66 2962.78 6828.71 11485.00
Per Capita net National Product 3687 5002 7321 10067
at 1993-94 prices (Rs)
Source: Economic Survey 2001-2002.
39

E
N N
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
10.0 AND BELOW
10.1 - 20.0
20.1 - 30.0
30.1 - 40.0
40.1 AND ABOVE
N N

Fig. 4.3 India : Incidence of Poverty
40
Human Development

less developed states are also the states with and ideas. By the time of industrial revolution,
low human development index. Similarly, the they acquired so much knowledge, efficiency,
economically better off states are also the ones power and technology that they started
with relatively better performance in HDI. controlling nature and commenced extraction
However, the relationship between the HDI of material and energy from it on large scale,
and the level of development does not show resulting in the depletion, scarcity,
any correspondence among the middle- overexploitation of resources, and environ-
income states. In this category of states, mental degradation. Thus, they became
Kerala and Himachal Pradesh have higher destroyers of nature.
attainments on HDI but Karnataka and West It is difficult to generalise factors causing
Bengal have lower values. environmental deterioration. Human impact on
environment is generally a function of the use of
Table 4.7: India: Inter-State Variation in natural resources and of emission of pollutants
Human Development Index 2001
into environment in the process of production
and consumption of goods and services. At the
State HDI State HDI
same time, these processes proportionately relate
INDIA 0.472 Madhya Pradesh 0.394 to the number and growth of population. Thus,
Andhra Pradesh 0.54 Maharashtra 0.523 the quality of the environment is the result of
the following three factors:
Assam 0.386 Orissa 0.404
1. Quantity of resources consumed and
Bihar 0.367 Punjab 0.537
pollution generated per unit of output,
Gujarat 0.479 Rajasthan 0.424 2. Per capita output and consumption, and
Haryana 0.509 Tamil Nadu 0.531 3. Population size.
Himachal Pradesh 0.63 Uttar Pradesh 0.388 In this generalisation, the first factor
Karnataka 0.478 West Bengal 0.472 encompasses the technological effects, the
Kerala 0.638 second ‘affluence’ effects and the third
demographic effects. Incorporating these
Source: Human Development Report 2001. elements, the following for mula for
environmental impact analysis is derived:
POPULATION ENVIRONMENT DEVELOPMENT NEXUS I = PAT
where I = Environmental impact
Relationship between population, environment
P = Population (density and growth)
and development is dynamic. In the early
stages of development humans were close to A= Affluence (per capita consumption
nature and their requirements were fulfilled dependent on per capita income
directly from the nature. Gradually they and life style)
invented methods and techniques to get over T = Har mful technology used in
natural hindrances. They domesticated production.
animals and plants, and started using clothing
and shelter to meet the challenges of climate, Density and growth of population are
and making simple implements and artefacts. regarded as major factors responsible for
With further advancement in social and depletion, scarcity and overexploitation of
economic organisations and improvements in resources. Wasteful consumption is another
technology, capacity of humans to use the major culprit. And technology is the third
natural resources and to produce goods and major cause deeply influencing the
services enhanced enormously. Development environment. Fossil fuel-based moder n
of means of transport accelerated the processes technology that made large-scale production
of resource exploitation. It increased the and manufacturing of innumerable synthetic

worldwide movement of humans, commodities products possible, have exerted high strain
41

on natural environment. Similarly, high per countries. Thus, in the destitution of the
capita consumption is associated with the developing countries and the over
large-scale production and consumption of consumption of the industrial countries lie
raw materials, fuel and energy in the seeds of all environmental problems. And
proportionately large quantity, and generation as such, vicious circle of the environmental
of huge wastes and garbage. Intensity of these degradation and faltering steps of
two factors is very high in the developed development moves on.
EXERCISES
Review Questions
1. Answer the following briefly:
(a) Explain the concept of development.
(b) Assess the global position of India in respect of Human
Development.
(c) Enumerate the indicators used for measuring the level of Human
Development.
(d) Describe the trend of fertility and mortality rates in India since
1951.
(e) Examine the causes of comparatively low literacy rates in the
country.
(f ) Examine the progress of literacy in post-independence period.
(g) Identify the areas of high and low literacy in the country.
(h) Highlight the impact of ‘population’ factor on the environment.
(a) Human Resource Development and Human Development.
(b) Human Development and Economic Development.
3. Discuss the concept of Human Development.
4. Why Human Development is necessary? Explain.
5. Examine the regional variations in total literacy in India.
6. Discuss the spatial pattern of female literacy in India.
7. Examine the progress of the Economic Indicators of Human
Development in the country.
8. Discuss the factors affecting human impact on the environment.
9. ‘Development and environmental degradation are two faces of the same
coin.’ How far is it correct?
Project Work
10. (a) Classify the major states into three classes on the basis of Human
Development Index given in Table 4.7.
(b) Prepare a brief write up on it.
11. (a) Conduct a survey of 7 to 10 year old children of your locality with
the following details: males, females, class in which studying, and
not attending any school.
(b) Prepare a brief write up on it.
42
#
CHAPTER
RURAL SETTLEMENTS
Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings 2. Cities provide goods and services not only
of any type or size where humans live. for themselves but also for the people of
However, in geography settlement is also the rural countryside, in return for food
considered as a process of coming together, and raw materials. This complementary
to live in an area or locality. This process or exchange between cities and the villages
phenomenon is also called occupance. For this takes place through a transport and
purpose people erect houses and other communication network.
structures, and command some area or 3. The rural settlements depend on land to
territory as their economic support-base. carry out their primary economic
Thus, the process of settlement inherently activities. Since each family needs a fairly
involves grouping of people and apportioning extensive area of crop, pasture or forest
of territory as their resource base. The land, villages are normally small in size.
resulting phenomena called settlements thus There can be rural settlements of single
denote units of occupancy. family called homestead. There can be a
larger grouping of families or dwellings
with concentration of houses etc. on a
RURAL-URBAN SETTLEMENTS safer site surrounded by larger support
base. On the other hand, large urban
Settlements vary in size and type; they may settlements inherently present a compact
be ranging from little hamlets to metropolitan look, with closely spaced houses and
cities. With size, the economic character and streets without much open space between
social structure of settlements changes and them as their support-base.
so does its ecology and technology. 4. Rural and urban settlements differ also
Settlements could be small and sparsely in their way of life, attitude and outlook.
located; they may also be large and closely Rural people are less mobile and therefore,
located. The sparsely located small social relations among them are intimate.
settlements are called villages, specialising in They employ simple techniques to perform
agriculture. On the other side are fewer but their activities and their pace of life is slow.
larger towns and cities specialising in In urban areas, on the other hand, way of
secondary and tertiary activities. The basic life is complex and fast, and social
dif ferences between rural and urban relations are formal and institutionalised.
settlements are as follows.
Size and Spacing of Villages
1. The rural settlements derive their life
support or basic economic needs from The size and spacing of villages depend on a
land based primary economic activities. number of factors. Important among them are
Whereas, urban settlements, depend on productivity of land, non-farm activities in the
processing of raw materials and area, transport system, socio-ethnic factors
manufacturing of finished goods on the or traditions, and techno-economic
one hand and a variety of services on organisation and historical and political
the other. processes. In areas where habitable land is

Table 5.1: India: Distribution of Villages according to Population size, 1991
Population Less than 200-499 500-999 1000-1999 2000-4999 5000-9999 10,000+ Total
size class 200
Percentage 17.9 24.3 25.0 19.7 10.8 1.8 0.5 100.0

of total
villages
Percentage 1.7 7.8 16.8 25.7 29.8 11.2 7.0 100.0
of Rural
population
Both size and spacing increase in the

available in small bits and pieces, the
Deccan plateau. Spacing is more than 3 km
settlements are very small and somewhat
in southern states, highest being 5.44 km in
isolated. Surprisingly, due to cultural and
Kerala. Because of topographic constraints,
historical factors some highly developed areas
limited soil fertility and water problems,
have essentially single unit settlements. The
villages tend to cluster in this part of the
proportion of villages in different size classes
country. There are less than 15 villages per
is given in Table 5.1 and the distribution of
100 sq. km. in these states, lowest being 4 in
rural population according to village size has
Kerala. In this state territorial limit of a village
been given in Fig. 5.1.
covers nearly 30 sq. km. accommodating an
There is striking variation in spacing of equally large population.
the villages. For India as a whole, the average Similarly, because of the environmental
distance among villages is 2.52 km. The problems, villages are located far apart in the
spacing of villages in states like Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan desert, Himalayan states and
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal is below the northeastern hilly states. Inter-village distance
national average. Level alluvial plains and is 3.21 km in Rajasthan, 6.99 km. in Jammu
high rural population density favour the and Kashmir, and 5.84 km. in Mizoram.
development of closely spaced smaller Contrary to the southern states, size of villages
villages. Consequently, the density of villages in these areas is small and density is also low.
is high in these states. Average density of From the above discussion it is clear that
villages per 100 sq. km. is 44 in West Bengal, density of rural population as well as the
40 in Bihar, 39 in Uttar Pradesh and 31 in density of villages are inversely correlated with
Orissa. Spacing increases towards south. In the spacing of rural settlements but are
Central Highlands average spacing is between directly correlated with the average size of the
2 and 3 km. villages (Table 5.2).
Table 5.2: India: Relationship between Rural density, size and spacing of Villages, 1991*
Inter-village distance Average size of village Rural density Village density

(km) (Population) (Persons per sq. km) (Villages per 100 sq.km)
Below 2.00 752 350 47

2.00 - 2.99 794 151 19
3.00 - 3.99 1384 139 10
4.00 - 4.99 1638 101 06
Above 5.00 2862 55 02
All 1686 159 16.8
* Excluding Jammu and Kashmir.

44
Rural Settlements

INDIA
DISTRIBUTION OF RURAL POPULATION ACCORDING
TO VILLAGE SIZE
1991
% OF RURAL POPULATION
POPULATION SIZE OF VILLAGES
Fig. 5.1 India: Distribution of Rural Population according to Village Size
are generally found in highly productive

TYPES OF RURAL SETTLEMENT
alluvial plains, in the valleys of the Shiwaliks
and in the northeastern states. Sometimes,
Types of the settlement are determined by the people live in compact village for security
extent of the built-up area and inter-house or defence r easons, such as in the
distance. In India compact or clustered village Bundelkhand region of central India and in
of a few hundred houses or families is a rather Nagaland. In Rajasthan, scar city of
universal feature, particularly in the northern cultivable land and water necessitate
plains. However, there are several areas, compact settlement for maximum utilisation
which have other forms of rural settlements. of available resources.
Thus, rural settlements in India can broadly
be put into four types: Semi-Clustered Settlements: Semi-clustered
or fragmented settlements may result either
1. Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated;
from agglomeration tendency in a restricted
2. Semi-clustered or fragmented area of dispersed settlement or consolidated
3. Hamleted, and territorial base. More often such a pattern
4. Dispersed or isolated. may also result from segregation or
fragmentation of a large compact village. In
Clustered Settlements: The clustered rural this case, one or more sections of the village
settlement is a compact or closely built area society chooses or is forced to live a little away
of houses. In this type of village the general from the main cluster or village. In such cases,
living area is distinct and separated from generally, the land-owning and dominant
the surrounding farms, barns and pastures. community makes central or main village,
The closely built area and its intervening whereas people of lower strata of society and
streets present some recognisable pattern menial workers are located on outer flank of
or geometric shape, such as rectangular, the village. Such settlements are widespread
radial, linear, etc. (Fig.5.2). Such settlements
45
in the Gujarat plain.

LAYOUT AND FORM OF VILLAGES
Fig. 5.2 Patterns of Villages: Rectangular, L-shaped, Square-shaped, Checker board, Hollow-rectangular

and Hollow-square shaped.
46
Rural Settlements

Hamleted Settlements: Sometimes Villages following a road or river or canal
settlement is fragmented into several units for some distance presents linear or string
physically separated from each other bearing patter n (Fig. 5.3). Examples of such
a common name. These units are locally called settlements are in the coastal areas of Kerala
para, palli, nagla, dhani etc. in various parts and in the Dun valley (Doiwala, Lachchiwala,
of the country. This segregation of a large Kanwarwala, etc.).
village is often motivated by social and ethnic In many villages and towns where several
factors. Such villages are more frequent in roads converge on a settlement located on a
the middle and lower Ganga plain, nodal position and where the housing
Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the development clings to these roads, a radial
Himalayas. pattern of settlement emerges (Fig. 5.3). As
the interroad space is filled up the settlement
Dispersed Settlements: Dispersed or
becomes star-shaped. The inter-connecting
isolated settlement pattern in India appears
roads between the radial roads, attract new
in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of few
houses, and spider-web shape settlements
huts in remote jungles, or on small hills with come into being.
farms or pasture on the slopes. Extreme Many villages and small towns have roads
dispersion of settlement is often caused by running parallel and cutting more or less
extremely fragmented nature of the land perpendicularly. Such offset road layouts and
resource base of habitable areas. Many areas the enclosed built-up blocks make a
of Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, and Himachal checkerboard or rectangular pattern. Such
Pradesh have this type of settlement. pattern may emerge in a settlement sited at
Factors Affecting Types of Rural Settlements the junction or crossing of two important
highways, as is observable over many areas
From the above description, it is clear that in the northern plains of India.
several factors and conditions determine the Villages and towns confined between two
type of the rural settlement. They can be rivers at their junction or confluence or
summarised succinctly as (1) Physical between bifurcation of two roads eventually
features – nature of terrain, altitude, climate result in a triangular or arrowhead pattern.
and availability of water (Fig. 5.2). (2) Cultural Similarly, settlement at a fan head or a delta
and ethnic factors – caste and tribal structure head, further expanding along several
and religion. (3) Security factors – defence distributaries often results in a fan shape
against invasions, dacoits, wild animals etc. pattern, for example, Aslana, Garhakota
(Madhya Pradesh) and Kanyakumari (Tamil
RURAL SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Nadu).
Settlements encircling features like a lake
or a hill may assume a circular pattern; if they
Villages in India show a variety of forms or
encircle the central siting feature partly, the
layouts. Location of houses in accordance
pattern will be semi-circular (Bhimtal in Uttar
with the street system usually determines
Pradesh and Siwan in Rajasthan).
the shape of the village. Besides the street
plan, form of the village is determined by
the location of cultural features like temple, HOUSE TYPES IN INDIA
mosque, well, tank, etc. Principal settlement
patterns discernible in India are (1) linear, House is a manifestation of the way humans
(2) radial, (3) star-shaped, (4) spider-web adjust their dwellings with the environment.
shaped, (5) rectangular or checkerboard, Most often, the building materials, plan of the
(6) triangular or arrowhead, (7) circular and house, slope of the roof, thickness of the wall,
semi-circular, and (8) fan shaped (Figs. 5.3 direction of the door, etc. are made in
and 5.4).
47
accordance of the environmental conditions.

Fig. 5.3 Patterns of Villages: Circular, Polygonal, Hollow Circular, Radial, Horse-shoe shaped and

String Pattern
48
Rural Settlements

Fig. 5.4 Patterns of Villages: Double Village, Fragmented, Elongated, Fan-shaped, Fortified,

and Amorphous
49

The inter nal structure of the house is specific dried grasses make good thatches;
according to the lifestyle and social and burnt and unburnt brick and some stone or
economic status of the inhabitant. In India other materials are used for walls. Tiles and
rural house types and their building materials zinc sheets are also used for roofs, and stone
show regional distinction and local influences. or wood poles for wall support and corner
Courtyard is a typical feature of the Indian pillars.
house. It is surrounded by houses/rooms on
the four sides. It plays very significant role in Distributional Pattern
the social life of the people. In size, the house Rural settlements are distributed in a variety
ranges from single room hut to multiple room of ways. When a number of small settlements
building. Rectangular plan of the house is are sited at a rather regular spacing along a
most common in India. The shape and slope road, river, canal, defile or pass in
of the roof may vary according to the climatic mountainous areas, it is called linear pattern.
conditions and available local materials. Western coast, particularly, Kerala is a very
However, circular huts with conical roofs are long continuous belt of linear settlements. It
found in north eastern India, West Bengal, is also found on the east coast and along the
Bihar, Tarai region, Kerala, etc. foothills of the Himalayas. Linear pattern is
In low-lying ill drained wetlands, the plinth also common in Assam valley along the
of houses are often raised one or two metres natural levies and roads.
above the ground. This understory is generally In Uttar Pradesh, the western part has
used as cattle shed. In high rainfall areas or generally large compact villages located wide
in snowfall tracts in mountainous areas, apart but at a fairly regular spacing, and
houses may have fewer windows and rather connected with roads or tracks in several
steep roofs to help shed off rain or snow directions. In eastern Uttar Pradesh, the
quickly. As one moves towards dryer and settlements are often fragmented, i.e., one
hotter climates, roofs become flatter and main settlement may have two or three
shape rectangular or circumventing a secondary and subsidiary settlements, which
courtyard. In very hot or humid climate like are physically discontinuous with the main
Kerala, the roofs are double storied and made- village. Rajasthan shows a distinct tendency
up of special grass and thatch that stands from large and far-flung villages in the desert
rain for a long time. Even in urban areas such west to small and more closely spaced
thatch sheds may be seen on open terraces settlements in the semi arid east.
and flat roofs of masonry houses. Mud and
EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) What is meant by settlement?
(b) What is occupance?
(c) What kind of functions rural settlements perform?
(d) In which size of villages most of the people in India live?
(e) What is the proportion of villages, which have less than 500 persons?
(f ) What is a clustered settlement?
(g) What are the main features of Indian houses?
50
Rural Settlements

(a) Rural and urban settlements
(b) Clustered and semi-clustered settlements
(c) Hamleted and dispersed settlements
(d) Linear and circular rural settlements.
3. Describe various types of rural settlement patterns.
4. Describe the factors that affect house types in India.
5. Discuss the distributional pattern of rural settlement in India.
Project Work
6. Study a topographical map of any area, and describe various types of rural
settlements.
51
$
CHAPTER
URBAN SETTLEMENTS
Unlike rural settlements, urban settlements
EVOLUTION OF TOWNS IN INDIA
are generally compact and large in size. They
are engaged in a variety of non-agricultural,
Towns flourished since prehistoric times in
economic and administrative functions. For
India. Even at the time of Indus valley
food and raw materials, they depend on their
civilisation, towns like Harappa and
hinterland. Cities are thus closely linked to
Mohanjodaro were in existence. The second
rural areas around them. Cities produce a
phase of urbanisation began around 600 BC.
variety of goods and services, which they
It continued with periodic ups and downs
supply to the rural areas. In return they get
until the arrival of Europeans in India in 18th
primary product and labour supply from
century. Urban historians classify towns of
rural areas. This exchange is performed
India as:
sometimes directly and sometimes through
(1) Ancient towns, (2) Medieval towns, and
a series of market towns and cities. Thus, (3) Modern towns.
cities are connected separately as well as
collectively with the villages and also with Ancient Towns: At least 45 towns have
each other. The whole range of cities and historical background and have been in
towns thus act as the functional nodes or existence at least for over 2000 years. Most
centres of a larger geographical scheme of of them developed as religious and cultural
cities, towns, villages and their resources for centres. Varanasi is one of the important
the territorial and functional organisation of towns among these. A yodhya, Prayag
the whole country. (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Mathura and
Madurai are some other ancient towns.
Definition of Towns
Medieval Towns: About 100 of the existing
Town is defined in different ways in different towns have their root in the medieval period.
countries. In India, the Census of India 2001 Most of them developed as headquarters of
identifies two types of towns: Statutory and principalities and kingdoms. Most of them are
Census: fort towns and came up on the ruins of earlier
Statutory Towns: All places which have existing towns. Important among them are
municipal, or corporation, or cantonment Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and
board, or a notified town area committee. Nagpur.
Census Towns: All other places which satisfy Moder n Towns: The British and other
the following criteria: Europeans modified the urban scene. As an
(i) A minimum population of 5,000 external force, starting their foothold on
persons; coastal locations, they first developed some
(ii) At least 75 per cent of male working trading ports such as Surat, Daman, Goa,
population engaged in non- Pondicherry, etc. The British later
agricultural pursuits; and consolidated their hold from three principal
(iii) A density of population of at least 400 nodes — Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai
persons per sq. km. (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) — and built
Urban Settlements

them in the British fashion. Rapidly extending population to urban places. Growth of cities
their domination either directly or through involves two processes: enlargement of urban
super control over the princely states, they centres and emergence of new towns. Both
established their administrative centres, hill- have played a significant role in growth of
towns as summer resorts, and added new urban population and urbanisation
civil, administrative and military areas to (Table 6.1).
them. Towns based on modern industries also
evolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can be cited Types of Urban Settlements
as an example. Towns and cities are classified in different
After independence, a large number of ways. However, classification on the basis of
towns emerged as administrative headquarters size and functions is most common.
(Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar,
Dispur, etc.) and industrial centres (Durgapur, Towns and Cities based on Population Size
Bhilai, Sindri, Barauni, etc.). Some old towns
Census of India classifies urban centres into
also developed as satellite towns around
six classes as presented in Table 6.2. Urban
metropolitan cities such as Ghaziabad,
centre with population of more than one lakh
Rohtak, Gurgaon, etc. around Delhi. With
is called a city and less than one lakh is called
increasing investment in rural areas, a large
a town. Cities accommodating population
number of medium and small towns have
between one to five million are called
developed all over the country.
metropolitan cities and more than five million
are mega cities. Majority of metropolitan and
URBANISATION OF INDIA mega cities are urban agglomerations. An
urban agglomeration may consist of any one
More than one-fourth of the total population of the following three combinations: (i) a town
of India is urban. Total urban population and its adjoining urban outgrowths, (ii) two
increased eleven fold, from 25.85 million in or more contiguous towns with or without
1901 to 285.35 million in 2001. Such a rapid their outgrowths, and (iii) a city and one or
growth has been possible by migration of more adjoining towns with their outgrowths
Table 6.1: India: Trends of Urbanisation 1901-2001
Year Number of Urban Population % of Total Decennial

Towns/UAs (in Thousands) Population Growth (%)
1901 1827 25851.9 10.84 —

1911 1815 25941.6 10.29 0.35
1921 1949 28086.2 11.18 8.27
1931 2072 33456 11.99 19.12
1941 2250 44153.3 13.86 31.97
1951 2843 62443.7 17.29 41.42
1961 2365 78936.6 17.97 26.41
1971 2590 109113.9 19.91 38.23
1981 3378 159462.5 23.34 46.14
1991 4689 217611.0 25.71 36.47
2001 5161 285354.9 27.78 31.13

UA – Urban Areas
53

Table 6.2: India: Class-wise number of towns and cities and their population, 2001
Class Population Size Number Population % of total Urban % Growth

(Million) Population 1991-2002
All 5161 285.35 100.00 31.13

I 1,00,000 and more 423 172.04 61.48 23.12
II 50,000 - 99,999 498 34.43 12.30 43.45
III 20,000 - 49,999 1386 41.97 15.00 46.19
IV 10,000 - 19,999 1560 22.60 8.08 32.94
V 5,000 - 9,999 1057 7.98 2.85 41.49
VI Less then 5,000 227 0.80 0.29 21.21
together for ming a contiguous spread. Size of towns and cities ranges from only
Examples of urban outgrowth are railway 338 persons in Vasna Borsad industrial notified
colonies, university campus, port area, area (Anand district, Gujarat) to 11.91 million
military cantonment etc. located within the persons in Greater Mumbai. Class-wise
revenue limits of a village or villages number of towns and cities and their population
contiguous to the town or city. in 2001 are given in Table 6.2. (Fig. 6.1).
INDIA
CLASSWISE DISTRIBUTION OF URBAN POPULATION (%) 2001
V
IV 2.9 VI
8.1 0.3
III
15.0
I
61.5
II
12.3

Fig. 6.1 Class-wise Distribution of Urban Population of India, 2001
54
Urban Settlements

It is evident from Table 6.2 that majority Table 6.3: India: Population of Million plus
of urban population live in 423 cities i.e., only Cities/ Urban Agglomeration, 2001
8.2 per cent of all urban places. They support
60.3 per cent of the total urban population of Rank Name of Urban Population
Agglomeration/Cities (in millions)
the country. Out of 423 cities, 35 cities/urban
agglomerations have population more than 1. Greater Mumbai 16.37
1 million each, thus they are metropolitan
2. Kolkata 13.22
cities (Fig. 6.2). Six of them are mega cities
with population over five million each. More 3. Delhi 12.79
than one-fifth (21.0%) of urban population 4. Chennai 6.42
lives in these mega cities. 5. Bangalore 5.69
More than half (55.2%) of the towns (with 6. Hyderabad 5.53
population less than 20 thousand each)
7. Ahmedabad 4.52
accommodate only 11.0 per cent of urban
population. One-fourth (27.3%) of urban 8. Pune 3.76
population lives in middle-sized towns of the 9. Surat 2.81
country. These medium towns recorded 10. Kanpur 2.69
highest growth during the last decade, raising
11. Jaipur 2.32
their share in total urban population from
24.3 per cent to 27.3 per cent. 12. Lucknow 2.27
13. Nagpur 2.12
METROPOLITAN CITIES 14. Patna 1.71
15. Indore 1.64
With the increasing urban population, the 16. Vadodara 1.49
number of urban agglomerations and cities 17. Bhopal 1.45
having a population over one million increased
18. Coimbatore 1.45
from 23 to 35 in just one decade (1991-2001).
Among them, Greater Mumbai is the largest 19. Ludhiana 1.39
agglomeration with 16.4 million people; 20. Kochi 1.36
Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, 21. Vishakhapatnam 1.33
Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat,
22. Agra 1.32
Kanpur, Jaipur, Lucknow and Nagpur have
more than two million population each (Table 23. Varanasi 1.21
6.3). Total population living in these cities was 24. Madurai 1.19
107.88 million in 2001. Thus, they supported 25. Meerut 1.17
more than 37.8 per cent of total urban
26. Nashik 1.15
population of the country in 2001 as against
32.5 per cent in 1991. These cities recorded 27. Jabalpur 1.12
the highest growth (52.0%) of population 28. Jamshedpur 1.10
among all classes of towns and cities. 29. Asansol 1.09
Continuing concentration of population in 30. Dhanbad 1.06
these cities without corresponding increase
31. Faridabad 1.05
in economic activities has resulted in the
development of slums. 32. Allahabad 1.05
33. Amritsar 1.01
Slums: One of the major characteristics of
Indian cities is the growth of squatter 34. Vijayawada 1.01
settlements, called slums. Twenty-six states 35. Rajkot 1.00

and union territories have reported the
Total 107.88
presence of slums in 607 towns and cities in
55


Fig. 6.2 Metropolitan Cities of India, 2001
56
Urban Settlements

the country. Total slum population is 40.3 Mumbai-Gujarat region: Another
million (1991) comprising of 22.58 per cent of concentration of big cities and towns can be
the urban population reporting slums. seen in Gujarat, where four metropolitan
Maharashtra registered a slum population of cities – Rajkot, Ahmedabad, Vadodara and
10.64 million. The proportion of slum Surat – function as cores of their urban
population to total urban population of the systems. A large number of towns have
states ranges from 1.81 per cent in Kerala to emerged due to industrial development
41.33 per cent in Meghalaya, 14.1 per cent particularly based on petroleum. Urbanised
being the national average. In million plus belt of northwestern Maharashtra, centring
cities, the largest proportion of slum population on Mumbai continues up to Pune in the
is in Greater Mumbai (48.88%) and the lowest southeast and along the Mumbai-Delhi
is in Patna (0.25%). Slums of Greater Mumbai railway track.
accommodate about 6 per cent of the total
Kerala Coast: The Kerala coast has nearly a
population of Maharashtra. Most of the urban
continuous string of towns extending from
problems are related to these slums.
Mahe to Kanyakumari. Kochi has grown as
metropolis. Thiruvananthapuram is another
DISTRIBUTION OF TOWNS AND CITIES major urban centre.
Tamil Nadu-South Kar nataka belt:
Historically, cities were more numerous in Chennai and Bangalore make another
north Indian plains; they were also located corridor of urban-industrial development.
near the old ports on the western and the Both are mega cities. In the interior,
eastern coast. Over the vast stretches of Coimbatore, Tiruchchirappalli, Madurai,
central and southern Indian plateaus they Pondicherry and Salem are prominent
were few and far between. These towns and industrial-urban areas. Southern Karnataka
cities, particularly those located inland, were plateau and Tamil Nadu upland also are
often administrative headquarters, trading studded with towns of different sizes.
centres at nodal locations or places of religious
significance. Muslim dominance in medieval Upper Krishna basin: Continuous belt of
times did not change this significantly except towns and cities extends parallel to the
that the names were changed and some Western Ghats from Satara in southwestern
Muslim religious edifices were added. But in Maharashtra to Shimoga in Karnataka.
the modern times, pattern of distribution of Presence of minerals and development of
towns and cities has changed considerably. hydroelectricity helped in industrialisation
Most of the towns and cities are found in the and urbanisation in this belt.
following areas: Krishna-Godavari Delta: On the east coast,
Punjab-Haryana Upper Ganga Plain: Cities the Krishna and Godavari delta and the
and towns of all sizes are numerous over the adjoining low lands is a notable area of cities
vast plains of north India particularly in its and towns extending inland towards
western part. A chain of ten million-plus cities Vijayawada, Warangal, and Hyderabad. It
extends from Amritsar in the northwest to extends along the coastal plain of northern
Varanasi in the east. (Fig. 6.2) Andhra Pradesh up to Vishakhapatnam.
Kolkata-Ranchi belt: Southern West Bengal Norther n Maharashtra:Notable urban
and adjoining Jharkhand and northern fringe development is also seen along the Mumbai-
of Orissa make the mineral trove of India Kolkata trunk route, which passes through
(rightly called ‘Rhur Basin of India), all hubbed cotton-rich Vidarbha, and farther east
at Kolkata and its port services. Besides through the mineral-rich Chhattisgarh and
Kolkata, Asansol, Dhanbad and Jamshedpur the ‘Rhur Basin of India’. Among many cities,
are other metropolises in this belt.
57
Nagpur is the most important one. Raipur,

Bhilai Nagar-Durg and Bilaspur are the other in this class. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc.
important cities. are some examples.
Mining towns: Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS AND CITIES Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
Cantonment towns: Ambala, Jalandhar,
Apart from their role as central or nodal Mhow, Babina, Meerut Cantt, etc.
places, many towns and cities per form Educational towns: Roorkie, Varanasi,
specialised services. Some towns and cities Aligarh, Pilani, etc.
specialise in certain functions and they are
known for certain specific activities, products Religious and cultural towns: Varanasi,
or services. This is due to special local Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Tirupati, etc.
resources available in these towns and cities Tourist towns: Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla,
or due to their location at specific sites, which Pachmarhi, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount
have certain cultural, historical or traditional Abu, etc.
values associated with them. For example, Even specialised cities, as they grow into
port cities are essentially engaged in external metropolises become multifunctional wherein
trade of goods and related activities. Some industry, business, administration, transport,
towns function only as transport towns – etc. become important.
Itarsi, Bina, Katni, etc. in Madhya Pradesh
and Mughal Sarai and Tundla in Uttar Functional Zones
Pradesh function as railway junctions; Within each medium or large city there are
whereas Dhulia (Maharashtra) and Agra specific areas specialising in certain functions
(Uttar Pradesh) are Trunk road junctions. or activities like business, industrial,
Similarly, some cities have specialised administrative, institutional, transport,
manufacturing industries and some have residential, etc. Business area is often the core
religious importance. and centre of the city. It is densely populated
However, each town performs a number and has narrow lanes due to very high land
of functions. On the basis of dominant or value. It is called Central Business District
specialised functions, Indian cities and towns (CBD). It is very crowded during business
can be broadly classified as follows: hours and is, therefore, called hard core of
Administrative towns and cities: Towns the city. Open spaces like parks, playgrounds,
supporting administrative headquarters of etc. are found in residential areas, industrial
higher order are administrative towns, such areas or market areas. Industrial areas are
as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, somewhat away from city limits and are
etc. determined by infrastructural facilities.
Wholesale areas, transport areas,
Industrial towns: Industries constitute administrative and institutional areas also
prime motive force of these cities such as have somewhat secluded location. Old
Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, residential areas are found close to the CBD
Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc. but newer residential areas form distinct
T ransport cities: They may be ports patches in the city. Thus, functional
primarily engaged in export and import segregation and resulting development of
activities such as Kandla, Kochi, Kozhikode, functional zones is a hallmark of cities. Today
Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs of inland many isolated zones grow up as suburbs or
transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, satellite towns at some distance from the main
Itarsi, Katni, etc. city, which are functionally linked with it. As
such, extended cities may assume a multi-
Commercial towns: Towns and cities nuclear structure. A nuclear city originally
specialising in trade and commerce are kept

58
grows its functional zones in more or less
Urban Settlements

circular fashion around the city centre (CBD), economic outlook in housing and other
but later development of functional zones aspects.
along arterial roads, makes it star-shaped or 3. Sizeable chunk of cities are full of slums
sectoral in structure. largely due to the influx of immigrants
without much infrastructure.
Indian Cities: Salient Characteristics 4. Several cities have distinct marks of earlier
Salient features of the Indian cities are as rulers and old functions.
follows. 5. Functional segregation is distinctly
1. Most towns and cities are over-grown rudimentary, non-comparable to western
villages and have much rural semblance cities.
behind their street frontages. 6. Social segregation of population is based
2. People are even more rural in their habits either on caste, religion, income or
and attitude, which reflects their socio- occupation.
EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) What is a town?
(b) What are census towns?
(c) Name two ancient towns.
(d) Name two medieval towns.
(e) What is a city?
(f ) How are towns classed on the basis of population?
(g) Which category of towns has the largest percentage of population in India?
(h) How many metro cities (Metropolitan cities) are in India?
2. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Metro cities (b) Slums (c) CBD (d) Functional zones.
3. Give an account of the distribution of towns and cities in India.
4. Classify towns on the basis of functions.
5. Describe salient characteristics of Indian towns and cities.
Project Work
6. Visit a town or city of your area, identify its CBD and prepare a brief write-up on it.
59
%
CHAPTER
NATURAL RESOURCES:
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
‘Resources are the bases of both security and of the biophysical environment but they
opulence; they are the foundations of power become resources only when human
and wealth.’ These observations of preserves them. For example, coal was always
Zimmer mann express the economic there but it became a resource only when
significance of resources for humankind. At humans used it as a source of energy. The
every stage of development, resources play a sum total of all the material components of
critical role. But for them, human survival the environment, both biotic and abiotic
and development would be impossible. constitutes natural resources.
Without land, water, and air, we cannot have In spite of the abundance, the vast
agriculture, and without minerals, we cannot proportion of the earth’s total stock of matter
have industries. Resources and development and energy is of very little interest to humans.
are thus interdependent. Either it is inaccessible or it is in a form that
Natural resources help humans in three cannot be used. Only that part of nature,
ways. One, they provide material, energy, and which can be of some use to humans in
favourable conditions for development. Two, meeting their needs is counted as resource.
they constitute the natural environment in Resources can be thus defined as that portion
which man and other life forms live. Air, water, of natural stock, which is conceived by human
forests and various life forms are essential for as resource and for which he/she develops
human survival and development. And, three, know-how for purposive utilisation.
resources are of different kinds. Some are Resources as such are largely derived from
exhaustible while others inexhaustible, some our own society’s ceaseless attempts at
are renewable while others are non-renewable. finding new and more innovative uses for the
Without land, water and air, life cannot be raw materials. These persistent efforts have
imagined. Initially human was collector of the expanded the list of resources – new elements
resources because the resources were abundant are added and some old ones are deleted.
and human needs were limited. As such, human Thus, resources are created through the
was part of nature and his/her imprint on it was
interaction between human’s culture and
imperceptible. As people increased in number,
physical environment (Fig. 7.1)
armed themselves with new tools and techniques,
the resources increased. They became the
exploiter of nature. Many of the problems that CLASSIFICATION OF RESOURCES
we face today have resulted from unscientific use
of natural resources. Based on content, resources can be classified
into three groups: natural, human and
cultural.
CONCEPT OF RESOURCE
Natural Resources: Those elements of the
Resources are often identified with tangible biophysical environment, which can be used
natural substances. They are the elements to satisfy human needs are known as natural
Natural Resources: Theoretical Background

Fig. 7.1 Interaction between Human, Culture and Environment (After Zimmermann)
resources. ‘Natural resources are organic and by the culture. Culture is the sum total of all
inorganic matter, provided outside the ideals, knowledge and techniques human
economic system, which are manipulated by uses to attain these objectives. T o a
humans to furnish the raw materials needed considerable degree, the availability,
to satisfy human wants.’ Natural resources renewability and exploitability of natural
can also be defined as the ‘features and resources depend on scientific discoveries and
products of nature amenable to use as factors technological inventions. Science and
of production and consumption of goods’. technology is the product of culture. As the
Natural resources include physical attributes of culture broaden, the supply base
features like land, climate, water, soil, and of resources expands. (Fig. 7.2)
minerals and biological like vegetation, wildlife
and fisheries.
Human Resources: The number and quality
of people constitute human resources. There
is a critical number and quality of people,
below which development gets decelerated.
Too sparse population can be hindrance; so
also an illiterate and malnourished
population.
As a matter of principle, humans should
not be treated as resources. They are the very
purpose and objectives around which all
development activities should be weaved.
Cultural Resources: Natural resources by
themselves are not resources as such unless
human beings so perceive them. The
perception of natural phenomena as
resources depends on the cultural heritage –
knowledge, experience, skills, organisation,
technology, etc. Thus resources have a
cultural content too. Resources expand and
contract in response to human wants and Fig. 7.2 Resource Endowments in High and Low Level
tastes. These wants and tastes are influenced
61
Cultures

Cultural factors influence the resources time we extract, we deplete the stock and
in yet another way. Some cultures have a built come closer to ultimate exhaustibility. These
in system of using natural resources within two broad classes of resources are also known
the ecological limits so as to allow nature to as flow and fund resources, or inexhaustible
recoup its loss. Indian culture falls in this and exhaustible or replenishable and non-
category. Many other cultures consider replenishable resources, respectively.
natural resources as a physical rather than Some of the renewable resources are
biological phenomenon and tend to exploit it renewable only so long as they are used
beyond its capacity to recoup. Moder n prudently within the limits set by nature. For
European culture falls in this category. The example, the ground water is renewable only
former maintains ecological balances and if its use is not more than the recharging
conserves resources while the latter disturbs capacity. Similarly, a forest is renewable only
ecological balance and overexploits the if it is not uprooted and is allowed to grow
resources at times to an extent that the very again. Over exploitation of fish has eliminated
survival and development of human is them completely from some rivers, lakes, or
jeopardised. even oceanic zones. But there are some
renewable resources, which are always
Classification Based on Durability available independent of activity, e.g., solar
Natural resources can also be classified and tidal energy. Further, the renewable
according to their ability to renew or resources constitute a complex dynamic
reproduce themselves (Fig. 7.3). Renewable system of interacting components. The use
resources regenerate themselves naturally of one resource is likely to influence others.
such as forests and fishes, provided that they Because of net-like character of these
are not subjected to wholesome destruction. resources their development should be
The non-renewable resources cannot self- planned in an integrated manner and not as
regenerate as their available stock is fixed, individual resource isolated from others.
like fossil fuels, other minerals, etc. Each

Fig. 7.3 Classification of Resources (After B. Goodall, 1987)
62

Conservational Classification are included in this class. They are gems,
minerals such as iron, tin, copper, gold and
Resources can also be classified on the basis silver.
of conservational strategy. Renner (1951)
suggested the following classification Exhaustible but Non-reusable Resources:
(Fig. 7.4): They include coal, petroleum, natural gas,
most non-metallic minerals and metals. They
Inexhaustible and Immutable Resources: exhaust as and when they are used.
They include the ocean water, solar power,
wind power, climate, clay, air, etc.
RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND UTILISATION
Inexhaustible but Misusable Resources:
Quantity and quality of such resources would People have been using their biophysical
deteriorate if used unwisely. They include environment to satisfy their needs. This
land, wild animals, water resources, etc. process is called ‘resource utilisation’. As
Maintainable and Renewable Resources: cultural evolution proceeds new resources are
Renewability of these resources depends on the discovered and better methods of utilisation
method of their use. They include timber, human are found. This is called resource
numbers, land fertility, ground water, etc. development. Resource utilisation thus
means the actual use of the natural resources
Maintainable but Non-renewable by transforming the ‘neutral stuff’ into a
Resources: Such resources cannot be commodity or service to serve human needs.
renewed after over exploitation. They include Resource development suffers from three
physical soil materials, human talent and main constraints. These are:
genius, many fishes, trees, etc.
1. Ecological,
Exhaustible but Reusable Resources: Those 2. Cultural, and
minerals, which can be used again and again, 3. Economic perspectives.

Fig. 7.4 Classes of Resources after Renner (1951)
63

Some resources cannot be used in a given resources has been motivated by the
environment such as the coal deposits of maximisation of output and revenue returns
Antarctica. There are certain resources, which rather than the optimisation of net social
are not being used because of cultural benefits. Exploitation of resources has
constraints, particularly lack of technology. increased phenomenally in the recent past
Further, among the usable resources, only a without caring for the environmental
few are economically gainful. disruption and impending scarcity. At the
Now, we can see the problem of resource time of benefit-cost analysis of the resource
development in a wider perspective: development project, only tangible cost of the
biophysical, economic, social, political, legal, production is analysed, while it must include
institutional and technological. Resource both tangible and intangible costs payable for
appraisal, development and utilisation should environmental reconstruction.
be seen and analysed from all these
perspectives.
RESOURCES AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Planning for Resource Development
Economic development is a complex
Resource development requires systematic process, and depends on a myriad of factors;
planning which consists of three components natural resources being one of them. As
given below: discussed earlier, the relationship between
Resource Inventory: It includes surveying, resour ce potentials and economic
mapping and measurement of characteristics development is not simple. At least three
and properties of natural resources. Inventory types of situation can be perceived in a
has obvious value for the resource global context to support this:
development planning, because before 1. Co-existence of vast resources and
making any decision concerning future economic backwardness as in most of
allocation of resources it is important to know African and Latin American countries and
the amount, quality and distribution along India itself.
with their present state of utilisation. 2. Highly developed without rich natural
Infor mation thus collected is used in resource potentials like Japan, United
planning. Kingdom and Switzerland.
3. Rich resource potential and highly
Evaluation: In this component information developed economies like the United
of resource survey is examined against States of America, Russian Federation,
technology, economy, ecology and society to and South Africa.
determine the possibility of development and
the short as well as the long term policies and In the initial stage of the economic
implications thereof. development, availability of local resources
matters a great deal. It may be said that
Development: The third component is economic activities begin with the utilisation
concerned with the activities necessary to of natural resources. Economists in general
convert the potential of a resource into reality accept the exploitation and export of
and actual use. resources as essential factor in economic
Resource allocation and development growth.
must aim at the optimum utilisation of It can be concluded that resources are
resources and maximisation of social benefits essential for development but merely their
with least deterioration of the ecosystem. But presence does not guarantee development.
in real life situations, individual development Rich regions and countries are capable of
priorities control the entire process of importing resources from outside. In this
resource development. Production of

context, resources can be classified into two
64

classes, viz., transferable and non- overuse, misuse, and untimely use.
transferable. Only non-transferable resources Conservation, seen as a responsible attitude
(such as land) are utilised for the development to natural resources, has a long history. It
of the region of their occurrences. Because of represents the coalescence of a number of
this fact, agriculture is well developed in interacting themes. It aims at the planned and
regions of good and very good land. Contrary harmonious interlocking of the cultural,
to it, transferable resources (such as minerals, socio-economic system on the one hand and
forest produces, etc.) are extracted and the natural system on the other.
exported to other areas for their processing The term ‘Resource Management’ is now
and ultimate use. used in place of ‘resource conservation’.
Natural resources are a kind of assets, Resource management emphasises the wise
which are double edged. They provide raw use of the resources aimed at meeting the
materials and energy for development; they current human needs without destroying the
also form part of the environment, which ecological balance and jeopardising the needs
influences health and vitality. Wise use of the of the future generations. It thus involves
resources is therefore essential for human policies or practices regarding how resources
survival and development. The key lies in are allocated under given conditions for
sustainable development, which Mahatma development. Resource management is defined
Gandhi advocated as early as in 1908. ‘as a process of decision-making whereby
Sustainable development refers to a resources are allocated over space and time
process of development wherein the quality according to the needs, aspirations and desires
of the environment is maintained and use of of human within the framework of his or her
exhaustible resources is so articulated that legal and administrative arrangements.
the total stock of all forms of wealth (including Resource management should be visualised
environmental wealth) must not be depleted. as a conscious process of decision involving
Many for ms of development er ode the judgement, preference and commitment,
environmental resources upon which they are where-by desired resource output are sought
based; which in turn, undermine present from certain perceived resource combinations
economic development and reduce future through the choice among various managerial,
possibilities drastically. Therefore, technical and administrative alternatives.’
sustainable development should keep in view Resource management should be conceived as
the stability of the ecosystem. With this view, the new dimension of conservation. It tends to
the International Union of Conservation of emphasise rationality over emotionalism,
Nature has defined sustainable development ethics over economics and ecology over
as ‘improving the quality of human life while engineering. The emphasis is upon flexibility
living within the carrying capacity of and the minimisation of long-ter m
supporting ecosystem. Thus, the question is environmental catastrophes, while maximising
not simply of sustenance of life but of good net social welfare over time. Resource
quality of life.
management, thus, involves strategies of
action in evolving computations of tactics and
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT methods and a variety of objectives. It is
becoming increasingly concerned with the
‘Conservation means the use of natural protection and enhancement of environmental
resources, frugally by and without wastage.’ quality and the establishment of new
Conservation is a philosophy that inspires guidelines for the public use of common
people to use resources prudently avoiding property as air, water, and landscape.
65

EXERCISES
Review Questions
1. Answer briefly the following questions:

(a) In how many ways man uses his environment?
(b) Define resources.
(c) Explain the functional theory of resources.
(d) How the neutral stuffs of the biophysical environment become resource?
(e) How far is it correct to say that resources are only natural substances?
(f ) Are resources only tangible things? If not, why?
(g) Discuss the recent changes in the concept of resources.
(h) Examine the concept of resource conservation.
(i) Why should resource management be conceived as resource conservation?
2. Examine the relationship between technological development and availability,
exploitability and renewability of resources.
3. Discuss the concept of sustainable development.
4. Describe the general situation of resource development in India.
5. Examine the relationship between resources and economic development.
(a) Human and cultural resources.
(b) Stock energy resources and flow energy resources.
(c) Resource conservation and resource management.
Project Work
7. (a) Prepare an inventory of natural resources available in your state/ union

territory.
(b) Suggest measures for their development.
66
&
CHAPTER
WATER RESOURCES
Water is essential for the existence of the biotic rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km
world including human beings. It is required each, spread over the whole country. The mean
nearly for all activities of humankind, and its annual flow is estimated to be 1,869 billion
requirement has increased phenomenally. cubic metres. However, because of the
The supply of usable water is however limited topographical, hydrological and other
and can be depleted or made unusable by constraints, only about 690 billion cubic
excessive utilisation, pollution or careless metres (32 per cent) of the available surface
management. Further, it is not available in water can be utilised. The Indus, the Ganga
the same quantity everywhere. There is and the Brahmaputra carry nearly 60 per cent
surplus water at one place and shortage at of the total. It is worth mentioning that the
the other. Under such conditions, Brahmaputra and the Ganga are within the first
coordination between demand and supply as ten major rivers of the world positioned at eighth
well as between different sources of water and tenth ranks respectively. The total flow of
resources is imperative. all rivers of India is about 6 per cent of the
discharge of all rivers in the world (Table 8.1).
Importance of Fresh Water
Table 8.1: India: River Basin-wise
Fresh water is a basic natural resource
Distribution of Usable Surface Water
essential to human, agricultural and
industrial activities. Run-off held in reservoirs River Annual Usable Storage
behind dams provide water supplies for run-off water capacity
villages and cities. When diverted from large (bcm) (bcm) (bcm)
rivers, it provides irrigation water for highly
productive plains. The other uses of river 1. Indus 73 46 14.52
water include the generation of hydro- 2. Ganga 501 250 37.40
electricity and in land navigation. 3. Brahmaputra 537 24 1.09
4. Godavari 119 76 17.27
5. Krishna 68 58 32.23
SOURCES OF WATER
6. Kaveri 21 19 7.25
There are four major sources of water – surface 7. Pennar 6.8 6.8 2.37
water, groundwater, atmospheric water and 8. Mahanadi 67 50 8.93
ocean water. The water on the earth surface is 9. Brahmani 36 18.1 4.29
derived from precipitation. All of it is not 10. Sabarmati 3.8 1.9 1.30
available for use because much of it is lost by
11. Mahi 11.8 3.1 4.16
evaporation; a good deal of it goes as run-off
to rivers, lakes and ponds. It is called ‘surface 12. Narmada 41 34.5 3.02
water’. And a small amount penetrates the soil 13. Tapi 18 14.5 8.68
to form ‘groundwater’. 14. Subarnarekha 10.8 — —
Surface Water: The surface water is found Total *
1869 690 —
in ponds, tanks, rivers, streams and reservoirs.
Rivers are major source of surface water in bcm = billion cubic metre
India. According to K.L. Rao, there are 10,360 * It includes other river basins also.

The effective storage capacity built or power generation, industries, transport,
under construction in India is about 147 sanitation, and recreation. Let us discuss
billion cubic metres (bcm). It was about 18 bcm some of these uses in greater details.
at the time of independence. It is 8.47 per cent
of the total flow in the basins. Irrigation
Groundwater : The replenishable groundwater Major use of water is for irrigation. Water is
potential in India is estimated at 433.9 billion used for irrigation in one form or the other.
cubic metres. Water percolates easily in the The Grand Anicut of the Kaveri was built in
alluvial soils and hence the potential of the the second century AD. Modern irrigation
groundwater development is high in the Great development started with the commissioning
Plains of India. Uttar Pradesh alone accounts of the Eastern Yamuna Canal in Uttar Pradesh
for 19.0 per cent of the estimated groundwater in 1831. In 1950 the total irrigated area was
potential. More than 42 per cent of the only 22.6 million hectares. Irrigation potential
potential is confined to states of the Great was increased after independence. The
Plains of north India. Contrary to it, seepage irrigated area amounted to 84.7 million
of water in the rocky lands of peninsular India hectares in 1999-2000.
is slow, resulting in low groundwater Major part of India being located in the
potential. However, because of their size tropical and sub-tropical region, the evapo
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil transpiration is high. As such, demand for
Nadu also have large potential of groundwater irrigation water is also high. The other factors
resources. that increase demand for irrigation are:
Of the total groundwater resources one 1. The distribution of rainfall is very uneven.
fourth is used for domestic, industrial and Large tracts of the country are deficient
related purposes and three-fourths for in rainfall throughout the year (Fig. 8.2).
irrigation. Only 37.23 percent of the total Northwester n India and the Deccan
available groundwater resources have so far plateau constitute such areas.
been developed in India. State-wise 2. The temporal distribution of rainfall is
percentage of developed groundwater uneven. Winter and summer seasons are
resources to total available potential ranges more or less dry in most part of the
from 1.07 per cent in Jammu and Kashmir country. Hence agriculture is not possible
to 98.34 per cent in Punjab. without assured irrigation during the dry
Those states and union territories where periods.
there is scarcity of surface water due to low 3. Rainfall is highly variable. As such
and highly variable rainfall have developed irrigation is essential even in areas with
their groundwater resources on large scale. sufficient rainfall. Without irrigation,
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, agriculture in India is reduced to a gamble
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are such in the hands of monsoon. Droughts are a
states (Fig. 8.1). There is need for the common phenomenon in the country.
development of groundwater resources in 4. Rainfall is also very uncertain. Not only
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, arrival and withdrawal of rainfall is
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Maharashtra uncertain but also its continuity, rhythm,
also where rainfall is comparatively and intensity. Only irrigation can provide
insufficient and variable. security to agriculture from such
fluctuations.
5. Water requirement of certain crops such
USES OF WATER as rice, sugarcane, jute, etc. is
comparatively high which can be met only
Water has multiple and competitive uses. through irrigation.

Among the economic uses of water, irrigation 6. High yielding crops need regular moisture
is of vital significance. Water is also used in supply. Because of this fact, the impact
68
Water Resources


Fig. 8.1 Utilisation of Potential Ground Water
69


Fig. 8.2 India: Water Scarcity Area
70
Water Resources

of Green Revolution has been very high in the northeast irrigate more than 40 per cent of
regions with developed irrigation facilities. their net cropped area.
7. Since growing period of crops in India States with moderate proportion (30 to 40
extends through out the year. Provision per cent) of net irrigated area for m a
of irrigation can make multiple cropping continuous belt, extending from Rajasthan in
possible. the west to West Bengal in the east. Most of
8. Productivity of agriculture is definitely these states need irrigation facilities all
higher on irrigated land than on through the year.
unirrigated land. Therefore, extending States with low (20 to 30 per cent) and
irrigation facilities can increase production very low (less than 20 per cent) proportion of
and productivity of crops. It also reduces net irrigated area encompass all the north-
instability in yields. easter n states where topography is
mountainous and rainfall high and Deccan
Distribution of Irrigated Area
plateau and Malabar coast, where water
State-wise distribution of irrigated area in resources are limited and not fully tapped.
India is very uneven. In absolute terms, it The intra-state variation in irrigated area
ranges from only 7 thousand hectares in is equally wide. For example, most of the
Mizoram to 11,999 thousand hectares in irrigated area of Andhra Pradesh is confined
Uttar Pradesh (1996-97). More than one- to the lower reaches of the Godavari-Krishna
fourth (27.8 per cent) of total net irrigated rivers and other coastal districts. Similar is
area of the country is concentrated in Uttar the case with Orissa and other states of the
Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Irrigated country.
area is more than 5 million hectares in
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan each, and Sources of Irrigation
these states comprise nearly half (49.5 per There are three major sources of irrigation in
cent) of the net irrigated area of the country. India. They are (a) canals, (b) wells and tube-
Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar and Gujarat wells, and (c) Tanks. Relative importance of
each have 3 to 5 million hectares. Thus, more each source changed through time. Canals
than three-fourths (76.53 per cent) of were the major source of irrigation until 1950,
irrigated area is confined to these seven claiming 39.9 per cent of the net irrigated area
states. in the country. Since then the irrigated area
A different picture emerges when net under canal irrigation increased, but its share
irrigated area is viewed as the per cent of net declined to 31.1 per cent in 1996-97. With
cropped area of each state. It varies from only the introduction of diesel and electric
6.4 per cent in Mizoram to 92.9 per cent in pumping sets, well and tubewell-irrigated
Punjab (Fig.8.3). Proportion of net irrigated areas increased from 5.9 million hectares in
area is more than 40 per cent in eight states. 1950-51 to 30.8 million hectares in 1996-97,
Punjab is at the top in proportion of irrigated recording more than five-fold increase.
area followed by the neighbouring state of Consequently, proportion of well and tube well
Haryana. In Uttar Pradesh (including
irrigated areas increased from 28.7 per cent
Uttaranchal) more than two-thirds (68.7 per
to 55.9 during this period (Fig. 8.4). Thus,
cent) of the net cropped area is irrigated. Bihar
tank irrigation lost its significance both
(including Jharkhand) (49.4 per cent), and
absolutely and relatively (Table 8.2).
Jammu and Kashmir also fall in this class.
Thus, the northern plains constitute the most Canal Irrigation: Canals irrigated 17.35
important irrigated tract in the country. These million hectares in 1996-97. More than half
plains have several natural facilities for (52.5 per cent) of this area is confined to the
development of irrigation. Tamil Nadu and states of the northern Great Plains. In terms

Andhra Pradesh in the south and Manipur in of share in total net irrigated area of each
71

E
N N
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
MYANMAR
N N

Fig. 8.3 India: Net Sown Area under Irrigation, 1997-98
72
Water Resources

Table 8.2: India: Growth in Irrigated Area by different Sources, 1950-1997
(Area in million hectares)
Year Canals Tanks Wells and Other Total Net Gross Irrigated NIA as GIA as
Tubewells Sources Irrigated Area Area % of NSA % of NSA
1950-51 8.3 3.6 5.9 3.0 20.8 22.6 17.5 17.0

(39.8) (17.3) (28.7) (14.2) (100) (108.7)
1970-71 12.5 4.5 11.8 2.4 31.2 38.2 22.2 23.0
(39.9) (14.5) (37.7) (7.9) (100) (122.4)
1990-91 17.4 2.9 24.7 2.9 48.0 63.2 33.8 34.0
(36.3) (6.1) (51.5) (6.1) (100) (131.7)
1996-97 17.4 3.3 30.8 3.6 55.1 73.3 38.6 38.7
(31.4) (6.1) (55.9) (6.6) (100) (133.0)
Note: Figures within brackets show percentage to total Net Irrigated Area (NIA).
NSA: Net Sown Area, GIA: Gross Irrigated Area, GCA: Gross Cultivated Area
INDIA The northern Great Plains have elaborate

NET AREA UNDER IRRIGATION BY DIFFERENT system of canals. Important canals in Punjab-
MEANS (1997-98)
Haryana are Upper Bari Doab, Bist Doab,
OTHER SOURCES Sirhind, Indira Gandhi, Bhakra and Western
7% Yamuna canals. Rajasthan has more area
CANALS (GOVT.)
under canal irrigation than Punjab. The Indira
30%
Gandhi canal, Bikaner canal and canals of
the Chambal project are major ones in the
state.
Canals in Uttar Pradesh include the
Eastern Yamuna canal, the Upper, Lower, and
CANALS
Middle Ganga canals, Sharda canal,
(PRIVATE) Ramganga canal and Betwa canal. In Bihar
1% important canals are the Eastern Kosi,
Eastern Gandak and the Son. Canals irrigate
TANKS
TUBEWELLS & 6% more than 7 lakh hectares in West Bengal.
OTHER WELLS Major canals of the state are Damodar Valley,
56%
Mayurakshi and Kangsbati.
In south, canal irrigation is very significant
Fig. 8.4 Net Area under Irrigation by Sources
in Andhra Pradesh. The Godavari, Krishna
and Tungabhadra rivers have been dammed
state, canal irrigation is very important in
and canals been taken off from them. The
Jammu and Kashmir (90.7 per cent), Assam
canals of the Nizamsagar, Nagarjunsagar and
(63.3 per cent), Tripura (60 per cent), and
Tungabhadra projects and of the Krishna and
important in Haryana (49.8 per cent), Orissa
Godavari deltas are major ones. In Orissa,
(45.4 per cent), Karnataka (39.5 per cent),
canals of the Hirakud dam and of Mahanadi
West Bengal (37.5 per cent), Andhra Pradesh
delta are worth mentioning. Karnataka has
(37.0 per cent) and Punjab (35.2 per cent).
undertaken a number of irrigation projects.
Other states with significant share of canal
Canals of the Tungabhadra, Malprabha,
irrigated areas are Bihar, Kerala, Madhya
Ghatprabha, Bhadra and Upper Krishna
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Uttar
projects irrigate extensive areas. In Tamil
Pradesh. Mizoram, the least irrigated state,

Nadu, nearly one-third of net irrigated area
is solely dependent on canals.
73

(30.5 per cent) is under canal irrigation. The supply and sanitation systems to both rural
Kaveri delta has a well-developed network of and urban settlements. Only 62.72 per cent
canals. The canals of the Grand Anicut, of the households had access to safe drinking
Mettur dam, Lower Bhavani project, Palar, water in the country in 1991. The percentage
Vaigai, Manimuthai and Kodaiyar projects are however varied from 55.92 in rural to 81.59
also important. in towns. During Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-
97) Accelerated Urban Water Supply
Well and Tube-wells: These are also very
Programme (AUWSP) was launched to provide
popular source of irrigation in the alluvial
plains of north India where groundwater is water to towns with population of less than
plentiful and construction of wells and tube- 20,000. The drinking water requirements of
wells easy. These sources predominate in most of the big cities of India are met from
Gujarat (78.4 per cent of net irrigated area), artificial reservoirs.
Uttar Pradesh (70.5 per cent), Goa (69.6 per In rural areas, water for domestic purposes
cent), Rajasthan (67.9 per cent), Punjab (61.3 is obtained from groundwater resources. In
per cent) and Maharashtra (61.2 per cent). In 1972 more than one-fourth of all villages in
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Tamil Nadu India were classified as problem villages from
and Orissa, wells and tube-wells provides water supply point of view. The Ninth Plan
water to 40 to 55 per cent of net irrigated area. envisaged provision of potable water to every
settlement in the country on a sustainable
Tank Irrigation: Significance of tanks as basis. But even today each and every village
source of irrigation has declined and now only of India has not been provided with safe
6.1 per cent of net irrigated crops get water potable water.
from tanks. It is easier to construct tanks in
the undulating peninsular India. Tank Industrial Uses
irrigation is therefore confined to the southern
Adequate availability of water is a prerequisite
states. Largest net irrigated area by tanks is
for industrial development. The Second
844 thousand hectares in Andhra Pradesh,
Irrigation Commission in their report of 1972
but in terms of percentage of net irrigated area
recommended a provision of 50 bcm for
Tamil Nadu is at the top where 21.6 per cent
industrial purposes. However, a recent
of net irrigated area gets water from tanks.
estimate indicates that the requirement for
Tank irrigation is also important in Orissa,
industrial uses during 2000 would be about
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and West
30 bcm while it will rise to 120 bcm by 2025.
Bengal.
Generation of Hydel Power PROBLEMS OF WATER RESOURCES

India has a vast potential for hydel power
generation. According to the estimates of the Water resource problems are multifaceted.
Central Electricity Authority, the hydel power They pertain to availability, use, quality and
potential at 60 per cent load factor in the management. If the present pattern and pace
country is 84,000 MW which is equivalent to of use continues, India will face a critical
about 450 billion units of annual energy shortage of water of suitable quality to meet
generation. future needs.
Problems of Availability: Total amount of
Domestic Water Supply
surface water supply is estimated at 1869
The National Water Policy has assigned bcm only. Of this, 690 bcm is available for
highest priority for drinking water supply, utilisation. Adding to it 450 bcm of
followed by irrigation, hydel power, navigation groundwater a total comes to 1140 bcm of
and industrial and other uses. Efforts have water, which is available for utilisation. A

therefore been made to extend drinking water conservative estimate of water demand in
74
Water Resources

2025 is 1050 bcm. Therefore, in absolute is wide regional variation in irrigation facilities.
terms there would be no shortage of water in To meet the irrigational needs of regions with
the country. We cannot however ignore the acute scarcity, inter-basin water transfer has
fact that per capita availability of water has now been planned. But such projects involve
come down from 5514 cu m in 1951 to 1829 construction of large and medium size dams,
cu m in 2001. As noted earlier, the above which submerge large areas of available land
national estimates are very much modified at and displace people from their original
regional levels. Water resources are in excess habitats. It is, therefore, preferable to develop
in certain regions and deficit in the others. minor irrigation projects.
Regions of moisture deficiency throughout the Irrigation by wells and tubewells has
year comprise the state of Rajasthan, western increased very rapidly in recent years. It has
and southwestern parts of the Punjab and caused lowering of the water table and
Haryana plains, western Gujarat and the depletion of groundwater resources. One
leeward slopes of the Western Ghats. hundred and fourteen districts in 10 states,
Similarly, seasonal variations also create such as Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Karnataka,
problem of water supply. Even in regions of Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and
high rainfall, precipitation is usually Uttar Pradesh have been declared over -
concentrated in a few months. Consequently, exploited and dark districts.
major part of the year experiences water Low efficiency of water use is another
scarcity. Along with this, annual and seasonal serious problem. Efficiency of utilisation is
rainfall is highly variable which also estimated to be only 38-40 per cent for canal
necessitates judicious utilisation, conservation irrigation and 60 per cent for groundwater
and management of potential water resources. irrigation schemes. A 10 per cent improvement
Thus, in spite of balanced position in demand in the present level of water use efficiency,
and supply of water at the national level, the would irrigate 14 million hectares of additional
regional and seasonal availability of water in land.
the country is not favourable.
Problems of Quality: Water pollution is a
Problems of Utilisation: Drinking water major problem in India. The major sources of
supply and sanitation constitute basic water pollution are domestic wastewater,
necessity of life; it is also crucial for achieving industrial wastewater and effluents and
the goal of ‘health for all’. Despite the efforts chemicals used in agricultural operations.
to extend drinking water facilities to people, Three-fourths of surface water resources of
there are many gaps. About 90 per cent of India are polluted and 80 per cent of pollution
the towns have potable water supply, the is caused by sewage. It is estimated that more
quantity and quality of the water supplied than 12,000 million litres per day (mld) of
however, is below the norms set for the wastewater is generated in Class I cities and
purpose. The slums and squatter settlements about 1,300 mld from Class II towns. The
are generally deprived of basic facilities. municipal wastewater is discharged either in
Condition of potable water in rural areas is open space or into streams directly without
more deplorable. The National Council of adequate treatment. Urban-based industries
Applied Economic Research estimated (1994) produce large quantity of solid waste, liquid
that about half of the villages in India do not waste, poisonous gases, chemical residuals,
have any sources of protected drinking water. dust, smoke, etc. Most of these industrial
As a result, a large percentage of people suffer wastes are disposed off in running water.
from water-borne diseases. Consequently, poisonous elements reach
About 68 per cent of the total ultimate reservoirs, rivers and other water bodies,
irrigation potential has already been which destroy the bio-system of these waters.
developed. Yet, nearly two-thirds of the The dimension of discharge of industrial
cropped area of the country is rain fed. There
75
effluents can be guessed from the fact that

150 leather factories located in Kanpur of hand pumps, construction of percolation
metropolitan area, discharge more than 5.8 pits, trenches around fields, and bunds and
million litres of wastewater in the Ganga river stop dams on small rivulets (Fig. 8.5).
every day. River pollution from city based Such techniques are not new to the
industries and untreated sewage can lead to country. Rainwater has been harvested in India
serious health problems downstream. since antiquity. There are evidences of
Indiscriminate use of fertilisers and various advanced water harvesting systems like canals,
agrochemicals has further contributed to the tanks, embankments and wells. In hills and
deterioration of surface and groundwater. The mountains, rainwater harvesting from rooftops
residuals of fertilisers and other chemicals and springs was carried over long distances
reach the water bodies and contaminate them. with the help of bamboo pipe. In arid and
In certain areas, natural contaminants such semiarid regions, structures like wells and
as fluoride, arsenic and salinity are high, step-wells were built to tap groundwater
posing serious problems for health. aquifers. Rainwater harvesting from rooftops
used artificially created catchments, which
drained water into artificial ‘kunds’ in
CONSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES
Rajasthan. Construction of tanks throughout
the country has been very popular measure of
In the view of the shortage of water, its uneven
conserving rainwater. Renovation and
distribution in space and season, growing
modernisation of these structures will not only
demand and rapid degradation, it has become
increase the recharge but also the efficiency
imperative to conserve the water resources.
of water use for various purposes.
The first step in this direction is to collect
the rainwater and stop it from draining off. Watershed Development: Watershed is
Second step consists of scientifically geographic area that drains to a common
managing the water resources of all the river point, which makes it an ideal planning unit
watersheds — minor to major. And the third for conservation of soil and water. It may
step calls for keeping the water unpolluted. comprise one or several villages; contain both
Rainwater Harvesting: It is a technique of arable and non-arable lands, various
increasing the recharge of groundwater by categories of land holding and farmers. The
capturing and storing rainwater locally in sub- watershed approach enables a holistic
sur face water reservoirs to meet the development of agriculture and allied activities,
household needs. Objectives of the rainwater such as horticulture, agro-forestry and, silvi-
harvesting are to: culture (forests).
1. meet the ever increasing demand for
water, Sukhomajri in Haryana
2. reduce the run-off which chokes drains, Sukhomajri village in Ambala district of
3. avoid the flooding of roads, Haryana has earned a nationwide acclaim
4. augment the groundwater storage and for the way in which the people of the village
raise the water table, have used their forest and water. It has
5. reduce groundwater pollution, become a model of community participation
management. Silting up of Sukhna lake
6. improve the quality of groundwater,
near Chandigarh led to water shortage in
7. reduce the soil erosion, and the village. Four check dams were
8. supplement domestic water requirement constructed and trees planted in the
during summer and drought. catchments area of the lake. This raised the
Several low cost techniques are available water level in the village. The income from
to recharge the groundwater aquifers. Among cutting of bhabhar grass and harvesting of
them mention may be made of roof water mungri or forage grass has changed the

face of the village.
harvesting, refilling of dug wells, recharging
76
Water Resources

RECHARGE THROUGH HAND PUMP RECHARGE THROUGH ABANDONED DUGWELL
(a) (b)
RECHARGE THROUGH TRENCH SECTION OF CEMENT NALA BUND
(c) (d)

Fig. 8.5 Water Harvesting
77

Watershed development programme in agricultural production, to stop ecological
India is implemented by the Ministries of degradation in rain fed and resource-poor
Agriculture, Rural development, and areas. At the same time it improves the level
Environment and Forests. of living of the people. The importance of
From the above, it is clear that the watershed management can be gauged from
watershed approach is an important means the experiences of the Sukhomajri village of
to conserve water resources to increase Haryana (Fig. 8.6).
Sukhomajri, the Sukhna lake and its watershed
Shiwalik hills
Fig. 8.6 Watershed Development Model of Sukhomajri, Haryana
Majhgawan Watershed Development Programme
Majhgawana (12,536 hectares) in Satna district of Madhya Pradesh was known

for low productivity, lack of irrigation, a receding water table, shortage of drinking
water and soil erosion. Before 1996, water was a rare commodity especially in
summer. Agriculture used to suffer and humans and cattle lived in distress. There
was not a single tubewell in the village.
After the adoption of the watershed schemes, trenches were excavated and
bunds were erected to check the water’s free flow. This led to plenty of percolated
water, which raised its sub-soil level. Water behind the earthern bunds now
irrigates 1504 hectares of land and people have enough drinking water round
the year. Productivity has increased by 52 to 60 per cent in paddy and 40 per
cent in wheat.
78
Water Resources

EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) What are the major water resources?
(b) Describe the distribution of the potential surface water resources in India.
(c) Why is the Great Plains of India rich in groundwater resources?
(d) What are the principal uses of water?
(e) Why is irrigation more developed in the Great Plains than in peninsular India?
( f ) Why should water resources be conserved?
(g) What are the different techniques of rainwater harvesting?
(h) Trace the changes in relative significance of various means of irrigation in the
country.
( i ) Examine the water supply situation in urban and rural areas of India.
2. Discuss the potential water resources of India.
3. Why is irrigation necessary in India?
4. Describe the distribution of irrigation in the country, giving reasons for the regional
variations.
5. What are the major problems in the development of water resources in the country?
6. Assess the utility and workability of the watershed development programmes in
India.
7. Distinguish between
(a) Surface water and groundwater.
(b) Hydrological characteristics of north Indian and south Indian rivers.
(c) Irrigation potential created and potential utilised.
(d) Major and minor irrigation projects.
Project Work
8. Find out various uses of water in your locality. Identify misuses of water and
suggest measures for their control.
79
'
CHAPTER
AGRICULTURE
The term agriculture has been derived from cent of the geographical area of the country
two Latin words: ager meaning ‘land’ and is currently under cultivation as against only
cultura meaning ‘cultivation’. Agriculture thus 36.1 per cent in 1950-51 (Fig. 9.1). About 23.4
means cultivation of land and rearing of million hectares are classified as fallow lands
animals. which constitute 7.6 per cent of the reported
We, however, know that all lands are not area. Thus, India has more than half of the
suitable for cultivation. For crop raising land total area under cultivation. It is pertinent to
must be level, covered with fertile soils and note that India stands seventh in the world
have adequate rainfall and favourable in terms of total geographical area but second
temperature. How man uses land also in terms of cultivated land. The first being
depends on the technology, tenure, and size the United States of America, which is two
of the holdings, government policies and and half times larger than India in land area.
several other infrastructural factors. Proportion of net sown area to total
geographical area varies from state to state.
Arunachal Pradesh has only 3.2 per cent,
AGRICULTURAL LAND USE
while Haryana and Punjab have 82.20 per
cent each (Fig. 9.2). The alluvial Satluj-Ganga
India is an agricultural country not so much plains, Gujarat plains, Kathiawar plateau,
because agriculture gives more income than Maharashtra plateau and West Bengal basin
other activities, but because 70 per cent of are highly cultivated areas. Such a high
the people depend for their livelihood on proportion of cultivated land owes to the
agriculture. Agriculture contributes 26 per gently sloping lands covered with fertile and
cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It easily workable alluvial and black soils,
ensures food security for the country and climate favouring cereal culture, excellent
produces several raw materials for industries. irrigation facilities and high population
National security and prosperity are closely pressure. The mountainous or hilly areas and
linked with agriculture. the drier belts where relief, climate and soils
Agricultural land means ‘cultivated area’ are not favourable to farming are not so widely
– it includes net cropped area and fallow cultivated.
lands. Cropped area in the year under Forests cover one-fifth (68.97 million
consideration is called net sown area. The hectares) of the total area of India. In principle,
gross cultivated area includes net sown area at least one-third of the total area should be
plus the portion of net sown area used more under forest cover to maintain the ecosystem.
than once in a year. Fallow land includes the The forests are confined to the hilly,
land out of cultivation for one to five years. mountainous and dissected areas. About 5.8
Land utilisation statistics are available for per cent of the land surface is barren and
92.8 per cent of total geographical area physically uncultivable. Permanent pastures
(328.73 million hectares) of India. The net occupy 3.63 per cent of total area while 4.56
sown area was 118.7 million hectares in per cent area is classed as culturable wastes,
1950-51; it increased to 142.60 million which can be brought under cultivation with
hectares in 1998-99. Thus, about 46.59 per efforts. Another 13.84 per cent of area is used
Agriculture

1950-51 1998-99
Fig. 9.1 India: Land Use 1950-51 and 1998-99
for non-agricultural purposes such as Crop intensity varies from 100 per cent
housing, industry, roads, railways, etc. in Mizoram to 189 per cent in Punjab
(1996-97). Next to Punjab is Himachal
Intensity of Cropping Pradesh (170 %), followed by Haryana(168%),
Agricultural production and productivity, can West Bengal (166%) and Uttar Pradesh
be increased in two ways; by expanding the (150%). It is higher than the national average
cropped area and by increasing the intensity in Jammu and Kashmir, Assam, Manipur,
of cropping. Since much of the physically Sikkim, Bihar and Orissa (Fig. 9.3). It is low
suitable land for cultivation is already under and very low in the states of Peninsular
plough, there is little scope for expansion of plateaus. The densely populated northern
net sown area. The only alternative left is the plains, coastal plains and deltas, which are
intensification of cropping. The intensity of irrigated or are favoured by sufficient rainfall,
cropping refers to the number of crops raised are marked with high intensity of cropping.
Very low and low intensities predominate in
on a field during an agricultural year. The total
the hilly, arid, semi-arid and semi-humid
cropped area as percentage of the net sown
lands of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
area gives a measure of cropping intensity.
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and north eastern
In 1996-97, total cropped area was 189.5
hilly states where soils are light or heavy and
million hectares and net sown area was 142.8
irrigation facilities are absent or negligible.
million hectares. Thus intensity of cropping
Irrigation appears to be the principal
 Total cropped area  determinant of the intensity of cropping. More
 × 100  comes to 132.7 than 94 per cent of total cropped area is
 Net sown area  irrigated in Punjab (1996-97); its intensity of
per cent. It reached 135 per cent in 2000-01.
81
cropping is also very high. Workability and

E
N N
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
N N

Fig. 9.2 India: Pattern of Net Sown Areas
82
Agriculture


Fig. 9.3 India: Intensity of Cropping
83

fertility of soils and pressure of population husbandry along with crop farming. Now, the
also exert influence on the intensity of scenario has entirely changed. Owing to
cropping. Modern high yielding crops helped increasing pressure of population, land under
a lot in intensification of cropping. grasses is being used for raising of crops.
Government has undertaken several
Wetland and Dry Land Farming schemes such as the Integrated Rural
When rain water is the only source of Development Programme, the Drought-prone
moisture for the crops, it is termed as rain Areas Development Programme, the Food for
fed agriculture or dry land farming. The two Work and Employment Guarantee
ter ms ar e not, however, synonymous. Programme, etc. to improve the lots of the
Farming in regions with less than 750 mm rural poor in the dry land areas. These
annual rainfall is called dry land farming and programmes have infused some economic
the one in regions with more than 750 mm stability but the fundamental problems have
annual rainfall is called wetland agriculture. remained unsolved.
The dry land farming requires practices Recurring miseries of dry land farmers can
which help to conserve rain water, moderate be moderated only by the introduction of
the effects of drought-like conditions that quick-maturing crops, new techniques, soil
often prevail between two spells of rain. moisture conservation, animal based activities
About one-third of the Indian agriculture and small scale industries. The International
belongs to dry land category. In wetland Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
regions water is available in access of crop Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, Hyderabad,
needs during the rainy season. This surplus and the Central Arid Zone Research Institute
water is stored for irrigating crops and (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan have taken up
ground water recharge. some of these issues.
Indian agriculture is still dependent on
Cropping Pattern
rains. Out of the net cropped area of 142.82
million hectares (in 1996-97), only 55.14 Crops are broadly put into two groups, viz.,
million hectares (38.5 %) are irrigated. Coarse food crops and non-food crops. Food crops
cereals and millets, pulses, oilseeds and in turn are classified into three sub-groups:
cotton are the principal rain fed crops. (i) cereals and millets, (ii) pulses, and (iii) fruits
The dry land farmer is confronted with a and vegetables (usually called horticultural
multitude of problems. Soil and rain water crops). Cereals, millets and pulses are
are the key resources of dry land farming. collectively known as food-grains. Among
Soils are extensively damaged. Long periods non-food crops, oilseeds, fibre crops, several
of aridity, and uncontrolled grazing destroy plantation crops and forage crops are
the vegetative cover. Bare lands suffer from important.
erosion of one kind or the other. The top Production of food-grains increased from
humus rich soils are removed, leaving shallow 50.83 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 195.9
infertile soils behind. Rain is the only source million tonnes in 2000-01. Consequently,
of water for dry land crops. It is insufficient per capita availability of food-grains per day
in amount and highly variable. Therefore, rain increased from about 395 gm in 1951 to
water conservation and management are 417 gm in 2001. Among the food-grains,
critical in dry land farming. production of cereals and millets increased
Dry farming areas are inhabited by the very rapidly, from 42.4 million tonnes in
poor segments of rural population; they are 1950-51 to 185.2 million tonnes in
not able to invest in inputs necessary for 2000-01. But output of protein rich pulses
neutralising the effect of soil infertility and grew very sluggishly, from 8.41 million
water paucity. To get over these problems, tonnes to only 10.7 million tonnes during

farmers in the past resorted to animal this period. Per capita availability of pulses
84
Agriculture

Table 9.1: India : Trend of Area and Production of Major Crops, 1950-51 and 2000-01
Crop 1950-51 2000-01

Area Production Yield Area Production Yield
Rice 30.81 20.58 668 44.3 84.9 1913

Wheat 09.75 06.46 663 25.1 68.7 2743
Jowar 15.57 5.50 353 10.0 7.7 772
Bajra 9.00 2.60 288 9.8 7.1 719
Maize 3.16 1.71 547 6.6 12.1 1841
All Cereals and 78.23 42.41 642 99.8 195.2 2622
Millets
Gram 7.57 3.65 482 4.9 3.5 720
Tur 2.2 1.72 790 3.7 2.3 616
Total Pulses 19.09 8.41 441 20.0 10.7 533
All Food-grains 97.32 50.83 522 119.8 195.9 1636
Groundnut 4.49 3.48 775 6.7 6.2 924
Rape-Mustard 2.07 0.76 368 4.5 4.2 941
Total Oilseeds 10.73 5.16 481 22.3 18.4 826
Sugarcane 1.71 57.05 — 4.3 299.2 —
Cotton* 5.88 3.04 88 8.6 9.7 191
Jute@ 0.57 3.31 1043 0.8 9.3 2014
Tea 0.31 0.3 880 0.4 0.85 850
Coffee 0.1 0.03 300 0.3 0.3 959
Rubber 0.58 0.01 340 0.6 0.6 1576
Area in million hectares; Production in million tonnes; Yield in Kg/ha

*Production in million bales of 170 kg each.@ Production in million bales of 180 kg each
Sources: (i) Economic Survey 2001-2002, (ii) India-2002.
came down from 63.8 grams in 1950-51 to

DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR CROPS
28.5 grams in 2000-01 (Table 9.1).
Among non-food crops, oilseeds, jute and
cotton registered slow and halting progress. Distribution of crops is broadly controlled by
However, the production of oilseeds increased the climatic conditions. But optimum climatic
phenomenally from 5.16 million tonnes in conditions for each crop are different. Nature
1950-51 to 24.7 million tonnes in 1998-99. It of terrain and soils also influence the selection
declined to 18.4 million tonnes in 2000-01. of crops. Besides these physical factors, a host
Similarly, production of cotton rose from 3.0 of social, economic and institutional factors
million bales in 1950-51 to 9.7 million bales such as size and ownership of holdings,
in 2000-01. Tea production reached to 848 technological development, gover nment
thousand tonnes in 2000-01 from only 278.2 policies etc. also influence agriculture.
thousand tonnes in 1950. Production of coffee Because of variation in these conditions
reached 30l thousand tonnes and of natural within India, different crops are grown in the

rubber to 630 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. different parts of the country.
85

In India, climatic conditions are such that and Tarai areas of Uttaranchal. More than 90
crops can be grown throughout the year, if per cent of rice cropped area in Andhra
adequate moisture were available. There are Pradesh, Punjab and Tamil Nadu is irrigated.
three crop seasons in the country: kharif, rabi West Bengal is the largest rice producing
and zaid. Southwest monsoon season (mainly state, contributing to more than 14.6 per cent
in north India) is called kharif season, in of rice production in the country. Climatic
which crops requiring high humidity and high factors are so favourable that West Bengal
temperature are grown. Major kharif crops produces three rice crops in a year: Aus,
are rice, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, Aaman and Boro. Uttar Pradesh and Andhra
cotton, jute, sesamum, groundnut, soyabean, Pradesh stand second and third, respectively.
etc. Winter season is known as rabi season; Area and production of rice in major states of
important crops of this season are wheat, India are given in Table 9.2.
barley, jowar, rape and mustard, linseed, Wheat: Wheat ranks second in terms of area
lentil and gram. Zaid is the summer cropping and production after rice in the country. It is
season and crops requiring high temperature the chief rabi crop grown in drier parts of
are grown with the help of irrigation. Water- northwestern India. Area and production of
melon, melon, cucumber, vegetables etc. are wheat recorded phenomenal increase three
important zaid crops. India, thus can grow fold during the last five decades. Area under
crops of both tropical and temperate regions. wheat increased from 9.7 million hectares in
However, there are marked areas of 1950-51 to 25.0 million hectares in 2000-01,
concentration of crops. and wheat production recorded eleven-fold
increase, from 6.5 million tonnes to 68.8
Food Crops million tonnes during the same period. Such
Rice: It is the first ranking crop in the country. phenomenal increase in production is mainly
Its production was 84.9 million tonnes in due to increasing yield of wheat from 663
2000-01. It was only 20.60 tonnes in 1950-51. kg/ha to 2743 kg/ha during the period.
About 23 per cent (44.4 million hectare) of Wheat has benefited most from the ‘Green
the total cropped area is under rice Revolution’ in the country. About 90.6 per
cultivation. India ranks second in rice cent of the cropped area under wheat was
production in the world, contributing to about sown with high yielding varieties in 1994-95,
21.5 per cent of the world production. Though and more than 85 per cent of the cropped
the area devoted to rice is largest in the world, area is irrigated (1997-98).
in production it is next to China. Rice yield is Wheat is grown under a variety of soil and
climatic conditions in India. It does not require
1913 kg/ha; in China it is 6331 kg/ha (1997).
high rainfall not more than 75 cm per annum,
Even though per hectare yield of rice
but the soil moisture should be sufficient for
increased from 668 kg in 1950-51 to 1913
the plant growth. The crop is irrigated to get
kg in 2000-01, there is vast scope for further
a good harvest. There are two important wheat
increase to at least 3,000 kg/ha.
zones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj plain
Rice cultivation is common in regions with in the northwest and the Deccan black soil
annual rainfall between 125 cm and 200 cm region in the central part (Fig. 9.5).
and temperature above 23°C. Areas with lower Wheat is sown in October-November, after
rainfall but higher temperatures also are good the withdrawal of the southwest monsoon and
for rice provided that irrigation facilities are is harvested in March-April. Loamy soil of the
available. However, major areas of north western plain is suitable for wheat
concentration are north-eastern hilly and cultivation. Winter cyclonic rainfall occurring
mountainous regions, Ganga plains and its in northern India, is beneficial for this crop.
delta, east coast plains, eastern peninsular Because of the irrigation facilities new and
plateaus and west coast plains (Fig. 9.4). Rice hybrid varieties of wheat is grown in the north-
cultivation is increasing in Punjab, Haryana
86
western plain. These developments made
Agriculture

E
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MINOR
N N

Fig. 9.4 India: Rice Growing Areas
87

Table 9.2: India: Area and Production of Rice in Major States, 2000-01
States Area (000 ha) (% of total) Production (000 tones) (% of total)
West Bengal 5435 12.3 12428 14.6

Uttar Pradesh 5839 13.2 11540 13.6
Andhra Pradesh 4028 9.1 11448 13.5
Punjab 2611 5.9 9154 10.8
Tamil Nadu 2113 4.8 7218 8.5
Bihar 3671 8.3 5417 6.4
Orissa 4434 10.0 4614 5.4
Assam 2675 6.0 3999 4.7
Karnataka 1482 3.3 3734 4.4
Chhattisgarh 3598 8.1 3238 3.8
Haryana 1049 2.4 2684 3.2
INDIA 44359 100.0 84871 100.0
Punjab and Haryana wheat land of the country. Jowar: Jowar ranks third in area among food-
Western and central Madhya Pradesh, eastern grains. Jowar can be grown in semi-arid and
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra form the arid areas having rainfall under 45 cm. High
second major wheat producing area. Black soils temperature is necessary for its growth. It is
of this region retain moisture which help in generally grown on poor soils and in
wheat cultivation.
precarious rainfall zones.
Uttar Pradesh is the largest wheat
Jowar is both kharif and rabi crop. About
producing state in the country. It produced
24.9 million tonnes (or 36.3 % of the national 10.0 million hectares (5.2 %) are devoted to
output) in 2000-01. Punjab stands second. this crop in India. In recent years, soyabean
Area and production of wheat in major states and wheat have encroached upon traditional
of India are given in Table 9.3. jowar land. As a result, area under jowar
Table 9.3: India: Area and Production of Wheat in Major States, 2000-01
States Area Production

(000 ha) % (000 tones) %
Uttar Pradesh 9170 36.6 24940 36.3

Punjab 3408 13.6 15551 22.6
Haryana 2349 9.4 9651 14.0
Rajasthan 2310 9.2 5554 8.1
Bihar 2108 8.4 4497 6.5
Madhya Pradesh 2688 10.7 3887 5.7
West Bengal 426 1.7 1059 1.5
Maharashtra 754 3.0 948 1.4
INDIA 25068

100.0
88
68763 100.0
Agriculture

E
N
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MINOR
N N

Fig. 9.5 India: Wheat Growing Areas
89

declined. Thanks to the hybrid seeds, its Andhra Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
production increased from 5.5 million tonnes Gujarat, and Himachal Pradesh are other
to 7.7 million tonnes during 1950-51 and producers.
2000-01.
Pulses: Pulses are the main source of protein
Jowar is grown throughout the peninsular
in Indian diet. They are leguminous crops and
India, but its notable concentration is on
enhance soil fertility by utilising nitrogen from
heavy or medium black soils and in regions
air. Pulses need less moisture and survive
with annual rainfall under 100 cm. Half (50.1
even in dry conditions. Tur (pigeon pea), urad
%) of the jowar cropped area of the country is
(black gram), moong (green gram), and moth
in Maharashtra, which produced more than
(brown gram) are major kharif crops and
half (51.7%) of its production in the country
gram, peas, tur, masoor (lentil) and urad are
in 2000-01. Karnataka (21.2%), Andhra
rabi crops. Cropped area of pulses has
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh
increased marginally from 19.09 million
are also major jowar producers.
hectares in 1950-51 to 20.0 million hectares
Bajra: Bajra, an inferior millet crop, is grown in 2000-01, So has their production from 8.4
on lighter soils and drier conditions than million tonnes to 10.7 million tonnes.
jowar, and therefore, does well on well drained
sandy loam soils and shallow black soils. Gram: Gram is the principal pulse crop in
Marusthali and Aravalli hills of Rajasthan, the country. The major gram growing areas
southwestern Haryana, Chambal basin, are the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh,
southwester n Uttar Pradesh; Kachchh, northeastern Rajasthan and southern Uttar
Kathiawar and northern Gujarat, and rain Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh produces more
shadow area of Western Ghats of Maharashtra than two-fifths (40.8%) of the total gram
are important areas of bajra cultivation. It is output in the country, Uttar Pradesh is next
also a rainfed kharif crop. to it (19.6%). Tur is another important pulse
Bajra occupies 9.8 million hectares (about crop. Major tur producers are Maharashtra
5.0%) of cropped area of the country (2000-01). and Uttar Pradesh. The distribution of other
Area under bajra remained constant in later pulse crops varies widely. Uttar Pradesh
half of the last century but the production produced 2.2 million tonnes (20.3%) of pulses,
increased from 2.6 million tonnes in 1950- and thus was the largest producer of pulses
51 to 5.8 million tonnes in 2000-01. in the country. Madhya Pradesh (19.5 %), and
Rajasthan, is the largest bajra producing state Maharashtra (15.3 %) are other major pulse
in the country. In 2000-01, it produced producing states.
2 million tonnes (28.9% of the national Sugarcane: Sugarcane is a tropical as well
output). Uttar Pradesh (17.5 %), Maharashtra as sub-tropical crop, and India is supposed
(13.4%), Gujarat (13.4%), and Haryana are to be its original home. It is a perennial crop
other important producers of bajra. requiring well-drained land, heavy fertile
Maize: Maize occupies 3.5 per cent of the loamy soil, abundant supply of moisture,
cropped area of the country. Its production frost-free weather and large amount of labour.
was 12.0 million tonnes in 2000-01. Both Although temperature conditions are suitable
the area and production have increased for sugarcane in south India, it is not a
rapidly. Use of yield raising hybrid grains, common crop. Due to moisture deficiency in
fertilisers, and irrigation helped in enhancing this part, the coastal plains of Kerala are
productivity. Production of maize has climatically most suitable for sugarcane
increased ten times between 1951 cultivation but the land is used for paddy and
and 2001. horticultural crops. Further, in the Godavari-
Maize is cultivated throughout the Krishna delta irrigation and fertile alluvial
country. Karnataka ranks first in production, soils are favourable to sugarcane cultivation,
followed by Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and
90
but frequent cyclones damage the crop.
Agriculture

Sugarcane is an irrigated crop, which is Bihar are well known. Production of grapes
easier to grow and cheaper in the northern increased in Andhra Pradesh and
plains than in peninsular India. Therefore, Maharashtra. Apples, pears, apricots, walnuts
major areas of sugarcane cultivation are and other fruits of Kashmir and Himachal
concentrated in the northern sub-tropical Pradesh are in great demand. Among the
zone. spices, black pepper is confined to Western
Major sugarcane producing states are Ghats of Kerala and ginger to eastern states as
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and well. India is the largest exporter of cashewnut.
Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 9.6). Total area under It produced 5.2 lakh tonnes in 2000-01, about
sugarcane in these states is 1.55 million 40% of the world total. Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
hectares, which is more than one-third Andhra Pradesh are other major cashewnut
(36.1%) of the total sugarcane area in the producing states. India has emerged as the
country. These states account for about 48.5 largest producer of coconut in the world. Major
per cent of total sugarcane production in the coconut producing states are Kerala, Tamil
country. Per hectare yield of sugarcane is Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Area
much higher in southern states (106 tonnes under coconut in 2000-01 was 1.8 million
in Tamil Nadu and 101 tonnes in Karnataka) hectares and production was 126 billion nuts.
than in northern states (41.7 tonnes in Bihar Oilseeds: At present, about 23.2 million
and 57.4 tonnes in Uttar Pradesh). As a hectares of land are devoted to nine major
result, Maharashtra, even though it oilseeds, which is 12 per cent of the cropped
produces 50.2 million tonnes, stands second area of the country. Total area under these
and Karnataka, producing 43.2 million crops in 1950-51 was 10.7 million hectares.
tonnes, stands third in the country (2000- Production of oilseeds increased from 5.16
01). The principal sugarcane producing tract million tonnes to 18.4 million tonnes in the
in the north comprises the Satluj-Yamuna last fifty years. Principal oilseeds are:
plain and the upper and middle Ganga plains soyabean (7.1 million tonnes in 1999-00),
in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. rapeseeds and mustard (4.2 million tonnes),
Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer (106.6 and groundnut (6.2 million tonnes). Madhya
million tonnes or 35.6% of the country) of Pradesh is the largest producer of soyabean;
sugarcane. Gujarat is next to Uttar Pradesh it produced 4.45 million tonnes ( or 65.54%
in north India and produces 12.7 million of the national production) in 2000-01.
tonnes (4.2%). India stands second in Maharashtra (1.62 million tonnes) and
production of sugarcane in the world by Rajasthan (0.60 million tonnes) are the other
contributing 21.3 per cent of the world total producers.
in 1997. India is the second largest producer of
groundnut in the world. Andhra Pradesh is
Horticultural Crops
the largest producer; it produced 2.0 million
Agro-climatic conditions enable India to tonnes (32.7 % of national output) in 2000-
produce a wide variety of horticultural crops, 01. It is also produced in Tamil Nadu,
such as fruits, vegetables, tuber crops, Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Rape
ornamental crops, medicinal and aromatic and mustard are rabi crops. Rajasthan
plants and spices. India is the world’s second produced 1.3 million tonnes or 31.2% of
largest producer of fruits and vegetables. It national output in 2000-01. Uttar Pradesh,
leads the world in production of mangoes, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana are other major
bananas, sapotas and acid limes. Mango of producers.
infinite varieties is produced in India; Uttar
Pradesh occupies the prominent place. Plantation Crops
Oranges of Nagpur, Banana of Tamil Nadu, Tea: India is the largest producer and
Maharashtra and other south Indian states, consumer of tea in the world. It accounts for
and litchi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and
91
28 per cent of the world production and 15

E
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N
N N

Fig. 9.6 India: Sugarcane Producing Areas
92
Agriculture

per cent of the world trade. The tea production Arabica varieties of coffee produced in the
registered three-fold increase, from 3.0 lakh country are in great demand all over the world.
tonnes in 1950-51 to 8.05 lakh tonnes in Export of coffee increased from 100 thousand
2000-01. Land under tea plantation at present in 1990-91 to 247 thousand tonnes in 2000-
is 435 lakh hectares. 01. Karnataka accounts for 58 per cent of the
Tea plantation started in 1840s in the coffee area and 70 per cent of the coffee
Brahmaputra valley of Assam, which is still a production. Kerala accounts for 23.6 per cent
major tea producing area. At present, tea is and Tamil Nadu for 5.6 per cent of total coffee
produced primarily in northeastern India and production(Fig.9.7). Coffee plantations in
south India. Tamil Nadu are in the Nilgiris. Coffee
More than half of the total tea area lies in plantations are also coming up in several other
the Brahmaputra valley of Assam (Table 9.4). states.
High rainfall accompanied with high
Rubber: Rubber plantations began in
temperature and well drained land covered
Travancore and Malabar area in 1880s, but
with loamy soils are favourable conditions for
its commercial production started in 1902.
tea plantation in this valley. In West Bengal,
At present, rubber is produced in India in 400
Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar are
thousand hectares and total output amounted
important tea producing districts (Fig. 9.7).
to 630 thousand tonnes which is 8% of world’s
In south India, tea is grown in Tamil Nadu
natural rubber. India stands at fourth place
and Kerala on the lower slopes of the Western
among rubber producing countries. Rubber
Ghats, Nilgiri and Cardamom hills. Very small
is cultivated mainly in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
quantity of tea is produced on the slopes of
About 85% of the rubber producing area is
the Shivalik hills in Himachal Pradesh and
in Kerala and 4% in Tamil Nadu. Remaining
Dun valley in Uttaranchal.
area is in Karnataka and Andaman and
Table 9.4: India: Area and Production of Nicobar islands.
Tea in 2000-01
Fibre Crops
State Area % Production %
(000 ha) (000 tonnes) Cotton: Cotton is a natural fibre of multiple
uses. Its use as raw material for cotton textile
Assam 232 53.2 414 51.4 is most significant. Cotton plant requires high
West Bengal 103 23.6 180 22.4 temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, frost-
free season and bright sunshine for its
Tamil Nadu 51 11.7 128 15.9
optimum growth. Cotton cultivation in India
Kerala 37 8.5 068 8.4 is restricted to 60 to 85 cm rainfall. In low
INDIA 436 100.0 805 100.0 rainfall area of Punjab, it is an irrigated crop.
Cotton has traditionally been grown on black
India ranks third in the export of tea after Sri cotton soils of the Deccan plateau.
Lanka and China. The relative position of India is the third largest cotton producing
India in the export of tea has declined from country in the world and contributes about
45 % of the total in 1951 to 15.7% in 1997. 14 per cent of the world output. Cotton
production increased from 3.04 million bales
Coffee: India produces about 4 per cent of in 1950-51 to 9.7 million bales in 2000-01.
the world coffee. Commercial production of Rapid growth in production has been mainly
coffee started around 1820. Its production in due to increasing yield rate, from 88 kg/ha
1950-51 was 24.6 thousand tonnes, which to 191 kg/ha during this period.
increased to over 301 thousand tonnes in Major areas of cotton cultivation are :
2000- 01. Coffee plantations cover about 305 (i) Gujarat plain and Kathiawar in Gujarat,
thousand hectares of land. Indian coffee is (ii) plateau area east of the Western Ghats in

regarded very high in quality. Robusta and Maharashtra, (iii) western Madhya Pradesh
93

E
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TEA AND COFFEE GROWING AREAS
N N

Fig. 9.7 India: Tea and Coffee Growing Areas
94
Agriculture

and the Narmada valley, (iv) southern facilities improved and expanded. All these
Karnataka and western Andhra Pradesh, became major components of what came to
(v) southern Tamil Nadu, and (vi) Punjab- be known as Green Revoluction.
Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 9.8).
Irrigation: The high yielding crops were
Maharashtra has acquired first position in
introduced in areas with assured water
both area and production of cotton. Shares
supply. Irrigation potential of the country has
of various states in cotton production are:
vastly increased – the irrigated area increased
Maharashtra 17.2 %, Haryana 14.3%, Punjab
from 22.6 million hectares in 1950-51 to
12.4 %, Gujarat 12 % and Karnataka 10.2 %.
32.17 million hectares in 1965-66 and 84.7
Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh are
million hectares in 2000-01. It led to
other important producers. Indian cotton is
increased agricultural production and
of short staple varieties.
productivity particularly when used in
Jute: Jute is used in the manufacture of combination with chemical fertilisers and HYV
wrapping canvas, bags etc. It requires warm of seeds.
and moist climate and well-drained fertile
High Yielding Variety of Seeds: Widespread
soils. It is grown in West Bengal, Assam valley,
adoption of high yielding variety of wheat,
northern Bihar, and Mahanadi delta of Orissa
jowar and maize increased their production
(Fig. 9.8).
rather phenomenally. In 1966-67, area under
Jute production was 9.3 million bales (of
high yielding varieties of seeds was 1.89
180 kg each) in 2000-01. More than half of
million hectares. This increased to 71.3
the world jute production comes from India.
million hectares in 1994-95. Area under HYVs
West Bengal produces 7.4 million bales –
of wheat rose from 0.54 million hectares in
nearly 85 per cent of the country’s total.
1966-67 to 23.2 million hectares in 1994-95.
As in 2001, 90.6 per cent of total wheat
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN AGRICULTURE cropped area is under HYVs. But the
introduction of HYVs of rice, jowar, maize and
Technological changes in Indian agriculture bajra has been somehow less heartening. The
started in 1960s, when access to modern area under HYVs of rice was 0.88 million
inputs, especially high yielding variety of hectares in 1966-67 which rose to 31.0 million
seeds, fertilisers, mechanisation, credit and hectares in 1995-96 (73.5 per cent of the total
marketing facilities improved. Central rice cropped area). Over 3000 high yielding
gover nment introduced Intensive Area varieties/ hybrids of wheat, 130 varieties of
Development Programme (IADP) in 1960. New maize and more than 430 varieties of pulses
high yielding varieties (HYV) of wheat have been introduced in the country.
developed in Mexico and of rice developed in Fertilisers: Use of fertilisers is an integral
Philippines, were brought to India. In addition component of the Green Revolution.
to HYV seeds, chemicals, fertilisers and Production and consumption of fertilisers has
pesticides were also introduced and irrigation increased by leaps and bounds in the post-
Independence period. Total consumption of all
Cost of Green Revolution
fertilisers was only 0.76 million tonnes in 1965-
Though the Green Revolution did increase 66, (5.05 kg/ha of cropped area). It rose to
food grain production in the country, it was 18.07 million tonnes in 2000-01, increasing
achieved at the cost of intensive use of the per hectare consumption of fertilisers to
irrigation water, fertilisers and other inputs.
95 kg/ha. Punjab ranks first with 184 kg/ha,
This has resulted in problems of soil
salinisation, ground water pollution, nutrient followed by Tamil Nadu (163 kg/ha) and
imbalances, emergence of new pests and Andhra Pradesh (158 kg/ha). Orissa has
diseases, and environmental degradation. lowest consumption of 44 kg per hectare of

the cropped area. Use of chemical fertilisers
95

E
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N N

Fig. 9.8 India: Cotton and Jute Growing Areas
96
Agriculture

and pesticides has increased agricultural tonnes. It is clear that wheat has been the
production but it has polluted the land and main beneficiary of the Green Revolution. As
water resources to an extent that it has become a result of increased home production import
a health hazard. So fertilisers have not proved of food-grains declined from 10.3 million
to be the blessing we had imagined earlier. tonnes in 1965-66 to 2.4 million tonnes in
1983-84. There was no import of food-grains
Farm Mechanisation: Traditional techniques
of agricultural operations still persist in India. during 2000-01.
Heavy pressure of population on land, small
and fragmented holdings, poverty of farmers PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE
and scarcity of capital to purchase machines,
cheap labour and high cost of diesel and Though Herculean efforts are being made
power are impediments in large scale for agricultural development, productivity
mechanisation. However, mechanisation is of crops, however, is still low in comparison
slowly making inroads ever since the to the developed countries of the world.
inception of Green Revolution. The number This situation is the result of the interplay
of tractors has increased; it was only 0.2 per of several factors. These ar e grouped
100 ha in 1961 and it rose to 5.95 in 1988. into four classes: (i) environmental,
At the same time, number of oil engines per (ii) economic,(iii) institutional, and
thousand hectares of gross cropped area (iv) technological.
increased to 24 and that of the electric
1. Environmental factors: The most
pumping sets from 1.35 to 39.95. As a result,
serious problem is the erratic nature of
consumption of power for agriculture
increased from just 5.5 kWh per thousand the monsoon. Temperature remains high
hectares in 1961 to 156.7 kWh in 1987. The throughout the year. Therefore, crops can
pace of farm mechanisation has been more be grown all the year round if sufficient
spectacular in the states like Punjab, Haryana water could be supplied regularly. But it
and western Uttar Pradesh. is not possible because major portion of
the country receives rainfall during 3-4
Achievements of Green Revolution months, and rainfall amount and its
seasonal and regional distribution are
The most remarkable achievement of the
highly variable. This situation affects the
Green Revolution is the substantial increase
agricultural development. Major part of
in production and productivity of food-grains.
the country is sub-humid, sub-arid and
Their output increased by 175 per cent, from
arid as far as the amount of rainfall is
72 million tonnes in 1965-66 to 198 million
tonnes in 2000-01. Cereals and millets concerned. These regions suffer from
recorded highest growth of 197 per cent, from frequent occurrences of droughts.
62.4 million tonnes to 185.2 million tonnes. Development of irrigation and water
Production of pulses, however, did not harvesting can raise productivity of these
commensurate with the increase in regions.
population. It increased from 9.9 million 2. Economic factors: Investment in
tonnes to 10.7 million tonnes; and oilseeds agriculture, use of inputs such as HYV,
from 12.1 million tonnes to 18.4 million fertilisers etc., and transport facilities
tonnes during the same period. Even among constitute economic factors. On account
cereals, wheat registered more than six fold of lack of marketing facilities or non-
increase (562%) in production, from 10.39 availability of loan on fair rate of interest,
million tonnes in 1965-66 to 68.8 million the cultivators are not able to invest the
tonnes in 2000-01. Rice, on the other hand, requisite resources in agriculture. This
recorded nearly three-fold increase (177%), results in low productivity. In fact, the
from 30.6 million tonnes to 84.9 million
97
pressure of population on land is

continuously increasing. Consequently, markets to the world. It has reduced
per capita cropped land has declined from government control over international trade
0.444 hectare in 1921 to 0.296 hectare in and adoption of liberal policy in respect of
1961 and 0.219 hectare in 1991. The land imports and exports. Now foreign products
holdings being small, the capacity to invest including agricultural can easily be imported
is also low. to India. India can also export some products
3. Institutional factors: Increasing to other countries.
pressure of population is responsible for In a free trade the price and quality of a
the sub-division and fragmentation of commodity becomes competitive. If the
holdings. In 1961-62, about 52% of the production cost of a crop is high, traders can
total holdings were marginal and small import it from other countries at a lower price
(below 2 ha in size). In 1990-91 the and sell in the national market. This can lead
percentage reached to 78 of the total to stagnation or even deterioration of Indian
holdings. Most of these holdings are also farming. Naturally, this calls for reduction in
fragmented into a number of tiny plots. the production cost of different crops and also
The uneconomic size of holdings is one of improvement in the quality in order to
the major obstacles in the way of compete and excel in the world market. Can
modernisation of agriculture. Land tenure Indian agriculture in its present form compete
system also does not favour large-scale with the highly advanced agriculture of the
investment by tenants because of the developed countries? Their yields per hectare
insecurity of tenure. of major crops are much higher than our
yields. Prices of most farm products in the
4. Technological factors: Agricultural
international markets are declining whereas
techniques are old and inefficient. Wooden
in the Indian market these are increasing. The
plough and bullocks are still used by a
price decline in the international market has
majority of farmers. Mechanisation is very
resulted due to: (i) Rapid progress in the field
limited. Use of fertilisers and HYV of seeds
of biotechnology, which has made available
are also limited. Only one-third of the
highly productive seeds to farmers in the
cropped area could be provided irrigation
developed countries. (ii) Use of very
facilities. Its distribution is not in
sophisticated farm machinery, which have
accordance with the deficit rainfall and
considerably reduced their cost of production.
its variability. These conditions keep
In addition to these, farmers in the developed
the agricultural productivity and
countries are given heavy subsidies, which
intensification of farming at low level.
result into low production cost. Under the
World Trade Agreement all countries have to
Biotechnology and Gene-revolution stop paying huge subsidies to the farm sectors
Biotechnology offers a solution through and to bring down high tariff walls against
another revolution – the gene-revolution – imports from other countries.
to halt the fatigue of Green Revolution and In order to stand in the global competition,
to tackle the issue of food security in India. therefore, India has to use its vast potential
Biotechnology can solve the problems, of agriculture in a systematic and planned
which are unique to agriculture and can manner. We should develop some of the
certainly add value.
techniques, which the developed countries are
using today. Besides the use of biotechnology,
creation of an unrestricted, unified national
GLOBALISATION AND INDIAN AGRICULTURE market for farm products within the country
may be a right step. This step, however,
Globalisation means integrating the economy demands a well-knit infrastructure
of a country with the world economy. comprising roads, electricity, irrigation and
Globalisation has thrown open Indian
98
credit facilities for the farmers and traders.
Agriculture

EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) What is the importance of agriculture in India?
(b) Explain the meaning of intensity of cropping.
(c) Mention five major rice producing states, giving reasons.
(d) Write about distribution of sugarcane in India.
(e) Describe distributional pattern of horticultural crops in India.
( f ) Describe distribution of tea and coffee in India.
(g) What are the achievements of Green Revolution?
(h) Mention five major wheat producing states of India, giving reasons.
(a) Wetland and dry land farming.
(b) Kharif and rabi crops.
(c) Food-grains and food crops.
3. Describe recent agricultural developments in India.
4. ‘In spite of significant development Indian agriculture suffers from certain problems’.
Explain
5. Examine the impact of globalisation on Indian agriculture.
Project Work
6. (a) Name important items of consumption in your house.

(b) Identify the crops from which the items have been derived.
(c) Identify substitutes of each item of consumption.
(d) Mention the states which produce these crops.
99

CHAPTER
MINERAL AND POWER

RESOURCES
India, because of its gigantic size and varied Table 10.1: India: Reserves and Production of
geological structure, has extensive and rich Important Minerals
deposits of industrially important minerals. (Reserves in million tonnes and Production in
Not only reserves of high grade iron ore, but thousand tonnes)
also good reserves of alloy minerals, such as
Minerals Reserves Production Production
manganese, chromite and titanium, flux 2000 1999-2000 2000-2001
minerals (limestone, dolomite, gypsum, etc.)
and refractories (magnesite, kyanite and Coal 213,905.5 309620 304103
sillimanite) are present here. India is, Lignite 34168 23552 22124
however, weaker in non-ferrous metallic
Petroleum 17000 32426 31949
minerals as a group particularly in copper,
lead, zinc, tin, graphite, tungsten and Natural gas 692 bcm 27860 mcm 26885 mcm
mercury, although reserves of bauxite and Bauxite 2953 7893.1 7049.9
mica are plenty. It is also poor in minerals Chromite 90.23 1951.6 1737.9
required by the chemical fertiliser industry Copper ore 537.86 3483 3084.8
including sulfur, potash and rock phosphate.
Gold 17.79 439.6 569.8
Large reserves of bituminous coal are found
but there is scarcity of coking coal and Iron ore 13460 79210 74946
petroleum in the country. However, it holds Manganese 161 1556.4 1585.7
a strong position in the atomic minerals like Dolomite 4387 2964.3 2815.4
uranium and thorium.
Gypsum 238 2706.9 3247
Mineral Resources of India Limestone 75679 126070 128787
The country possesses more than 100 Magnesite 245 317 326
minerals out of which reserves of 30 minerals
bcm- billion cubic metres; mcm- million cubic metres
are economically significant. Coal, iron ore,
manganese, mica, bauxite, etc. are some of Source: India 2002.
them. The resources of certain industrially
important minerals are, however, small in MINERAL RESOURCES
comparison to the needs of the country. A
number of organisations are engaged in Mineral resources and their use are known
exploration and development of mineral since ancient times in the country. Industrial
resources in the country. These include revolution during the 18 th to 20th century
Geological Survey of India (GSI), Mineral increased the demand for minerals
Exploration Corporation Limited, and Indian phenomenally. Since British India was least
Bureau of Mines (IBM). Reserves of important industrialised, most of the minerals were
minerals estimated by these agencies are exported up to 1947. After Independence, not
given in Table 10.1. only several minerals have been explored but
Mineral and Power Resources

also mineral production has picked up in India. Therefore, this part is most significant
consonance with the increasing industrial for mineral resources. The following three
demands in the country. As a result total major mineral belts can be demarcated within
value of all minerals produced in the country the peninsular plateaus.
reached Rs 530.5 billion in 1999-2000 and 1. The Northeaster n Plateaus: It
Rs 480.17 billion in 2000-01 from only encompasses the Chotanagpur plateau,
Rs 892 million in 1951-51, recording 538 fold Orissa plateau and easter n Andhra
increase during fifty years. plateau. This belt contains rich deposits of
In 2000-01, fuel minerals (coal, lignite, a variety of minerals used in metallurgical
petroleum and natural gas) as a group industries. Among them, reserves of iron
accounted for 88.87 per cent, metallic minerals ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, limestone
for 7.26 per cent and non-metallic minerals and dolomite are large and widely
for 3.86 per cent of total value of minerals distributed. This region also has copper,
produced. In metallic mining sector, iron ore, thorium, uranium, chromium, sillimanite
chromite, copper, gold, zinc, manganese and and phosphate. Along with them, coal
bauxite are important minerals. In non-metallic
deposits of the Damodar valley and
group, limestone, phosphorite, dolomite, kaolin,
Chhattisgarh which have facilitated the
gypsum and magnesite are significant. Among
development of heavy industries are within
individual minerals, only coal (41.11 per cent
this belt. Majority of the integrated iron and
of total value), petroleum (30.69 per cent),
steel plants are located in this belt.
natural gas (14.88 per cent), iron ore (4.00 per
Aluminum plants are also located here.
cent), limestone (2.60 per cent), and lignite
(2.19 per cent) contribute more than one per 2. Southwester n Plateaus: This belt
cent each of total value of all minerals extends over the Karnataka plateau and
produced. In all, more than 68 minerals are adjoining Tamil Nadu plateau and is rich
produced in the country. Production of in metallic minerals, particularly in iron
important minerals is given in Table 10.1. ore, manganese and bauxite and in some
non-metallic minerals. But the lack of
Distribution of Minerals power resource particularly coal has been
an obstacle in the way of the development
Distribution of minerals and fuels is very
of heavy industries in this region. All the
uneven in the country. It is because the
three gold fields of the country are located
occurrences of minerals are associated with
in this belt.
certain geological formations and they are
found in certain areas only. From this point 3. Northwestern Region: This belt extends
of view, older rock formations are significant. from the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat to
For instance, reserves of iron ore and the Aravalli range in Rajasthan. Petroleum
manganese are found in the Dharwar System and natural gas are principal resources
of the pre-Cambrian rocks in the country. of this belt. Deposits of other minerals are
Similarly, copper, lead and zinc veins are also small and scattered. However, it is known
found in the Aravalli series of the Dharwars. for reserves and production of several non-
Dharwar and Cuddapah systems contain ferrous metals particularly copper, silver,
reserves of major metallic minerals. lead and zinc.
Limestone, dolomite, gypsum, calcium Out side of these mineral belts, Upper
sulphate are found in the Cuddapah and Brahmaputra valley is a significant petroleum
Upper Vindhyan systems. Major coal deposits producing area. Kerala possesses enormous
are confined to the Gondwana system. concentration of heavy mineral sands. Mineral
Occurrences of petroleum are found in the deposits are also found in other parts of the
Tertiary rocks. Most of the mineral-bearing country but they are scattered and reserves

rock formations are distributed in peninsular are inconsistent.
101

and produce 99 per cent of coal of the country.
FUEL MINERALS
The Gondwana coalfields are found in four
river valleys: (a) Damodar valley (Jharkhand
Coal and West Bengal); (b) Son valley (Madhya
Coal is the main energy resource. It is also Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh);
used as raw material in many industries. Total (c) Mahanadi valley (Chhattisgarh and Orissa);
reserves of coal, down to a depth of 1200 and (d) Wardha-Godavari valley (Madhya
metres, have been estimated at 2,13,905.51 Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra
million tonnes by the Geological Survey of Pradesh)(Fig. 10.1). Tertiary coal occurs in
India (GSI) in January 2001. It is only one Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and
per cent of the total estimated coal reserves Nagaland. State-wise distribution and
of the world. Along with limited reserves, production of coal are given in Table 10.2.
Indian coal is also of low grade. Most of the Jharkhand: About one-third of the estimated
coal is bituminous type and is of non-coking coal reserves are distributed in the coalfields
grade. Only a fraction of it is of coking grade. of Jharkhand. Important coalfields of this state
Distribution of the bituminous coal is very are Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura,
uneven. Most of the reserves are concentrated Ramgarh, Daltonganj, Aurangabad and Hutar.
in few river valleys of the eastern peninsular Part of the Raniganj coalfield of West Bengal
plateaus. Consequently, heavy industries in falls in this state. Coalfields of the Damodar
other regions face crises of coal supply. valley are the chief source of metallurgical coal
Coal deposits occur in two geological in the country and most of the iron and steel
formations, namely, the Lower Gondwana plants get coking coal from these fields. Relative
formation (over 200 million years old) and significance has declined drastically from 47
Tertiary formations (about 55 million years per cent of total coal production of the country
old). Out of the known 113 coalfields, 80 fields in 1970 to 26 per cent in 1998-99.
are in the Lower Gondwana system, which Consequently, it has come to second place
contain 96 per cent of the total coal reserves among the coal producing states.
Table 10.2: India: State-wise Distribution of Coal Reserves, 2001

(Total Reserves)
State Total Reserves Production 1998-99
Million tonnes Percentage Million tonnes Percentage
Jharkhand 69174.59 32.34 76.35 26.01

Orissa 51571.29 24.11 43.52 14.83
Madhya Pradesh 44319.02 20.72 85.76 29.21
and Chhattisgarh
West Bengal 25918.54 12.12 17.06 5.81
Andhra Pradesh 13674.90 6.39 28.38 9.67
Maharashtra 7295.56 3.41 25.20 8.58
Uttar Pradesh 1061.80 0.50 15.48 5.28
Meghalaya 459.43 0.21 — —
Assam 320.21 0.15 1.79 0.61
Arunachal Pradesh 90.23 0.04 — —
Total 213905.51
100.0
102
293.56 100.00

E
N
N
N N
Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of Surveyor General of India.

Fig. 10.1 India: Coal Fields
103

Orissa: Orissa is second in coal reserves and Coal Production: History of the development
third in production. About one-fourth of the of the coal mining is closely associated with
total estimated coal reserves are confined to the opening of the railway lines. Later, two
the coalfields of this state. Talcher and world wars helped in expansion of this
Rampur are the two important coalfields of industry. Coal production was 30.6 million
this state. Talcher has huge reserves of coal tonnes in 1948. Thereafter, production
but of low grade, and hence suitable for steam increased rapidly in consonance with the
and gas production. It is used in fertiliser and increasing demands. Real spurt in coal
power plants at Talcher. This state has raised production took place after nationalisation of
its share in total coal production of the the coal industry in 1972. In 2000-01, total
country from 5 per cent in 1970 to 14.8 per coal production was 309.63 million tonnes,
cent in 1998-99. recording a growth of more than ten times
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh: About during 1948-2001. Two coal companies,
one-fifth of the estimated reserves of the namely, Coal India Limited (CIL) and
country are located in coalfields of these Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL)
states. Coalfields of these states are are engaged in coal production in the country.
traditionally put into four groups: (a) Central Of the total production, non-coking coal
Indian coalfields (Singrauli, Sohagpur, Johilla, accounts for 90 per cent and coking coal for
Umaria), (b) Satpura coalfields (Pench, only 10 per cent. At present, more than three-
Kanhan and Pathkhera), (c) North fourths of the total coal produced comes from
Chhattisgarh coalfields (Chirimiri-Kurasia, the opencast mines.
Bisrampur, Jhilmili, Sonhat, Lakhanpur, Lignite is a low grade coal containing high
Sendurgarh, Lakhanpur -Ramkola), and moisture and lower carbon. The reserves of
(d) South Chhattisgarh coalfields (Hasdo- lignite have been estimated at 34.168 billion
Arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh). Madhya tonnes. 88.4 per cent (30.2 billion tonnes) of
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh produced 29.2 per it is contributed by the lignite basins of Tamil
cent of total production in India. It was only Nadu. Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited
17 per cent in 1970. exploits lignite reserves at Neyveli. Reserves
Other states: West Bengal ranks fourth in of lignite are also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat,
reserves and sixth in production of coal. and Jammu and Kashmir. Since lignite fields
Raniganj is the major coalfield while Darjeeling are located away from the main coal
coalfield is small. Coal produced is used by producing regions of the country, they can
thermal power stations. Coal washeries are be of economic significance.
located at Jamadoba and Lodna. In production
of coal its share declined from 26 per cent in Petroleum
1970 to 5.81 per cent in 1998-99. Andhra Petroleum has assumed utmost significance in
Pradesh accounts for 6.39 per cent of coal modern society. Petroleum and petroleum
reserves. Coalfields of this state are Singareni,
products are used for a variety of purposes such
Kothgundem and Tandur in the Godavari
as motive power, lubrication and as raw material
valley. About 3.41 per cent of the country’s
for manufacturing synthetic derivatives and
coal reserves are in Maharashtra. Important
chemicals required by other industries. Total
coalfields of this state are Chanda-Wardha,
reserves of the hydrocarbons are estimated by
Kamptee, and Bander. Part of the Singrauli
coalfield is in Uttar Pradesh. GSI at 17 billion tonnes, of which 75 per cent
Tertiary coal is extracted from Daranggiri, have been established so far.
Cherrapunji, Laitryngew,Mawlong and For exploration of petroleum, wells were
Langrin in Meghalaya; Makum, Jaipur and drilled in Upper Assam valley in 1866, just
Nazira in upper Assam; Namchik-Namphuk seven years after the discovery of petroleum
area in Arunachal Pradesh and Kalakot in in Pennsylvania in USA. Oil was discovered
Jammu and Kashmir.
104
in 1890 in Digboi area. Only Assam produced

petroleum in the country until 1959 when 4. East Coastal Region: It extends over the
Khambhat oil field was discovered in 1958 Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins. The
and the first well (Vasudhara) was drilled in Oil and Natural Gas Commission and the
Ankaleshwar in 1960. First offshore drilling Oil India Limited carried extensive
was started in 1970 at Aliabet in Gujarat. prospecting and exploration work in
Later, the Bombay (Mumbai) High was 1980s. In the offshore area of the Kaveri
discovered in 1975 and production from this basin, important oilfields are Narimanam
area started in 1976. As a result of these and Kovilappal. In 1998-99, about 451
efforts, production of petroleum in the country thousand tonnes of crude petroleum was
increased rapidly. produced from this basin. Oilfields have
been discovered recently in the Krishna-
Distribution of Oil fields: At present,
Godavari basin of Andhra Pradesh.
commercial exploitation of oil is being carried
Petroleum has recently been found also
out in four regions: (1) The Northeastern
in Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.
region extending over the Upper Assam Valley,
Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland; (2) Gujarat Production of Crude Petroleum: It was only
region extending over the Khambhat basin 269 thousand tonnes in 1951, which rose to
and Gujarat plain; (3) the Mumbai High 1.08 million tonnes in 1962, and 34.52 million
offshore region; and (4) the East coastal region tonnes in 1995-96. But it declined to 32.89
encompassing the Kaveri and Krishna- million tonnes in 1998-99 and 32.43 million
Godavari basins. tonnes in 2000-01. Out of the total
1. North-Eastern Region: The well-known production, one-third (36.4 per cent) was
oil fields of this region are Digboi produced from on-shore oilfields and nearly
two-thirds from offshore oilfields. Oil and
(oldest field, 1866), Naharkatiya, Moran,
Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) and Oil India
Rudrasagar, Galeki and Hugrijan. In Tirap
Limited (OIL), the two national oil companies
district of Arunachal Pradesh, there is
and a few private and joint venture companies
Nigru oil field. In the nearby Nagaland, oil
are engaged in exploration and production of
fields are at Borholla, close to Nagaland-
crude oil and natural gas in the country. In
Assam border.
2000-01, ONGC produced 77.27 per cent,
2. Gujarat Region: Important oil fields of joint venture companies 12.61 per cent and
this region are Ankleshwar, Kalol, OIL only 10.11 per cent of the total crude oil
Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana, Barkol, production in the country. Among the
Mehsana, Sanand and Lunej. Oil has also petroleum producing regions the Mumbai
been found on the Aliabet island situated High was at the top, producing nearly two-
45 km west of Bhavnagar in Saurashtra. thirds of total production in 1998-99. Gujarat
3. Mumbai High: Located in the Arabian sea stood second, followed by Assam (Table 10.3).
176 km north-west of Mumbai, it is an
offshore oil field. At present it is the most Table 10.3: India: Region-wise Production of
important oil field in the country. It Crude Petroleum, 1998-99
produced 21232 thousand tonnes of crude
Region Production Per cent
petroleum in 1998-99 which was nearly
(million tonnes)
two-thirds (64.5 per cent) of the total oil
production of India. The oil and natural Mumbai High 21.23 64.55
gas are brought through submarine Gujarat 5.86 17.82
pipelines to Uran on the mainland. Another Assam 5.27 16.02
oilfield – Bassein has been discovered south
Tamil Nadu 0.45 1.37
of Mumbai High. The deposits of this area
are considered to be richer than those of Arunachal Pradesh 0.08 0.23
the Mumbai High.
105
Total 32.89 100.0

The total consumption of petroleum supplies gas to power plants for generation
products in 2000-01 was about 99.6 million of about 5000 MW of power and to fertiliser
tonnes while indigenous production was only sector for production of over 10 million tonnes
32.43 million tonnes. India produces only of urea. It supplies gas to about 500 industrial
one-third of its total requirements. The units located in different parts of the country.
country depends heavily on imports. During
1998-99, 39.81 million tonnes of crude
METALLIC MINERALS
petroleum and 18.09 million tonnes of
petroleum products were imported from
Iron Ore
Russia, Iran and other West Asian countries.
India is very comfortably placed with regard
Petroleum Refining: With increasing crude
to high grade iron ore. Most of the deposits
production, refining capacity of the country
are of haematite and magnetite grade.
increased spectacularly. At present, there are
Occurrences of limonite and siderite ores are
eighteen petr oleum refineries in the
also found. Total recoverable reserves of iron
country(Fig. 10.2), 16 in public sector, one in
ore are about 10,052 million tonnes of
joint sector and one in private sector. Total
haematite and 3,408 million tonnes of
refining capacity of these refineries in 2002
magnetite. Occurrences of the high grade
was 112.64 million tonnes per annum. Public
haematite are confined in the Dharwar
sector refineries are located at Guwahati,
formation, and therefore, they are found in
Barauni, Koyali, Haldia, Mathura, Digboi,
peninsular India. They are located in Orissa,
Panipat, Chennai, Narimanam, Bongaigaon,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,
Mumbai (HPCL), Vishakhapatnam, Mumbai
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and
(BPCL), Kochi, Numaligarh (Assam) and
Rajasthan. The resources of very high grade
Tatipaka (ONGC). Aggregate refining capacity
are limited and are found mainly in Bailadila
of these plants is 75.95 million tonnes per
fields of Chhattisgarh and to a lesser extent
annum. One refinery in joint sector is
in Bellari-Hospet area of Karnataka, and
at Mangalore with 9.69 million tonnes of
Barajamda fields of Jharkhand and Orissa.
refining capacity. The private sector refinery
Magnetite resources are located in Karnataka,
of Reliance Petroleum Limited was
Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Jharkhand,
commissioned at Jamnagar in 2001 with an Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Deposits of
installed capacity of 27 million tonnes. Thus, Jharkhand and Orissa are economically very
it is the biggest refinery in the country. Most significant and have played a decisive role in
of the refineries depend on imported crude the location of major iron and steel plants.
petroleum. Supply of crude from indigenous Because of the availability of iron ore and coal
oilfields is usually made through pipelines in close proximity, six large iron and steel
constructed for the purpose. plants are located in the northeastern plateau.
Natural Gas Chhattisgarh is the principal iron ore
producing state contributing to more than
Natural gas is emerging as an important 23.4 per cent of the total output, followed by
source of commercial energy. It is found in Goa, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Orissa, Andhra
association with petroleum. The recoverable Pradesh and Maharashtra. Dalli, Rajhara
reserves of natural gas (1 April 2001) are (Durg) and Bailadila (Dantewara) are
estimated at 638 billion cubic metres. important mines of Chhattisgarh. In Goa,
Production of natural gas in 2000-01 was mines are located at Sanquelim, Sanguem,
29.477 billion cubic metres. Gas Authority of Quepem, Satari, Ponda and Bicholim. In
India Limited was incorporated in 1984 for Karnataka, mines are situated at Bellary,
processing, transporting, distributing, and Hospet and Sandur in Bellary district. In
marketing of natural gas. Presently it operates Jharkhand, iron ore is mined in Noamundi
over 4200 km of pipelines in the country and
106
and Gua (Purbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum).

E
N N
Tatipaka
Narimanam
N N

Fig. 10.2 India: Oil Refineries
107

Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar recoverable reserves are 90.23 million tonnes.
(Mayurbhanj), Kiriburu, Meghahataburu About 96 per cent of the estimated reserves
(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundargarh) are are confined in Cuttack district of Orissa.
important mines of Orissa. The iron ore Sukinda area of this district has the largest
deposits of Jharkhand and northern Orissa reserves of high grade chromite. Kendujhar
form a 45 km long range. Iron ore mines of and Dhenkanal districts also have workable
Maharashtra are located at Chandrapur, reserves. Orissa alone accounts for about 98
Ratnagiri and Bhandara districts. In Andhra per cent of recoverable reserves. Deposits of
Pradesh, Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnool, economic significance also occur in Karnataka
Cuddapah and Anantpur districts have good (Hassan district), Maharashtra (Chandrapur
reserves of iron ore. Still in the south, in Tamil district), Jharkhand (Purbi and Pashchimi
Nadu, iron ore is mined in Tirthamalai hills Singhbhum districts), Tamil Nadu (Salem
(Salem), Yadapalli and Killimalai area (Nilgiri). district), Andhra Pradesh (Khammam) and
Manipur.
Iron Ore Production: With the development
Production of chromite increased from
of iron and steel industry, production of iron
only 19 thousand tonnes in 1951 to 1740
ore increased very rapidly. In 1948, only 2.3
thousand tonnes in 2000-01. Of the total
million tonnes of ore were produced in the
production in 1998-99, Orissa accounted for
country. It rose to 33.7 million tonnes in 1971
98.9 per cent and Karnataka for 1.1 per cent.
and 74.95 million tonnes in 2000-01. Madhya
Small quantity of chromite was produced in
Pradesh including Chhattisgarh ranked first
Maharashtra also.
after surpassing Goa. Goa is at second place
closely followed by Karnataka. Iron ore Copper
production in different states is given in
Table 10.4. Copper is extensively used in manufacturing
of electrical cables, wires and machinery
Table 10.4: India: State-wise Production of because of being good conductor of
Iron ore, 1998-99 electricity. Total recoverable reserves of
States Production
copper ore in the country are 537.86 million
tonnes in 2000. It is equivalent to 5.30
(1000 tonnes) % of Total million tonnes of metal content. In addition,
Madhya Pradesh 16567 23.44 about 721 million tonnes are conditional
reserves, which are equivalent to 3.16 million
Goa 15426 21.82
tonnes of copper metal. Major copper ore
Karnataka 14811 20.95 deposits are in Singhbhum district of
Bihar 12003 16.98 Jharkhand, Balaghat district of Madhya
Orissa 11522 16.30 Pradesh, and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts
of Rajasthan. In addition, small deposits are
Andhra Pradesh 320 0.45
in Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra 27 0.04 Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Meghalaya,
Source: Statistical Abstract of India, 1999. Maharashtra and West Bengal.
Total production of copper ore was 4.253
million tonnes in 1998-99 but declined to
Chromite 3.085 million tonnes in 2000-01. More than
Chromite is used in metallurgical, refractory half (52.4 per cent) of the copper ore
and chemical industries. Total reserves of production came from the Malanjkhand
chromite are estimated at 184 million tonnes copper mines of Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh
consisting of 105 million tonnes in situ in 1998-99. Khetri mines of Jhunjhunu and
reserves and about 79 million tonnes as Alwar districts of Rajasthan contributed about

conditional resources. Out of this, total one-third and Jharkhand 15.2 per cent of
108

total production. Hindustan Copper Limited distributed in Orissa, followed by Karnataka,
(HCL), a public sector enterprise, is the sole Madhya Pradesh, Goa and Maharashtra. In
producer of primary copper in the country. other states, occurrences of manganese ore are
small. Production of manganese ore was
Zinc and Lead 1585.7 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. Large
Industrial significance of these minerals is producers of manganese ore are Orissa (33.3
very high. Zinc is mainly used in tyre industry. per cent in 1998-99), Madhya Pradesh (21.1
It is also used in dye casting, dry batteries, per cent), Maharashtra (20.6 per cent),
textile, etc. Similarly, lead is used in electrical Kar nataka (17.9 per cent) and Andhra
cables, batteries, glass, ammunition, printing, Pradesh (5.4 per cent). Important mines are
rubber industry, etc. Lead-zinc reserves occur located in Kendujhar and Sundargarh
in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, West districts of Orissa; Balaghat district of Madhya
Bengal, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh; Nagpur and Bhandara districts of
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Maharashtra; Bellary, North Kanara and
Nadu and Sikkim. Total recoverable reserves Shimoga districts of Kar nataka;
of all grade lead and zinc ores are 176.84 Vijayanagaram and Adilabad districts of
million tonnes comprising metal content of Andhra Pradesh; West Singhbhum district of
2.381 million tonnes of lead and 9.7 million Jharkhand; and Banswara and Udaipur
tonnes of zinc. districts of Rajasthan.
Production of lead concentrates was
Gold
63856 tonnes and of zinc concentrates
349934 tonnes in 1998-99; and 54493 tonnes Gold is a precious metal and is highly valued
and 365164 tonnes, respectively in 2000-01. by people all over the world. It is one of the
Almost all zinc is produced from the mines of rare minerals. Quartz veins in the Dharwar
Rajasthan, which also produced more than schists contain most of the country’s reserves
80 per cent of lead concentrates. Orissa (10.7 of gold ore. It is called ‘lode deposit’. Gold is
per cent) and Andhra Pradesh (8.2 per cent) also obtained from sands of rivers, which is
are other producers. Lead-zinc ore is also known as ‘placer deposits.’ There are three
produced in Sikkim. Hindustan Zinc Limited important goldfields in the country, namely,
(HZL) has the responsibility of mining and Kolar Gold Field, Kolar district, Hutti Gold
smelting of lead-zinc ores. Fields in Raichur district (both in Karnataka),
and Ramagiri Gold Field in Anantpur district
Manganese (Andhra Pradesh). Total recoverable reserves
Manganese is mainly used in the of gold ore are estimated at 177.9 lakh tonnes
manufacturing of non-abrasive and non- with 67.9 tonnes of metal. Production of
corrosive steel and ferro-manganese alloy. primary gold was 2463 kg in 1998-99 and
Besides, it has a variety of other uses. India 2153 kg in 2000-01. More than 70 per cent
is one of the leading producers and exporters of gold is produced from the mines of
of manganese. But the export market of Karnataka and nearly one-tenth from Andhra
manganese declined due to increasing Pradesh. Gold is also produced from placer
production in other countries and increasing deposits in Jharkhand.
use of its substitute. Manganese deposits are
Bauxite
found in almost all geological systems,
however, more than 90 per cent of them are India is self sufficient in bauxite, the chief
contained in Gondite and Kodurite series of raw material for the manufacture of
the Dharwar system. Total recoverable aluminium. Bauxite deposits are mostly
reserves of manganese ore are 161 million associated with laterite, and occur as blankets
tonnes out of which only 49 million tonnes or as capping on the high plateaus in

are proved reserves. Major reserves are peninsular India. Total recoverable reserves
109

of bauxite in the country are placed at 2462 Limestone
million tonnes while the total in situ reserves Limestone is a key raw material for
are 2953 million tonnes. About 88 per cent of construction, chemical and metallurgical
the recoverable reserves are of metallurgical industries. Large deposits of limestone are
grade. More than half of the reserves are available in the country. Major reserves of
confined in Orissa and nearly one-fifth in limestone are found in the Cuddapah,
Andhra Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh, Vindhyan and Cretaceous formations and are
Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and widely distributed. Total recoverable reserves
Jharkhand also have large deposits of bauxite. of limestone of all grades are placed at 75679
Total production of bauxite declined from million tonnes. The total conditional reserves
7.89 million tonnes in 1999-2000 to 7.50 are estimated at 701 million tonnes. More
million tonnes in 2000-01. Orissa is the than half of the estimated reserves are
largest bauxite producer (43.6 per cent of total confined in three states, viz. Karnataka,
production in 1998-99) followed by Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. Madhya
Jharkhand (19.2 per cent), Maharashtra (13.3 Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,
per cent) and Madhya Pradesh (11.4 per cent). Meghalaya, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Production from Gujarat and Tamil Nadu is Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal also possess
also worth mentioning. Principal producers large reserves.
are Koraput and Sundargarh districts of Total production of limestone was 109.8
million tonnes in 1998-99, which reached
Orissa, Gumla and Lohardaga districts of
128.8 million tonnes in 2000-01. Major share
Jharkhand, Kolhapur and Ratnagiri districts
in production during 1998-99 was of Madhya
of Maharashtra, Bastar, Bilaspur and Surguja
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (24.5 per cent),
districts of Chhattisgarh, Mandla, Satna, Andhra Pradesh (17.4 per cent), Rajasthan
Jabalpur and Shahdol districts of Madhya (16.4 per cent), and Gujarat (11.0 per cent).
Pradesh, Jamnagar, Kachchh and Junagarh Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
districts of Gujarat and Salem and Nilgiri Himachal Pradesh each produce 5 to 10
districts of Tamil Nadu. million tonnes of limestone annually. Major
producers are Satna, Jabalpur, Katni, Rewa,
NON-METALLIC MINERALS Damoh, Mandsaur, and Morena districts of
Madhya Pradesh; Raipur, Mahasamund,
Durg, Bilaspur and Janjgir districts of
India has deposits of several non-metallic
Chhattisgarh; Cuddapah, Nalgonda,
minerals and production of these minerals
Adilabad, Krishna, Karimnagar, Guntur and
increased with the increasing pace of Rangareddi districts of Andhra Pradesh;
industrialisation in the country. These Chittaurgarh, Ajmer, Sirohi, Udaipur and
minerals are used as raw materials, as flux Kota districts of Rajasthan; and Junagarh,
minerals and as refractory minerals. More Amreli and Jamnagar districts of Gujarat.
than 47 non-metallic minerals were produced Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu, Gulbarga in
on commercial scale in 2000-01 in the Karnataka, Chandrapur in Maharashtra are
country. Total value of these minerals (Rs also major producers of limestone.
18.53 billion) was only 3.86 per cent of the Consequently, cement factories have been
total value of all the minerals produced. Only located in most of these areas.
a few of the non-metallic minerals are
significant in the mining economy. Limestone Dolomite
alone accounts for two-thirds of the total value Deposits of dolomite are present in almost all
of minerals of this group. Phosphorite, kaolin, parts of the country. Total recoverable
gypsum and magnesite are also significant reserves of all grades of dolomite are 4387
non-metallic minerals. million tonnes. About 90 per cent of reserves
110

are distributed in Madhya Pradesh, states are Kerala (largest producer), Andhra
Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Pradesh, Gujarat, West Bengal, Bihar,
West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh-
Total production was 2908 thousand tonnes Chhattisgarh. Recoverable reserves of gypsum
in 1998-99 and 2815 thousand tonnes in are estimated at 238 million tonnes. Out of
2000-01. Most of the dolomite is produced this, 345 thousand tonnes are of surgical/
from the reserves located near iron and steel plaster grade and 39 million tonnes of
plants. Orissa (31.7 per cent) and Madhya fertiliser/pottery grade. Major producers of
Pradesh- Chhattisgarh (30.1 per cent) gypsum are Rajasthan and Jammu and
together account for more than 60 per cent Kashmir. Tamil Nadu and Gujarat also
of total production. Andhra Pradesh and produce some gypsum. Production of gypsum
Jharkhand are also major producers of was 324.7 thousand tonnes in 2000-01.
dolomite. Principal producing districts are Major deposits of magnesite are found in Uttar
Sundargarh in Orissa; Jhabua, Balaghat and Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. India
Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh; Bilaspur, produced 325.7 thousand tonnes of
Janjgir and Durg in Chhattisgarh; Khammam magnesite in 2000-01. India is world’s leading
in Andhra Pradesh; Palamu in Jharkhand; producer of sheet mica and accounts for about
Vadodara in Gujarat; Nagpur in Maharashtra; 60 per cent of world trade of mica. Important
and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. deposits of mica are in Andhra Pradesh,
Jharkhand and Rajasthan. Production of
Phosphate Minerals mica in the country declined drastically from
These are used mainly for manufacturing of 9.9 thousand tonnes in 1950 and 28.34
phosphatic fertilisers. Recoverable reserves of thousand tonnes in 1960 to only 1.8 thousand
phosphorite are estimated at 142.63 million tonnes in 2000-01. Managampet deposit of
tonnes. Deposits are located in Rajasthan, Cuddapah district (Andhra Pradesh) is the
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal single largest deposit of barytes.
and Gujarat. In 2000-01, 1191.6 thousand
tonnes of phosphorite was produced in the POWER GENERATION IN INDIA
country. Rajasthan is the leading producer
followed by Uttaranchal, Madhya Pradesh and Power is an essential input for economic
Uttar Pradesh. Udaipur in Rajasthan, development and improving the quality of life.
Dehradun in Uttaranchal, Jhabua and It is available in a variety of forms in India,
Chhatarpur in Madhya Pradesh and Lalitpur such as coal, petroleum, natural gas (known
in Uttar Pradesh are major phosphorite as fossil fuels) and electricity, called
producing districts. conventional sources of energy. Besides, non-
Commercial deposits of apatite are conventional sources of energy such as solar,
reported from West Bengal, Jharkhand, wind and bio-energy, are also being
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. developed. These are renewable sources of
It is produced in Vishakhapatnam district of energy because they do not exhaust and
Andhra Pradesh and Purulia district of West perennial supply of energy can be maintained
Bengal. from them. Contrary to them, conventional
Other non-Metallic Minerals sources are exhaustible and do not renew
naturally. Non-commercial fuels like fuel
Among the other non-metallic minerals wood, animal waste and agricultural residues
produced in the country, kaolin, clays, meet the bulk of energy requirements in the
gypsum, magnesite, mica, barytes, felspar rural areas. With the rising standard of living
and ochre are significant in terms of value. and mechanisation of agriculture, use of
Total recoverable reserves of kaolin are about conventional sources of energy has increased

1042 million tonnes. Principal producing in rural areas also.
111

Table 10.5: India: Progress of Installed Capacity of Electricity Plants, 1950-2001
Year Hydro Thermal Nuclear Total

(000 MW) (%) (000 MW) (%) (000 MW) (%) (000 MW)
1950-51 0.6 35.3 1.1 64.7 — — 1.7
1960-61 1.9 41.3 2.7 58.7 — — 4.6
1970-71 6.4 43.5 7.9 53.7 0.4 2.7 14.7
1980-81 11.8 38.9 17.6 58.1 0.9 3.0 30.2
1990-91 18.8 28.4 45.8 69.3 1.5 2.9 66.1
2000-01 25.1 24.7 73.6 72.4 2.9 2.9 101.6
History of power generation in India generation and transmission of power in the

commenced at the end of the nineteenth country. Consequently, installed power
century with the commissioning of electricity generation capacity in the country increased
supply in Darjeeling in 1897. The aggregate from 1,400 MW in 1947 to 101.6 thousand
installed capacity of power plants reached to MW in 2000-01, recording a growth of more
162 MW in 1925 and 1400 MW in 1947. than 72 times (Table 10.5).
Before independence, power supply was in In spite of increasing emphasis on
private sector and was limited to urban renewable energy resources, proportion of
centres. After independence, State Electricity hydropower in total installed capacity
Boards were formed during Five Year Plans declined from 35.3 per cent in 1950-51 to
which made concerted efforts for systematic 24.7 per cent in 2000-01. On the other
growth of power industry all over the country. hand, percentage share of thermal power
A number of multipurpose projects were (including gas and diesel) incr eased
established to supplement the thermal power substantially during this period. Nuclear
and to meet the requirements of regions energy could not contribute significantly
deficient in fossil fuels. A number of [Fig. 10.3: (a) and (b)]. Trend of energy
organisations have been constituted to look generated by different sources is given in
after the construction and operation of Table 10.6.
INDIA INDIA
INSTALLED CAPACITY OF ELECTRICITY GROSS GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
(1998-99) (1998-99)
HYDRO NUCLEAR
NUCLEAR 18% 3%
HYDRO 2%
24%
DIESEL
& WIND
1%
DIESEL
& WIND
STEAM GAS
2%
(COAL) 9%
62%
NATURAL
GAS
STEAM
10%
69%
Fig. 10.3(a) Installed Capacity of Electricity 1998-99

112
Fig. 10.3(b) Gross Generation of Electricity 1998-99

Table 10.6: India: Trend of Energy Generated by Different Sources, 1950-2001
Year Hydro Thermal Nuclear Total

(000 MW) (%) (000 MW) (%) (000 MW) (%) (000 MW)
1950-51 2.5 49.0 2.6 51.0 — — 5.1
1980-81 46.5 42.0 61.3 55.3 3.0 2.7 110.8
2000-01 74.3 14.9 408.2 81.7 16.9 3.4 499.5
B. Kwh - Billion Kwh.

Regional distribution of both, the
installed capacity and generated
power, is very uneven. Power is
comparatively more developed in
regions supporting heavy industries
requiring high power (such as Mumbai
industrial region, Tamil Nadu
industrial belt, etc), or in regions
located near coalfields (such as the
Damodar valley coal belt, Singrauli
coalfield), or multipurpose projects
(such as Bhakra- Nangal, Koyna etc).
Contrary to them, it is comparatively
less developed in industrially lagging
regions and sparsely populated states
such as the interior part of the
peninsula, western Rajasthan, Assam Fig. 10.4 India: Consumption of Electricity in
and other mountainous states. Percentage, 1999-2000
Pattern of the consumption of electricity
has changed enormously. During 1999-2000, representing about 27 per cent of the all-
industries utilised one-third (34.8 per cent) India thermal capacity. Now about 82 per
of the total electricity consumed (Fig. 10.4), cent electricity is thermal.
while they used nearly two-thirds (62.6 per
Hydroelectric Power: Development of
cent) of it in 1950-51. Contrary to it, use for
hydroelectric power started in the last decade
agricultural purposes increased from 3.9 per
of the 19th century with the establishment of
cent to 29.2 per cent, and for domestic
a hydroelectric plant for supplying electricity
purposes from 12.6 per cent to 22.2 per cent
to Darjeeling in 1897. In 1902, another
during the same period.
hydropower plant was erected at
Ther mal Power: Thermal power is the Sivasamundram waterfall on Kaveri river in
major source of energy in which coal, diesel Karnataka. Later, a few plants were erected
and natural gas are used for generation of in the Wester n Ghats to meet the
electricity. Share of thermal electricity requirements of Mumbai. Hydropower plants
increased very rapidly after creation of the were also commissioned in Uttar Pradesh,
National Ther mal Power Corporation Himachal Pradesh in the north, and Tamil
(NTPC) in 1975. At present, NTPC has to Nadu and Karnataka in the south in 1930s.
its credit 13 coal-based super ther mal Total generation capacity reached to 508 MW
power projects and seven gas/liquid fuel in 1947. Massive efforts were made to develop
based combined power projects. It has an waterpower during the Five Year Plans and

installed capacity of 19,435 MW several multipurpose projects were
113

commissioned. The National Hydro-Electric This potential depends on several physical
Power Corporation (NHPC) was set up in and economic factors. Among them, river
1975, which has so far completed the regime, volume of river water, regularity in
construction of eight hydro-electric projects river flow (all these are dependent on rainfall
with the total installed capacity of 2193 MW. pattern), nature of terrain, availability of other
Total installed capacity of hydroelectricity sources of power, level of economic
increased to 25219.55 MW at the end of 2000- development creating demand, and
01, which was nearly one-fourth of the total technological status are important. Regular
installed capacity of electricity. In spite of flow of sufficient water with high velocity
being cheaper, pollution-free and renewable provides favourable condition for the
source of power, significance of hydro- development of hydroelectricity. Amount and
electricity has declined in post-independence regularity of flow depends on nature of rainfall
period. Its share in total power generation while slope determines the velocity of flow.
declined from 49 per cent in 1950-51 to only Since these conditions vary throughout the
14.9 per cent in 2000-01. Nevertheless, country, the distribution of hydropower
hydroelectricity plays a very significant role potential is also very uneven.
in northern, western and southern grids. The The rivers originating from the northern
Northeastern grid is primarily dependent on mountainous region are the most important
hydel power. ones in this respect. They have their sources
In context of the energy crisis in the in glaciers and snowfields, therefore, they are
country hydroelectric power has assumed perennial and their flow of water is regular
pivotal significance. Indian rivers drain 1677 throughout the year. Velocity of flow is high
billion cubic metres of water to the sea every because of dissected terrain and the
year. The Central Water and Power competition for use of water for other
Commission estimated the potential of purposes is low. The northeastern part of this
hydroelectric power at about 40 million kW mountainous region, constituting the
at 60% load factor from these rivers. Central Brahmaputra basin, has the largest power
Electricity Authority re-estimated this generating potential. The Indus basin in the
potential at 84,000 MW at 60% load factor. It northwest is at second place. The Himalayan
is equivalent to about 450 billion units of tributaries of the Ganga have a potential of
annual energy generation. Basin-wise 11 thousand MW. Thus, three-fourths of the
distribution of the potential is given in total potential is confined in the river basins
Table 10.7. originating from the northern mountainous
region.
Table 10.7: India: Basin-wise estimated The rivers of peninsular India are
Potential of Hydropower comparatively poor in this respect. They
(Potential in thousand MW at 60 per cent load depend entirely on the rainfall for their flow,
factor) and therefore, their flow is very erratic –
exceptionally high flow during the monsoon
Basin Potential % of Total
period followed by a long period of lean flow.
Indus 20.0 23.8 Storage of water is essential to regulate the
Brahmaputra 35.0 41.7 flow. The bulk of the potential in this part is
confined in the hilly regions along the middle
Ganga 11.0 13.1
and upper reaches of various river systems.
Central Indian 3.0 3.6 The topographical features in these reaches
basins are seldom favourable for development of
West flowing rivers 6.0 7.1 irrigation. Consequently, development of
East flowing rivers 9.0 10.7 hydroelectric sites would not clash with other
priority uses of water. The Western Ghats,
Total 84.0 100.0

114
northwester n Kar nataka, Nilgiri and

Important Hydroelectric Plants in Different States of India
States Name of Hydroelectric Plants
Jammu and Lower Jhelum, Salal on Chenab, Dool Hasti and Karrah.
Kashmir
Punjab and Bhakra-Nangal on Satluj, Dehar on Beas, Giri Bata, Andhra, Binwa, Rukti,
Himachal Pradesh Rongtong, Bhabanagar, Bassi, Baira Siul, Chamera, Nathpa-Jhakri on Satluj
(biggest hydel power project in India).
Uttar Pradesh Rihand, Khodri, Chibro on Tons.
Uttaranchal Tehri dam on Bhagirthi.
Rajasthan Ranapratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar on Chambal.
Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Sagar on Chambal, Pench, Bargi on Narmada, Bansagar-Tons.
Bihar Kosi.
Jharkhand Subarnarekha, Maithon, Panchet, Tilaiya (all three under DVC).
West Bengal Panchet.
Orissa Hirakund on Mahanadi, Balimela.
Northeastern states Dikhu, Doyang (both in Nagaland), Gomuti (Tripura), Loktak (Manipur), Kopili
(Assam), Khandong and Kyrdemkulai (Meghalaya), Serlui and Barabi (Mizoram),
Ranganadi (Arunachal Pradesh).
Gujarat Ukai (Tapi), Kadana (Mahi).
Maharashtra Koyana, Bhivpuri (Tata Hydroelectric Works), Khopoli, Bhola, Bhira, Purna,
Vaiterna, Paithon, Bhatnagar Beed.
Andhra Pradesh Lower Sileru, Upper Sileru, Machkund, Nizam Sagar, Nagarjun Sagar, Srisailam
(Krishna).
Karnataka Tungabhadra, Saravati, Kalinadi, Mahatma Gandhi (Jog fall), Bhadra,
Sivasamudram (Kaveri), Shimsapura, Munirabad, Lingnamakki.
Kerala Iddikki (Periyar), Sabarigiri,Kuttiaddy, Sholayar, Sengulam, Pallivasal, Kallada,
Neriamangalam, Parambikulam Aliyar, Poringal. Ponniar.
Tamil Nadu Pykara, Mettur, Kodayar, Sholayar, Aliayar, Sakarpathi, Moyar, Suruliyar,
Papanasam.
Anamalai hills and upper Narmada basin are which was renamed as the ‘Bhabha Atomic
major areas of concentration of potential in Research Centre’ (BARC) in 1967.
peninsular India. Despite this, potential of Consequently, first nuclear power station with
hydropower has been comparatively more 320 MW capacity was set up at Tarapur near
developed in southern states because these Mumbai in 1969. Later, atomic reactors were
states are far away from coalfields of the installed at Rawatbhata (300 MW) near Kota
northeastern plateaus. in Rajasthan, Kalpakkam (440 MW) in Tamil
Nadu, and Narora in Uttar Pradesh. Kaiga in
Nuclear Power
Karnataka and Kakarapara in Gujarat also
Nuclear power programme was initiated in the have nuclear energy plants. Thus at present,
5th decade of the last century and an apex nuclear energy is produced from ten units
body for decision-making regarding atomic located at six centres (Fig. 10.5).
programmes, the ‘ Tata Atomic Energy Requirements of fuel and heavy water of these
Commission’ was incorporated in August power reactors are fulfilled by the Nuclear
1948. But progress in this direction could be Fuel Complex located at Hyderabad and heavy
made only after the establishment of the water plant at Vadodara. Total installed
Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954,

115
capacity of these nuclear reactors was 2758

MW in 2000-01. They generate only 16.9 planning, promotion, and coordination,
billion kWh of energy that was only 3.4 per relating to all aspects of renewable energy
cent of total energy generated in India. resources. By now, India has developed
Three types of regions can be identified technologies for harnessing renewable non-
on the basis of sources of electricity: conventional energy resources. Some of the
achievements are given in Table 10.8.
1. Hydro-electricity dominated region: It
extends over Karnataka, Kerala, Himachal Table 10.8: India: Potential and Achievements
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, of Renewable Energy Resources
Meghalaya, Nagaland, T ripura and
Sikkim. These are far away from coalfields Source/System Potential Status (as on
(Approximate) 31.03.2001
but have optimum conditions for the
development of hydroelectricity. Biogas plants (No.) 120 lakh 32 lakh
2. Thermal power dominated region: It Solar water heating — 337 lakh
encompasses Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, system (No)
Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Solar Photovoltaic 20 MW/sq km 73 MW
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, system
Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. Majority Biomass Power 19,500 MW 332.18 MW
of these states have reserves of coal, which Wind Power 45,000 MW 1,340 MW
are utilised for power generation. Bihar,
Hydro Power 15,000 units 1,361 MW
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab do
Solar Photovoltaic 2.494 MW
not have coal reserves but have direct
Power
access to coalfields by railway lines.
However, they are diversifying their Conclusions
sources of power (Fig 10.5).
3. Nuclear power dominated region: It is Electricity cannot be easily imported or stored,
Rajasthan where about 54 per cent of total and hence, creation of indigenous generation
commercial energy is nuclear, 33 per cent capacity is critical for meeting the country’s
thermal, and 13 per cent hydro-electricity. demand for power. The Ninth Five Year Plan
This state is deficit in both coal and water. envisaged substantial additions to capacity
and production in the energy sector. But in
the first three years of the plan, capacity
NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY expansion in power sector was much below
the expectations. Power generation capacity
The importance of the renewable energy could not be raised at stipulated rate. Under
resources was recognised in the early 1970s. these circumstances, main thrust areas in
It is now accepted that renewable energy power sector that have been identified are –
resources can provide the basis for maximisation of benefits from the existing
sustainable energy development on account plants, improving the reliability and quality of
of their inexhaustible nature and environment power supplies, setting up of inter-regional
friendly character. During the past quarter transmission links, and formation of integrated
century, a variety of renewable energy National Grid. Thus, all sectors in energy are
technologies have been developed and poised for reforms. A new focus is on energy
deployed in villages and cities. These sources conservation, which may reduce the demand-
of energy cover biogas, biomass, solar energy, supply gap. Another change forthcoming is
wind energy, small hydropower, solar from the global environmental front, where
photovoltaic power and recovery of energy concern for emission of greenhouse gases is
from urban, municipal and industrial wastes. pushing energy policies in the direction of
Separate ministry of Non-Conventional better efficiency and renewability with less use
Sources of Energy has been created for
116
of coal and more use of oil and gas.

E
N N
N N

Fig. 10.5 India: Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants
117

EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) Name three organisations that are involved in exploration and development of
mineral resources in India.
(b) Mention major mineral belts of India.
(c) Name four river valleys known for occurrence of the Gondwana coal.
(d) Name four states which produce most of India’s coal.
(e) What is lignite?
(f) Name petroleum producing regions of India.
(g) What are the major iron ore producing states of India?
(h) Name the location of nuclear power plants of India.
(i) What are non-conventional sources of energy?
2. Describe the uses and distribution of manganese ore and bauxite in India.
3. Describe the distribution of iron ore in India.
4. Describe the distributional pattern of electricity in India.
5. Write uses of the following minerals:
(a) Chromite
(b) Zinc
(c) Copper
(d) Dolomite
(e) Limestone
(f ) Coal
(a) Metallic and non-Metallic minerals
(b) Thermal and Hydroelectricity
(c) Gondwana and Tertiary Coals
Project Work
7. (a) On an outline map of India, show the following:

(i) Petroleum refineries of India.
(ii) Areas producing petroleum.
(b) Prepare a brief write up on the distributional pattern of coal and petroleum in
the country.
118

CHAPTER
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
Planning is the process of evolving a sequence
of actions, which are designed to solve problems Planning in India
in future. The planning problems vary but tend Planning in India derives its objective and
to be primarily economic and social; the social promises from the Directive Principles
planning period also varies according to the type of the State Policy enshrined in the
and level of planning; but all planning involves Constitution. Public and Private Sectors are
a sequential process, which can be viewed as complementary.
conceptualised into a number of stages.
In India, planning is still centralised.
National Development Council, consisting of HISTORY OF PLANNING
the central cabinet, members of the Planning
Commission and chief ministers of states and Within few years of independence, India
union territories set the policy of the planning. appointed a National Planning Commission
The Planning Commission is entrusted with and began the process of State-initiated
the formulation of the national plans. planned development. Even before that,
Subjects of the national significance, such as M. Visvesvarayya had published a ten-year
defence, communication, railway, etc. come plan for India in 1936. The National Congress
under the scope of Central Government, while in 1938 appointed an expert committee to
vital elements of rural development, such as explore the possibility of an all India plan,
agriculture, power, education, health, social which was named as the National Planning
services, small scale industries, and Committee. This committee without finalising
development of roads and transport falls a plan formulated certain policies and
under the scope of the state government. In perspectives of development. In 1944, Tata
most cases, strategies, policies and and Birla prepared the ‘Bombay Plan’. The
programmes are formulated by the Planning Gandhian plan prepared by S.N. Agrawal
Commission and states are asked simply to followed it with the objectives of development
implement them. of agriculture and rural industries. After
The planning process in the states is not independence, the Planning Commission
much different. While the national plan deals prepared a plan in 1952 as the First Five Year
with the conceptual and theoretical aspects, Plan of 1951-56. The Planning Commission
streses upon aggregate needs and possibilities, has formulated and implemented nine Five
targets to be achieved and approaches to be Year Plans since then. The Tenth Five Year
adopted, the states are responsible to carry out Plan has also been finalised and is being
the plan on the ground, and therefore, these implemented. Indian plans had multiple
are supposed to be physical in nature. The objectives and emphasised growth as well as
regional breakdown of sectoral plan is social justice. On the basis of the experiences
attempted at state level. Through Constitutional of successive plans, several strategies and
amendments, the planning has been made a approaches have been on test during the last
necessary component of local level development. five decades. A succinct summary of the
Now, there are agencies to prepare plans for objectives, strategies and approaches are
districts, blocks, cities and villages. given below.

First Five Year Plan (1951-56): With the view (i) increase the national income rapidly,
to initiate the process of development, the (ii) achieve self-sufficiency in foodgrains and
major emphasis in the First Plan was given increase agricultural production, (iii) expand
on an overall development, particularly of basic industries, (iv) expand employment
rural communities. For this purpose, the opportunities, and (v) reduce the regional and
Community Development Programme (CDP) personal disparity in income and wealth. The
was launched, and through the National achievements of the Third Plan were not
Extension Service, it was sought to extend encouraging. The reasons of this shortfall
supplies of inputs, services, finance and were untimely monsoon rains, severe drought
technical know-how to ruralites. This was in 1965, war with China in 1962 and with
called as multipurpose approach based on the Pakistan in 1965, non-availability of foreign
principles of all-round development. credit and rigid administrative rules and
However, the First Plan accorded highest procedures. The record increase in foodgrain
priority to agriculture including irrigation and production was achieved in 1964-65 as 88.95
power. Bhakra-Nangal Project for Punjab and million tonnes, which fell to 72.29 million
Rajasthan, Kosi Project for Bihar, Damodar tonnes in the following year. The achievements
Valley Project for Jharkhand and West Bengal, of the Third Plan were significant only in the
and Hirakud Project for Orissa were instituted industrial sector. The overall performance was
on the model of Tennessee Valley Authority poor in comparison to the Second Plan.
(USA) to control flood, irrigate land, generate
electricity, regulate soil erosion and fishing. Annual Plans (1966-69): Instead of Fourth
The first fertiliser factory was established at Five-Year Plan, three annual plans were
Sindri (Jharkhand). In spite of this, the formulated between 1966 and 1969. These
multipurpose approach could not make much plans emphasised the adoption of ‘package
headway and it gave way to the sectoral programmes’ relating to high yielding varieties
approach in later plans. of seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and credit
facilities in selected areas with assured rainfall
Second Five Year Plan (1956-61): This plan and irrigation. This is known as ‘Intensive
sought to promote a pattern of development, Agricultural District Programme’. This
which would ultimately lead to the package programme brought the so-called
establishment of a socialistic pattern of society Green Revolution. Consequently, agricultural
in India. Its main aims were: (i) an increase of production registered rapid increase. The
25% in the national income, (ii) rapid industrial development registered imperceptible
industrialisation with particular emphasis on changes. A recovery in industrial production
development of basic and heavy industries, (iii) was recorded in 1968-69.
expansion of employment opportunities, and
(iv) reduction in inequality. The special Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74): Main
emphasis was laid on the development of basic objectives of the Fourth Five Year Plan were:
and heavy industries in the second plan and (i) accelerating the tempo of development,
it defined the role of public sector in the (ii) reducing fluctuations in agricultural
development of the country. New integrated production, and (iii) safeguarding uncertainties
steel plants were commissioned in public of foreign aids. Industries were dispersed to
sector at Bhilai, Rourkela and Durgapur. stimulate the economy of weaker or less
A heavy electrical plant (BHEL) was established developed areas. Programmes were designed
at Bhopal and apart from expansion of Sindri to promote growth with social justice. The
fertiliser factory, Nangal and Rourkela fertiliser plan laid particular emphasis on improving
units were opened. The agriculture sector was the condition of the less privileged and weaker
not given due attention. sections through education and employment.
Third Five Year Plan (1961-66): The main Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79): This plan
objectives of the Third Five Year Plan were to:
140
enlarged the measures introduced during the
Development Planning

Fourth Plan with specific emphasis on Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97): The New
removal of poverty. An interregional allocation economic policy, particularly the New
policy in backward areas, an incentive policy Industrial Policy, was announced in 1991 and
in industrially backward regions, a sub-plan this plan was framed within the framework
approach for some special problem areas, and of these policies. Among them structural
a social justice approach were principal adjustment policies were important. Several
components of the policy/programme guiding liberalisation measures were announced and
regional/area development planning in this plan private sector was assigned important role in
period. the development, particularly in industrial
The significant feature of the Fifth Five Year development. Growth of different sectors of
Plan is the preparation of sub-plans for the economy was fast. Export and import also
selected tribal areas, hill areas and drought- increased substantially, recording reduction
prone areas in the country. The sub-plan in trade deficit.
approach provided special central assistance
out of the state plan funds ensuring a certain Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002): Objective
order of normal development. This plan of this plan was the sustainable development
launched a national programme of minimum of the economy and society, ensuring food and
needs, for providing a minimum level of social nutritional security and basic minimum
consumption for different areas and sections services to all, containing the growth rate of
of the community based on the predetermined population, empowerment of women and
criteria of uniformity and equality. It was socially disadvantaged groups and promoting
particularly a rural-oriented programme made institutions like Panchayati Raj. Average
to improve the socio-economic conditions of annual growth rate during the Ninth Plan was
the weaker sections of the community. lower than the plan target.
Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85): Removal of Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07): This plan
poverty was the foremost objective of the Sixth envisages an average annual growth rate of 8
Plan. The strategy was to move per cent. Besides economic growth, the tenth
simultaneously towards strengthening plan has set some monitorable targets for key
infrastructure for both agriculture and indicators of human development, namely,
industry. People were involved in formulating reduction of poverty ratio by 5 per cent points
specific schemes of development at the local by 2007, providing gainful employment to the
level. Various r-distribution measures were
labour force, education for all children in
advocated for raising the share of poorer
school by 2003, and increase in the literacy
sections in the national income.
rate to 75 per cent within the plan period.
Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90): The basic The development strategy adopted for the
tenets of this plan were growth, plan includes greater role of private sector in
modernisation, self-reliance and social justice. the Indian economy, need for provision of
Within this framework, policies and infrastructure, and need for greater flexibility
programmes were framed for raising in fiscal and monetary policies. For a balanced
foodgrains production, employment and development of all states, the Tenth Plan
productivity. Generation of productive includes state-wise break-up of broad
employment was assessed as most critical. development targets for growth rates and
Annual Plans (1990-92): The Seventh plan social development consistent with national
was followed by two annual plans under the targets. The plan also emphasises the need
constraints of prevailing political situation. to ensure equity and social justice, completion
The basic thrust of these annual plans was of on-going projects, privatisation of public
on maximisation of employment and social enterprises particularly those which are
transformation.
141
running below the capacity.

Plan Implementation Sixth and Seventh Plans were also
remarkable, as the compound annual growth
The real problems of planning in India are
rate of net domestic products was above 5.0
related with plan implementation and not to
per cent. Growth was severely constrained
plan formulation. The formulation of plan is
during the annual plans of 1990-92 due to
concerned with the Planning Commission at
the political instability. The Eighth Plan
the central level while the implementation is
recorded all time highest annual growth rate
made by the several departments of the
of 6.7 per cent. Again, the growth was slower
central and state governments.
during the Ninth Plan period.
The states are not prepared to perform
the functions of planning. The complex Growth in Different Sectors of the
planning problems related to the development Economy: The growth rate in net national
of agriculture and allied activities, rural and products and per capita income depended
urban development, family planning, transport largely on the performance of agriculture.
planning and industrial development need the Production and productivity of agriculture
concerned expertise. There is no expert of suffered setback from vagaries of monsoon
planning at the state level to formulate and particularly in drought years. Contrary to it,
implement plan in the state. Hence, the plan industrial growth rate has been consistently
at state level acts as distributing agency to higher than the agricultural. With the growing
the sectoral needs of the concer ned economy, industrial structure of the country
departments. diversified. Consequently, industrial
production grew by 5.5 per cent per annum
during this period as against 3.0 per cent of
ACHIEVEMENTS agricultural production. This was higher than
the growth of population which was at 2.2
Growth in Net National Products: The per cent. Output of quaternary sector grew
Indian economy made several strides during much faster. Contribution to gross domestic
the last fifty years (1950-51 to 2000-01) under product of trade and transport sector and
planned regime. As a result of this, the Net financing services increased by about 16
National Product increased 7.6 times times each and of public administration and
registering a compound growth rate of 4.2 per services by more than 12 times during this
cent per annum. During the same period, per period. As a result of the planned efforts,
capita income increased by 2.8 times, economy of the country diversified and
registering a compound growth rate of 2.1 per significance of non-primary sectors increased.
cent per annum. However, there has been Primary sector accounted for 59.2 per cent of
wide variation in annual growth rates during the gross domestic product in 1950-51 but
different plans. only 26.6 per cent in 2000-01. The shares of
In terms of compound annual growth rate, secondary sector on the other hand increased
the First Plan was successful, especially in from 13.3 to 25.0 per cent and that of tertiary
respect of achieving self-sufficiency in food. sector from 27.5 to 48.4 per cent within the
The Second Plan made further strides not only same period. Within the secondary sector,
in agriculture but also in industry. The Third manufacturing, electricity, gas and water
Plan and the subsequent three annual plans supply expanded rapidly. Similarly, in the
were period of stagnation with lowest growth tertiary sector, trade, transport and public
in net domestic product. It was due to wars, administration together with defence recorded
droughts and devaluation of Indian currency. very high growth. All these reflect a growing
Situation did not improve much even during maturity of the Indian economy.
the Fourth Plan. The Fifth Plan, however, Contrary to it, occupational structure of
recorded substantial improvement in spite of workers did not change much. Primary sector

drought of 1979-80. Achievements during the accounted for 72.0 per cent of the working
142

population in 1951 and 67.5 per cent in 1991. Employment Situation: Employment
Leaving other primary activities aside, generation has also been one of the priorities of
agricultural activities alone account for 58.4 the planning. Employment in absolute numbers
per cent of the total workers in 2001. When has risen from 303 million in 1983 to 397
seen against a sharp decline in the share of million in 2000. Employment opportunities
primary sector in gross domestic product, a have increased at a rate consistently lower than
relative fall in the per capita income in primary the growth of population. Average annual
sector vis-a-vis secondary and tertiary sectors growth rate of overall employment was 2.73 per
becomes obvious. This points out to an cent during 1972-78 but declined to 1.54 per
accentuated disparity in income levels of cent during 1983-88 and to 1.03 per cent
primary and non-primary sector workers, or during 1993-2000. Annual growth rate of
for that matter, of the rural and urban areas. employment in organised sector declined
Nevertheless, plan performance fell short of drastically and reached to -0.17 per cent in
expectations and targets. It is ascribed to 2000. It was mainly due to slowdown in public
unabated rapid growth of population and poor sector. As a result of this, the problem of
per for mance of the public sector. New educated unemployed has assumed serious
economic policy initiated in 1991 shows proportion. Nearly 37 million persons were
greater reliance on market forces and less role registered with the employment exchanges for
of the public sector. seeking jobs in 1996-97.
Improvement in Consumption Status:
Indicators of consumption show some REGIONAL DISPARITY
improvement. Per capita per day availability
of cereals and pulses together increased from There is marked regional disparity in the level
394 gm in 1951 to 417 gm in 2001; though of development within the country. For
availability of pulses declined from 61 gm to instance, per capita income ranges from
26 gm during this period. Per capita net Rs 6328 in Bihar to Rs 35,705 in Delhi in 1999-
availability of edible oil per year went up by 2000. Thus, the ratio between states with the
3 times from 2.5 kg in 1955-56 to 8.0 kg in lowest and highest income is 1:5.6. Only in 14
2000-01, and that of sugar rose by more than out of 29 states and union territories per capita
3 times from 5 to 15.8 kg. Growth in per capita income is above Rs. 15,000 per annum.
availability of electricity for domestic use, from Similarly, proportion of population below
2.4 kWh in 1955-56 to 69.2 kWh in 1999- poverty line ranges from 3.48 per cent in
2000, is also impressive. These data, however, Jammu and Kashmir to 47.15 per cent in
do not show the distribution of benefits Orissa in 1999-2000. Ratio between lowest and
spatially and socially. highest values is thus 1: 13.5. Urbanisation is
another indicator of development. Proportion
Success of Poverty Eradication of urban population among states varies from
Programmes: The eradication of poverty has 5.50 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh to 49.77
been an integral component of the strategy per cent in Goa. Again the magnitude of
for economic development in the country. difference is 1:9. Still more than one-third of
The Planning Commission has been the total population above 6 years of age is
estimating the incidence of poverty at the illiterate. Situation is worse in female literacy.
national and state level. The incidence of Slightly more than half (54.2%) of them were
poverty expressed as a percentage of people literate in 2001. This proportion ranges from
living below the poverty line has witnessed a 33.6 per cent in Bihar to 87.9 per cent in
steady decline from 55 per cent in 1973-74 Kerala. Human Development Index already
to 26 per cent in 1999-2000. Though the discussed earlier is as low as 0.367 for Bihar
poverty ratio declined, the number of poor and as high as 0.638 for Kerala among major

is still more than 260 million. states of the country.
143

Regional disparity can be summarised as is attracting faster development in more
follows: advantageous areas and thereby increasing
1. Coastal areas are comparatively more regional disparity. The foreign investment is
developed than the interior. showing a locational bias in favour of coastal
2. Diffusion of development in areas of states and the National Capital Region.
commercial agriculture, such as in Punjab Emergence of the Panchayati Raj, however,
and Kerala is more whereas rural-urban is expected to stimulate development on
disparity is less. micro-level, which is expected to reduce the
3. T ribal areas are still relatively less regional disparity.
developed.
Programmes to Reduce Regional
4. Areas suffering from physical constraints
Disparities
like dry climate, difficult terrain and
frequent flood or those deprived of The programmes designed to reduce regional
advanced technology due to isolation have disparities can be classed into two groups:
remained backward. 1. Integrated area approach and local
The problems and issues of regional planning, and
development were not considered so markedly 2. Spatial integration in sectoral plans.
in the early stages of planning as today.
Integrated Area Approach and Local
Regional development policies during fifties
Planning: One of the important measures for
and sixties encouraged sectoral development
reducing regional disparities in India relates
in an effort to gain maximum returns from
to the preparation of integrated plans for
investment. The regional segregation of
selected areas and to the formulation of
national plans was not attempted except the
district plans. Among them, integrated plans
recognition of resource planning in some
for hill areas, drought-prone areas, tribal
problem regions like the Damodar valley.
areas, and areas with concentration of
Large industrial nodes which were developed
marginal and small far mers are worth
as the centripetal points during the Second
mentioning.
Five Year Plan increased interregional
differences in economic growth. Thus, the first Hill Area Development Programmes: The
two plans created more regional imbalances special hill area development programmes
though there was an increase in the output were started in hilly areas of Uttaranchal,
of goods and services. The government Assam Hill areas, Darjeeling district in West
however began some programmes for Bengal and Nilgiri district in Tamil Nadu. The
development of backward regions during the programmes provided special emphasis on
period. Efforts were made to narrow down exploiting local resources of the hill areas
regional disparities in mid-sixties, which through the development programmes of
showed some positive trend. The subsequent horticulture, plantation agriculture, animal
years, however, recorded a trend in the husbandry, poultry, beekeeping, forestry, soil
opposite direction. This resulted in decline in conservation and suitable village industries.
industrial growth, that affected the backward Tribal Area Development Programmes: The
areas more, and the green revolution programme has been conceived for areas with
remained confined only to the irrigated areas 50 per cent or more tribal concentration. The
of the country. A tendency of slight reduction main long-term objectives of the sub-plan are
in regional disparity was observed during the to narrow the gap between levels of
eighties when overall growth picked up. Green development of tribal and other people and
revolution spread to other regions during to improve the quality of life of the tribal
this period. communities. The areas taken under this
The new economic policy associated with programme lie in Madhya Pradesh,
liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation
144
Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat,

Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand and Rajasthan. Spatial Integration in Sectoral Plans:
Most of the grants to this programme are Several programmes, specially designed to
provided from the state plan funds added promote balanced regional development, were
with a special allocation from the central integrated within sectoral programmes during
sector. different plans.
The programmes are framed to benefit the
Community Development Programme: This
common man, particularly the weakest group
programme was launched in the first plan.
and it should be quick yielding and easily
The country was divided into development
accessible to the average tribal. It deals with
blocks. Through the National Extension
the special problems of the area such as
Service it was sought to extend supplies of
shifting cultivation, bonded labour, land
inputs, services, finance and technical know-
alienation and programmes related with credit
how to the ruralites. This has been called as
and marketing, forestry and road.
multipurpose approach based on the
Drought Prone Area Programmes: The main principles of all-round development. But this
objectives of the programme were to provide approach with its multisectoral components,
employment to the rural poor in drought struggling with resource constraint could not
prone areas with inadequate natural make much headway.
resources and creating productive assets to
mitigate the ef fects of droughts. The Industrial Location and Regional Development:
programme was curative in terms of advance These programmes aimed at decentralised
planning to introduce work under scarcity industrialisation. These programmes
relief operations and preventive in the sense encouraged industrial development in
that developmental works will increase the backward regions by providing concessional
productivity of land and labour. The emphasis finance, creation of industrial estates,
concentrated on integrated development of the establishment of public sector industrial
area related to irrigation projects, land undertakings and preferential licensing.
development programmes, afforestation, Infrastructural facilities were provided to
grassland development, rural electrification locate industries in industrial estates. In the
and programmes of infrastructural first stage, the estates were located near
development. Central assistance is conceived urban centres, but later on they were located
as an additive to the normal state effort in in rural areas also. These industrial estates
this programme. developed rapidly during the sixties but could
not fulfil the purpose of balanced
Metropolitan Regional Planning: Large urban development.
centres were treated as industrial growth
poles. As a result large-scale movement of Intensive Agricultural Development
labour from rural to urban areas Programme: This was adopted in the third
accompanied urban-based large-scale plan period. The essence of this policy was to
industrialisation. Such influx of migrants select a few districts where the prospects of
created several problems particularly in the agricultural development were bright. The
capital and port cities. Therefore, urban districts selected had assured water supply
master plans were prepared to reduce the by irrigation. In these districts the farmers
problems of rapid urbanisation. For Delhi, were provided with full package services –
Master Plan was prepared in 1955. It was improved seeds, fertilisers, plant protection
proposed to develop ring towns at Ghaziabad, and short-term credit. Due to high cost of
Faridabad, Ballabhgarh, Gurgaon and Loni inputs and high risk involved, this programme
to deflect the growing population of Delhi. was restricted within certain section of
Calcutta (Kolkata), Bombay (Mumbai), farmers in limited areas.
Hyderabad and other metropolitan cities The outcome of India’s planned
followed Delhi.
145
development is a mixed bag. On the success

side, the country can take pride in achieving sustainable development. The tenet of this
self-sufficiency in food, the expanding, concept is the utilisation of the environmental
diversifying and dispersing of its industrial resources according to their capacity of
base, containing the inflation rate, a high rate replenishing so that perpetual supply can be
of capital formation internally, and reducing ensured. Many forms of development erode
poverty ratio as well as regional disparity. On the environmental resources upon which they
the reverse side, rate of increase of income are based; which in turn, undermine present
has been lower than the target, agricultural economic development and reduce future
per for mance has been weaker and its possibilities. Therefore, sustainable development
industrial advancement lags far behind. The should keep in view the stability of the
country could not achieve the objective of ecosystem.
‘growth with equity’. Sustained efforts are still Sustainability can also be understood in
needed to reduce the visible disparities social sense, meaning a thriving economy and
amongst states, between rural and urban social order with productive structures and
areas and between males and females. relationships, which ensure a fair distribution
of income, power and opportunity, thus
providing the basis for social peace. In fact, it
NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT is people oriented and nature oriented
development concept, in which social justice,
The principal objective of the development welfare, quality of life and environmental
planning is the economic growth with protection are kept at par with the economic
equitable distribution of benefits with least growth. At the same time, local population,
deterioration of the ecosystem. To obtain this resources, needs, aspirations and capabilities
objective sustainable development approach are given due attention in the development
would be appropriate. Several attempts have planning. It requires multilevel planning for
been made to define sustainability and implementing equitable growth policies.
EXERCISES
Review Questions
1. Answer the following briefly:

(a) What is planning?
(b) Why is planning required for the development of a country?
(c) What were the aims of the Second Five Year plan?
(d) What were the special features of the Annual Plans during 1966-69?
(e) What is the employment situation in India?
( f ) Mention the areas where Tribal Area Development Programmes were
implemented.
(g) Write salient features of the Drought Prone Area Programmes.
(h) When was the Intensive Agricultural Development Programme adopted?
2. Write short notes:
(a) Objective of the Tenth Five Year Plan
(b) Need for sustainable developmened.
3. Describe the main achievements of the Five Year Plans in India.

4. Describe the growth in the different sectors of Indian economy.
146

5. Write salient features of regional disparities in the development of India.
Project Work
6. In an outline map of India show the following:

(a) Areas under Tribal Development Programmes,
(b) Areas under Drought Prone Area Programmes, and
(c) Area under Metropolitan Regional Planning.

147

CHAPTER
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Industrial development is used as a yardstick industry was started at Kulti in 1875. With
for measuring the level of economic the establishment of the Tata Iron and Steel
development. All developed countries of the Company at Jamshedpur in 1907, a new
world have highly developed and diversified chapter in the industrial history of India was
industrial sector. India possesses all opened.
necessary conditions for industrial The growth of industry before the First
development. Along with vast and diversified World War was slow and holding. Indian
natural resource endowments, its large industries were only to supplement the
population size provides cheap labour and products of British industries. Further, only
huge market for manufactured goods. such industries were promoted which were
India was an industrially developed not suited to Britain such as sugar and
country before the advent of industrial cement. During and after the Second World
revolution in Europe. Indian industry was War, the situation changed drastically. The
integrated with its agriculture, and household war hindered movements of goods via sea
industries were an integral part of the national routes and hence a liberal industrial policy
economy. Indian artisan and craftsmen knew was adopted, which gave impetus to
how to weave cloth, make pottery and bamboo industrial development. Numerous industries
utensils, jewellery and metalwares, and to came up such as steel, sugar, cement, glass,
produce wooden and leather products. India industrial chemicals and some engineering
was known for ship building too. But after industries. Existing industries also expanded
the industrial revolution in Europe, the considerably during this period. The post-war
factory products of Britain were dumped in inflation, and the partition of the country in
the Indian markets at a low price. Indian 1947 adversely af fected industries
handicrafts and products of village industries particularly jute and cotton textile industries.
could not compete with the factory products.
And thus the household industries of the
POST-INDEPENDENCE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
country gradually declined.
On the eve of Independence, the industrial
PRE-INDEPENDENCE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT development in India was confined largely to
consumer goods; important industries being
The history of industrialisation in India cotton textile, sugar, salt, soap, leather goods
started with the establishment of cotton textile and paper. The growth of industries
mill in Mumbai (Bombay) in 1854 with the manufacturing intermediate goods, like
predominantly Indian capital and enterprise. coking coal, cement, steel, non-ferrous
First jute mill was started at Risra near metals, chemicals, was slow and capital goods
Kolkata (Calcutta) with Scottish capital and industries were also lagging considerably
management in 1855. Coal mining in the behind. The 1948 Industrial Policy Resolution
Chotanagpur region also began about the defined the broad contours of the industrial
same time. Subsequently, paper mill and policy and delineated the role of the State in
chemical industries were started. The pig iron industrial development both as an

entrepreneur and as an authority. The started producing microcomputers, micro-
process of industrialisation started with the processors, communication equipments,
launching of the First Five Year Plan and broadcasting and TV transmission
continued through successive Plan periods. equipments, etc. The progress in electrical
During the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), equipments, automobile and machine tools
main emphasis was on fuller utilisation of industries was satisfactory. The Seventh Five
existing capacity. A number of industries were Year Plan (1985-90) evolved an integrated
set up in the public sector and in the private industrial policy to concentrate on
sector. Newsprint, calcium carbide, penicillin, development of industries with large
DDT, carding machines, automatic looms, domestic market and export potential. New
steel wire ropes, jute spinning frame, deep Industrial Policy of 1991 announced several
well turbine pumps, and motors and liberalisation measures and the subsequent
transfor mers of higher rating were Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997) emphasised
manufactured for the first time in the country privatisation and liberalisation for industrial
during the First Plan. growth. Major liberalisation measures
The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 removed entry barriers to investment, opened
gave the public sector a strategic role in the trade, provided free access to foreign
technology in some sectors, opened up foreign
economy. In the Second Five Year Plan (1956-
direct investment and removed barriers
61), the main emphasis was laid on the
inhibiting access to capital markets. Also,
expansion of capital and producer goods
measures were taken for deregulation and
industries. During this plan, growth and
simplification of industrial licensing,
diversification of industries were remarkable.
reduction of areas exclusively reserved for
Three new steel plants were established in
public sector and disinvestment of selected
the public sector. Foundations were laid for
public sector undertakings. In spite of all
heavy electrical and heavy machine tool these measures, Indian industries have
industries and many other branches of heavy continued to experience slowdown in
engineering industries. Chemical industries production until very recently.
made tremendous progress. The trend
continued in the next Five Year Plan also. Types of Industries
There were setbacks to the pace of industrial
Industries are classified in a number of ways.
development during the Third Five Year Plan
On the basis of size, capital investment and
and subsequent three annual Plan Periods
labour force employed, industries are classed
due to wars with China (1962) and with as large scale, medium scale, small scale, and
Pakistan (1965), and severe drought in cottage industries. On the basis of
1965-67. entrepreneurship, industries are categorised
During the Fourth Five Year Plan as (i) public sector, (ii) private sector, and
(1969-74), efforts were made to remove (iii) joint and cooperative sector. Public sector
imbalances in industrial development, and to enterprises are government companies or
increase the production of goods for exports corporations funded by gover nments.
and for further industrialisation. The Industries of strategic and national
production of export oriented goods and goods importance are usually in the public sector.
of mass consumption were emphasised Industries are also classified on the basis of
during the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79). Rise the use of their products such as (1) basic
in petroleum prices created economic crises goods industries, (2) capital goods industries,
not only in India but throughout the world. (3) inter mediate goods industries, and
During the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) (4) consumer goods industries.
industrial policy was liberalised; production Industries are classified also on the basis
started picking up and electronic industry of raw materials used by them. Accordingly,

witnessed phenomenal growth. The country they can be (1) agriculture-based industries,
120
Manufacturing Industries

(2) forest-based industries, (3) mineral-based as of Jamshedpur. Other steel plants are
industries, and (4) industrially processed raw located either near coalfields (Bokaro,
material-based industries. Durgapur, etc.) or near sources of iron ore
Another common classification of (Bhadravati, Bhilai, and Rourkela).
industries is based on the nature of Similarly, industries based on perishable
the manufactured products. Eight classes raw materials are located close to raw
of industries, thus identified are: materials.
(1) Metallurgical Industries, (2) Mechanical Industries using bulk of cheap and
Engineering Industries, (3) Electrical heavy raw materials are also located in
Engineering Industries, (4) Chemical and the regions of raw materials. For example,
Allied Industries, (5) Textile Industries, cement industry uses limestone as the
(6) Food Industries, (7) Electricity Generation, prime raw material, which is cheap and
and (8) Electronics and Communication bulky in nature, and therefore, cement
industries. industries in the country are located on
or near limestone quarries. Aluminium
Location of Industries industry, based on bauxite, is another
Location of industries is influenced by several typical example of raw material oriented
factors. Among them, access to raw materials, industries. Further, heavy industries
power, market, capital, transport and labour using products of basic industries as raw
are important. Relative significance of these material are also attracted to the source
factors varies with time, place, urgency, kind of raw materials. Due to this fact, several
of raw material and kind of industry. engineering industries have come up in
Nevertheless, from the economic point of view, and around the centres of iron and steel
manufacturing industries are located at a industries, such as in the environs of
place where assembly cost of production and Jamshedpur and Bhilai.
delivery cost of manufactured goods to 2. Power: Power provides the motive force
consumers are the lowest. Transport costs, for machines, and therefore, its supply has
to a great extent, depend on the nature of to be ensured before the location of any
raw materials and manufactured products. industry. However, certain industries, like
A brief description of factors influencing the aluminium and synthetic nitrogen
location is given as under. manufacturing industries tend to be
1. Raw Materials: Industries using weight- located near sources of power because
losing raw materials are located in source they require huge quantum of electricity.
region of the raw materials. For example, It is pertinent to mention that southern
sugar industries in India are located in and western India is away from sources
sugarcane growing areas of northern of indigenous coalfields and as such
plains or southern states. Recovery of industrial development would be possible
sugar is about 1/12 of total weight of cane only after the development of
and the rest is waste material. If hydroelectricity in these areas.
sugarcane is transported to long 3. Market: Market also exerts influence on
distances, transport cost on the waste industrial market location in the country.
material will increase the cost of sugar. Industrial machinery industries, heavy
Similarly, location of pulp industry, copper chemical industries, etc. are located in
smelting and pig iron industries are industrial areas because their products
influenced by their raw materials. In iron are required by other industries of the
and steel industries, iron ore and coal both region. Petroleum refineries are also
are heavy, weight-loosing and of almost located near the markets as the transport
equal weight. Therefore, optimum location of crude oil is easier and several products

would be between their source areas, such derived from them are used to start other
121

industries. Mathura and Barauni before the Christ. The iron pillar at Qutub
refineries are typical examples. Refineries Minar in Delhi is a standing proof of the
based on imported crude, however, are quality of the iron produced in the country.
located usually close to the ports. The famous Damascus swords were made of
4. T ransport and Labour: Means of the Indian iron. In modern period, several
transport have played important role in attempts were made to start iron and steel
the location and dispersion of industries. works in the first half of the nineteenth
For example, industries tended to century. But the first successful pig iron unit
concentrate in Mumbai and in and around was set up by the Barakar Iron Works at Kulti
Kolkata in the early stages because of the (West Bengal) in 1875. It was with the location
facilities for import. Even the cotton textile of iron and steel plant at Sakchi (modern
industry was concentrated in Mumbai Jamshedpur in Jharkhand) by the Tata Iron
because of port facility. It shifted to interior and Steel Company (TISCO) in 1907 that steel
locations, only when railway lines were production began in India. In 1908 a new steel
laid. All major industrial plants are located plant was set up at Hirapur which was later
on the trunk rail lines. Labour cost has merged with Kulti under the Indian Iron and
also been a consideration but is not a Steel Company. The Mysore Iron and Steel
significant factor. Company commissioned a plant at Bhadravati
5. Industrial Policy: In the democratic set (Karnataka) in 1923. It was the first iron plant
up, as that of India, the ultimate decision based on wood and was built by Indian
of selecting location of industries depends engineers. In 1937, another plant was set up
on the government policy and public at Burnpur, which was merged into the Indian
demand. Therefore, industrial location Iron and Steel Company in 1953. Thus, at
does not always follow the principles the time of independence, iron and steel
discussed above. In practice, political industries were at Jamshedpur, Kulti-
decisions regarding location and Hirapur -Burnpur, and Bhadravati. They
development of industries are quite produced 15 lakh tonnes of pig iron and 10
common. As such, industries often locate lakh tonnes of steel in 1950.
to areas which possess industrial inertia To meet the growing demand of iron and
or which have been dominant politically. steel, three integrated iron and steel plants
Industries are also located in backward were set up with the foreign technical
areas. The Bhilai steel plant in assistance in public sector during the Second
Chhattisgarh and the Rourkela iron and Five Year Plan. These plants are located at
steel plant in northern Orissa, were set Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Rourkela (Orissa) and
up with the prime objective to initiating Durgapur (West Bengal). During the Fourth
industrialisation in these areas. Five Year Plan, another iron and steel plant
was established at Bokaro (Jharkhand) again
in public sector. This plant was commissioned
DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIES in 1972. For the management of the public
sector undertakings the ‘Steel Authority of
Because of the factors of location discussed India Limited’ (SAIL) was incorporated in
above, the distribution of industries in India 1973. First on-shore steel plant in India was
is very uneven. set up at Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
Steel plant at Salem (Tamil Nadu) was
Iron and Steel Industry
commissioned in 1983(Fig. 11.1). Besides
Iron and steel industry is considered the basic these, several mini steel plants are now
industry of the modern world as it gives rise functioning. Their total production capacity
to other industries. The art of manufacturing in 1989-90 was 16.3 million tonnes of pig iron

iron was known to India some thousand years and 15.6 millions tonnes of steel ingot.
122

E
N N
N N

Fig. 11.1 India: Iron and Steel Plants
123

Production of pig iron was 15.7 million tonnes the oldest existing plant in India. Annual
and of steel ingots 13.9 million tonnes in capacity of these plants is 1 million tonnes.
1993-94. In 2001, finished steel output in These are situated in the heart of the
India was 31.1 million tonnes. Damodar valley coalfields. These units get
iron ore from iron ore mines of Singhbhum
Location of Iron and Steel Industry: Iron
(Jharkhand), coal from Raniganj-Jharia and
and steel industry is basically a raw material
Ramnagar, and limestone from Ganpur
oriented weight-losing industry. It requires
(Orissa). Manganese is obtained fr om
iron ore, coal, limestone, dolomite and
manganese. For production of one tonne of Barajamda-Banspani in Orissa. Fresh water
pig iron, 1.6 tonnes of iron ore, 0.8 tonne of is obtained from the Damodar river. Though
coke (which needs1.5 tonnes of coal) and 0.5 the assembly cost of this plant is higher than
tonne of limestone-dolomite are required. that of TISCO, its location is more economic
These are bulky and relatively cheap than the latter in view of its advantageous
materials. Therefore, plants tend to locate at position with regard to the use of wagons
a place from where assembly cost of these both ways. The wagons carrying ore to the
materials is likely to be lowest. Only plant carry coal for Rourkela and Bhilai
Jamshedpur plant occupies such normative plants on their way back.
location. Other plants are either located near Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Limited,
coalfield, such as Durgapur, Bokaro, Bhadravati is located on the bank of the
Burnpur-Kulti or near iron ore producing Bhadravati river in Shimoga district of
areas, such as Rourkela, Bhilai, Bhadravati Karnataka. The Kemangundi iron ore deposits
and Salem. Vishakhapatnam steel plant is an in the Bababudan hills within 50 km from
exception and has coastal location. All the the plant influenced its location there. These
plants are located on trunk rail routes well mines still supply ore to the plant. Since this
connected with large urban markets. A brief plant is far away from the coalfields of
description of major iron and steel plants is northeastern plateaus, it used wood in place
given below. of coal upto 1951. Now it uses hydroelectricity
Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), from the Jog hydel power plant.
Jamshedpur, is ideally located between the Rourkela Steel Plant (RSP), Rourkela, is
sources of iron ore and coal. It is on the located in Sundargarh district on the Kolkata-
Kolkata-Mumbai main railway line, about 240 Mumbai railway line. This plant was set up
km northwest of Kolkata. Iron ore is obtained in collaboration with the German firm Krupps
from the captive mines of Noamundi and and Demag and was commissioned in 1959.
Badampahar of Singhbhum and Joda mines It is situated very close to iron ore, manganese
of Orissa; manganese from Joda of Kendujhar and limestone reserves. Iron ore is obtained
district, and limestone and dolomite from from the mines of Sundargarh and Kendujhar
Sundargarh district of Orissa. Coking coal districts of Orissa, coal from Bokaro, Jharia
comes from Jharia and west Bokaro and Talcher fields, coking coal from Kargali
coalfields. The water requirement is met from washery and manganese, limestone and
the Dimna dam constructed across dolomite from Birmitrapur. Hirakud provides
Subernarekha and Khorkai rivers. Several cheap hydroelectricity.
heavy industries have come up at and around Bhilai Steel Plant (BSP), established with
Jamshedpur, and thus, it has become a well Russian collaboration at Bhilai in Durg
developed industrial complex. district of Chhattisgarh, was commissioned
Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) has in 1959. This location is selected due to the
three plants located at Kulti, Hirapur, and proximity of the rich haematite ore mines of
Burnpur. Hirapur unit produces cast iron Dalli-Rajhara just 86 km south of the plant.
only while Kulti-Burnpur produces steel. The Coking coal comes from Korba mines
iron works at Kulti, on the Barakar river, is
124
(Chhattisgarh) and Kargali (Jharkhand) and

manganese from Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh) in 1854. Later, two factories – Shahpur mill
and Bhandara (Maharashtra). Limestone and and Calico mill – were established in
dolomite are available in Chhattisgarh itself. Ahmedabad. By 1879-80, there were 58 mills
Korba thermal power station meets the in the country. World wars gave impetus to
demands of power. The Hawra-Mumbai the industry and the number of mills went
railway line provides transport facility. up to 423 in 1947. The industry suffered a
Durgapur Steel Plant (DSP), set up with British great setback due to partition of the country.
assistance at Durgapur in Burdwan district, India got 409 mills with 27 per cent of cotton
West Bengal, was commissioned in 1962. Iron producing area after partition.
ore is obtained from Noamundi mines After independence this industry
(Singhbhum), coal from Raniganj and Jharia, flourished well and the number of mills
manganese from Kendujhar and limestone reached 1782 in 1998. Of this, 192 mills were
from Sundargarh (both in Orissa). The in public sector, 151 in cooperative sector,
Damodar Valley Corporation supplies power and 1439 mills in private sector. Besides
to the plant. these, handlooms and powerlooms increased
Bokaro Steel Limited (BSL), established at phenomenally during this period.
Bokaro in Jharkhand with Soviet assistance Cotton cloth is pr oduced in three
was commissioned in 1972. The plant obtains sectors: (i) mills, (ii) powerlooms, and (iii)
coal from Jharia and Bokaro, iron ore from handlooms. Share of mill sector in cotton
Kendu mines of Kendujhar and limestone and cloth production has come down from 81
dolomite from Palamu. The DVC meets the per cent in 1950-51 to only 6 per cent in
requirement of electricity. 1999-2000. The decentralised powerloom
sector plays a vital role in meeting the needs
Salem Steel Plant (SSP), is located at Salem in
of the country. Contribution of this sector
Tamil Nadu. It gets ore from nearby mines of
to the total cloth production of the country
Karnataka and lignite coal from Neyveli. It
is 59.2 per cent. The powerloom industry
manufactures special grade steel.
produces a wide variety of clothes, both grey
Vishakhapatnam Steel Project (VSP), is the as well as processed with intricate designs.
first coastal integrated plant in India. Set up Handloom sector provides employment to
by the Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited during over 65 lakh persons and constitutes nearly
the Sixth Five Year Plan, it is located at 19 per cent of the total cloth produced in
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. It the country.
utilises the high grade iron ore of the
Bailadila (Chhattisgarh) and obtains coal Location of Cotton Textile Industry: The
from the Damodar valley region. Limestone location of cotton textile industry depends
and dolomite are available in Khammam upon several factors, important among them
district. being supply of raw materials, fuel, chemicals,
machinery, labour, transport and market. Any
Cotton Textile Industry of these factors may determine the location
Cotton textile is an indigenous industry of this industry. In India, the localisation of
because it was started and developed the cotton mill industry has been brought
by predominantly Indian capital and about chiefly by three factors, viz. vast market,
entrepreneurship. At present India stands abundant raw material and ease of importing
third in the world in the production of cotton machinery and mill stores from abroad.
textile. It is one of the largest industries in Because of its large population and location
ter ms of employment and industrial in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes, India
production. possesses huge market for cotton cloth.
Kawasji Dhaber started first successful Cotton is a pure raw material and there is no
cotton textile mill on modern lines in Mumbai
125
difference in transport costs of cotton or

finished cloth. Large centres of cotton textile Coimbatore, Ahmedabad and Kanpur are four
industry have developed where cotton is leading centres of this industry(Fig. 11.2).
abundant. Before the start of mill industry, Maharashtra with 119 mills has been the
practically all cotton was brought to Mumbai leading state in cotton textiles. Mumbai, the
for export, and therefore it was readily cottonpolis of India, supports 57 mills at
available to mills located there. It had also present. Solapur, Pune, Nagpur, Jalgaon,
the advantage of importing machinery and Wardha, Amravati, Akola, Kolhapur and
mill stores from abroad. Required capital was Sangli are other important centres. In
also readily available. By the end of the 19th Gujarat, Ahmedabad alone has 67 mills.
century, Mumbai, with 82 mills, claimed more Other important centres are Vadodara, Surat,
than half of the installed capacity of India. Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Rajkot and Porbandar.
But after 1921, dispersal of industry set Most of the mills of Maharashtra and Gujarat
in. The initial dispersal was due to the specialise in manufacture of fine clothes.
penetration of railway lines into peninsular Cotton mills of Madhya Pradesh are
region. New centres like Coimbatore, Madurai, concentrated in the cotton-growing tracts of
Bangalore, Nagpur, Indore, Solapur and Indore, Ujjain, Dewas, Ratlam, Burhanpur,
Vadodara were favourably located in respect Mandsaur and Gwalior.
of raw material, market and labour than the Tamil Nadu has the largest number of
places of original locations. Cotton textile mills (439), but most of them (416) are
industry also reached places, with additional spinning mills and manufacture yarn of
advantages, such as nearness to coal mines different grades. Weaving is done mostly by
(Nagpur), excellent financial facilities handloom and powerloom sectors. Nearly half
(Kanpur), and wide market with port facility (200) of the mills are located in Coimbatore
(Kolkata). only. Chennai, Madurai, T irunelveli,
Development of hydroelectric power in the Tuticorin, Thanjvur, Ramanathapuram, and
country also favoured the dispersal of the textile Salem are important centres of this industry.
industry. The extraordinary rapid expansion of Handloom and powerloom industries along
the spinning mills in Tamil Nadu, particularly with mills have flourished in northeastern
in Coimbatore, Madurai and Tirunelveli was cotton growing tract of Karnataka. Davangere,
boosted by the completion of the Pykara project Hubli, Bellary, Mysore and Bangalore are
and readiness of the local industrialists to take important centres. Cotton textile mills in
advantages of the new source of power. The Andhra Pradesh are concentrated in the
industry has also shifted from regions of high cotton growing Telangana region. Most of
labour cost to those of low cost. Hence, after them are spinning mills. Hyderabad,
1933 new cotton mills were located at Madurai, Secunderabad, Warangal and Guntur are
Tirunelveli, Coimbatore, Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, important centres.
Hathras, etc. In north, this industry is localised in
western Uttar Pradesh. Kanpur with 14 mills
Distribution of Cotton Textile Industry:
is the largest centre. Modinagar, Moradabad,
This industry is distributed in all the major
Hathras, Saharanpur, Aligarh, Agra, Lucknow
states of the country. Major centres of cotton
and Varanasi are worth mentioning. In West
textile are located in the pentagonal region
Bengal, cotton textile mills are located in the
formed by joining Ahmedabad, Mumbai,
Hugli region. Haora, Serampur, Kolkata and
Solapur, Nagpur and Indore-Ujjain.
Shyamnagar are important centres. This
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are the
region is known for hosiery industry.
leading cotton textile producing states. West
Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Production of Cotton Textile: Production
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan of pure cotton cloth increased from 4215
and Punjab are other important states in million sq. metres in 1950-51 to 18,989
production of cotton textile. Mumbai,
126
million sq. metres in 1999-2000. At the same

E
N N
Saharanpur
Aligarh
Lucknow
Kolkata
Burhanpur
Nagpur
Solapur Warangal
Sangli
Kolhapur Hyderabad
Guntur
Bellary
Hubli
Davangere
COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRIES
Salem
Thanjavur
Tuticorin
N N
Tirunelveli

Fig. 11.2 India: Cotton Textile Industries
127

Table 11.1: India: Sector-wise Trend of Production of Cotton Clothes, 1950-2000
Year Production of Spun

Yarn (Million kg) Mill Sector Decentralised Sector Total Cloth
1950-51 533 3401 814 4215

1960-61 788 4649 2089 6738
1970-71 929 4055 3547 7602
1980-81 1067 3434 4934 8368
1990-91 1510 1859 13572 15431
1999-00 2204 1105 17884 18989
2000-01@ 2267 1106 18612 19718
@ Provisional
Source: Economic Survey 2001-2002.
time, production of blended cloth and human- Development of the Sugar Industry: India
made fibre fabrics also increased rapidly. is the native of sugarcane and the art of
Consequently, share of cotton cloth declined preparing gur and khand owes to this country.
from 76.2 per cent of the production of all The development of the industry on modern
types of cloths in 1980-81 to slightly less than lines dates from 1903 when a sugar mill was
half (49.2 per cent) in 1999-2000. started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar mills
Simultaneously, proportion of blended cloth were started in other parts of Bihar and Uttar
and synthetic cloth rose from 11.6 per cent Pradesh. In 1931, their number reached 31,
and 12.3 per cent to 15.3 per cent and 35.5 of which 14 were in Uttar Pradesh, 12 in Bihar
per cent, respectively. Sector-wise production and only 5 in other states. After 1932 this
of cotton clothes is given in Table 11.1. industry made remarkable progress and the
country became self-sufficient in sugar.
Sugar Industry Production of sugar increased during the war.
Sugar industry is the second most important In 1950-51, 139 factories were in operation
agro-based industry in the country. India is producing 11.34 lakh tonnes of sugar. The
the largest producer of both sugarcane and number of sugar factories rose to 506 and
canesugar in the world. About one-fourth of production to 176.99 lakh tonnes in
world sugarcane and 8 per cent of sugar is 2000-01 (Table 11.2).
produced in the country. Besides, khandsari Location of the Sugar Industry: Sugarcane
and gur or jaggery are also prepared from is a weight-losing crop; sugar produced from
sugarcane. This industry provides it ranges from 9 to 12 per cent of the weight
employment for more than 4 lakh persons of the cane. Cane is more difficult to transport
directly and a large number of farmers than sugar. Further, its sucrose content
indirectly. For the cane crushing period, sugar begins to deteriorate after it has been cut from
mills function only for a few months.
Table 11.2: India: Progress of Sugar Industry, 1950-2001
Year 1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000-01
Number of factories 139 215 385 506

Production (lakh tonnes) 11.3 37.4 120.5 177.0
128

the field, and better recovery is dependent growing tract of Surat, Junagarh, Rajkot,
upon its being crushed within twenty-four Amreli, Valsad and Bhavnagar districts.
hours of its harvesting. Besides, the price of Sugar Industry in South India:
sugarcane constitutes 52 per cent of the total Maharashtra has emerged as the leading
cost of white sugar. Therefore, sugar factories sugar producer in the country. At the same
are located within the cane producing regions time, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra
of the country. Pradesh have increased their share. They
The cane producing belts are the great together produced 59.1 per cent of the total
northern plains and peninsular India. The production in 2000-01. It was only 40.5 per
souther n states enjoy more favourable cent in 1964-65. Maharashtra produces
climatic conditions for the cultivation of cane. more than one-third of the total production
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, of sugar in the country and thus, ranks first.
Karnataka, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh are There are 119 sugar mills in the state in a
major sugar producing states in the country. narrow belt extending from Manmad in the
The first two together produce nearly two- north to Kolhapur in the south. Most of these
thirds of the total sugar of the country. mills (87) are in the cooperative sector. This
Sugar Industry in North India: Uttar state increased its share in total sugar
production of the country from only 19.7 per
Pradesh is now second in the production of
cent in 1964-65 to nearly 37 per cent in
sugar. Its proportion in total production
2000-01. Moreover, the recovery rate (11.6
declined from 38.9 per cent in 1964-65 to 26.5
per cent) of sugar from cane is higher and
per cent in 2000-01. Sugar factories are
crushing period is longer (162 days).
concentrated in two belts–the Ganga-Yamuna
Kolhapur, Sangli, Ahmednagar, Solapur,
doab and the Tarai region. Major sugar
Pune and Manmad are principal sugar
producing centres in the Ganga-Yamuna doab
producing districts in the state.
are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are located
Ghaziabad, Baghpat, Muradabad and in Coimbatore, Vellore, T iruvanamalai,
Bulandshahar districts; while Gorakhpur, Villupuram and Tiruchirappalli districts. The
Deoria, Basti, Gonda, Sitapur, Behraich, and state produces 8.3 per cent of total sugar
Faizabad are important sugar producing production of the country. Contribution of
districts in the Tarai region. Karnataka is 8.1 per cent; here sugar factories
Sugar factories are located in Bihar, are located mainly in Belgaum, Bellary,
Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh and Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur and Chitradurgs
Gujarat. Bihar contributed about 12 per cent districts. Contrary to these states, Andhra
of total sugar production in 1964-65, which Pradesh lost its share from 9.5 per cent in
declined to 1.6 per cent in 2000-01. Saran, 1964-65 to 5.7 per cent in 2000-01 in
Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Siwan, Darbhanga country’s sugar production. The industry is
and Gaya districts are important for distributed in the coastal regions, which
sugercane. However, relative significance of possess suitable climatic conditions for
Punjab has declined, though Gurdaspur, sugarcane. East Godavari, West Godavari,
Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala and Amritsar Vishakhapatnam, Nizamabad, Krishna,
are major producers. In Haryana, sugar Medak and Chittoor are sugar producing
factories are located in Karnal, Ambala, districts of the state.
Rohtak, Hissar and Gurgaon districts. Sugar
industry is comparatively new in Gujarat. Petrochemical Industries
Share of this state in total sugar production This group of industries is growing very fast
in the country increased from only 1.5 per in India. A variety of products come under
cent in 1964-65 to 5.9 per cent in 2000-01. this category of industries. In 1960s demand
There are 16 sugar mills located in the cane
129
of organic chemicals increased so fast that it

became difficult to meet them by chemicals Industries Limited (NOCIL), instituted by the
prepared from alcohol, calcium carbide, and Mafatlal Group in 1961, started first naphtha-
coal. At the same time, petroleum refining based chemical industry at Mumbai. Later,
industry expanded rapidly. Many things are several other companies were for med.
derived from crude petroleum, which provide Mumbai, Barauni, Mettur, Pimpri, and Risra
raw materials to several new industries; these are major producers of plastic materials.
are collectively known as petrochemical Production of polymers was 3441 thousand
industries. This group of industries is divisible tonnes in 2000-01.
into four sub-groups: (i) polymers, There are about 19,000 units, consuming
(ii) synthetic fibres, (iii) elastomers, and about 3500 thousand tonnes of virgin
(iv) surfactant intermediate. Mumbai is the polymers. Nearly three-fourths of these units
hub of petrochemical industries. Cracker are in small-scale sector, which account for
units are also located in Auraiya (Uttar 20-25 per cent of the total polymer
Pradesh), Jamnagar, Gandhar, Hazira consumption. The industry also consumes
(Gujarat) Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), recycled plastic, which constitutes 30 per cent
Haldia (West Bengal) and Vishakhapatnam of total production.
(Andhra Pradesh). Synthetic fibres are widely used in
Three organisations are working in the manufacturing of fabrics because of their
petrochemical sector under the administrative inherent strength, durability, washability and
control of the Department of Chemicals and resistance to shrinkage. These fabrics are
Petrochemicals. First is the Indian equally popular in urban and rural areas.
Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL), a Though nylon industry in India developed
public sector undertaking. It is responsible after the Second World War, it grew rapidly in
for the manufacture and distribution of 1960s obtaining feedstock from petroleum
various petrochemicals like polymers, refineries. Units of manufacturing nylon
chemicals, fibres, and fibre intermediates. filament and polyester filament yarns are at
Second is the Petrofils Cooperative Limited Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar, Pune,
(PCL), a joint venture of the Government of Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna. Acrylic staple fibre
India and Weavers’ Cooperative Societies. It is manufactured at Kota and Vadodara. Plants
produces polyester filament yarn and nylon of polyester staple fibre are at Thane,
chips at its two plants located at Vadodara Ghaziabad, Manali, Kota and Vadodara.
and Naldhari in Gujarat. Third is the Central Production of synthetic fibres was 1567
Institute of Plastics Engineering and thousand tonnes in 2000-01. The Vardhaman
Technology (CIPET), involved in imparting Acrylics Limited commissioned a 16,500
training. tonnes acrylic plant during 2000-01.
Polymers are made from ethylene and Plants manufacturing fibre intermediates
propylene. These materials are obtained in also made remarkable progress. They
the process of refining crude oil. Polymers are produced 2385 thousand tonnes in 2000-01.
used as raw material in the plastic industry. The Haldia Petrochemicals Limited has
Among polymers, polyethylene is a widely increased the capacity of the existing plants.
used thermoplastic. Plastic is first converted Besides these major products, petrochemical
into sheets, powder, resin and pellets, and industries produced 77 tonnes of elastomers
then used for manufacturing plastic products. and 359 tonnes of synthetic detergents in
Plastic products are preferred because of their 2000-01.
strength, flexibility, water and chemical
resistance and low prices. Production of Knowledge-Based Industries
plastic polymers was attempted in India in The advancement in information technology (IT)
late fifties and early sixties using other organic has a profound impact on country’s economy

chemicals. The National Organic Chemical and people’s lifestyle. The IT revolution has
130

E
N N
N N

Fig. 11.3 India: Software Technology Parks
131

opened up new possibilities of economic and of power used for industrial purposes, (iv) total
social transformation. The Indian software industrial output, and (v) value added by
industry has emerged as one of the fastest manufacturing.
growing sectors in the economy with a Major industrial regions of the country are
compound annual growth rate exceeding 50 per given below in some details (Fig. 11.4).
cent over the last decade. Total turnover of this
Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region: It extends
industry increased from only Rs 3.45 billion in
from Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts
1989-90 to Rs 377.50 billion during 2000-01.
of Nashik and Solapur. Besides, industrial
Thus, software industry has surpassed
development has been rapid in Kolaba,
electronics hardware production. The
Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Jalgaon
government has established a number of
districts. Development of this region started
software parks in the country (Fig. 11.3).
with the location of cotton textile industry in
The IT software and services industry
Mumbai. Mumbai had favourable conditions
accounts for almost 2 per cent of India’s GDP
for the location of cotton textile industry.
and export from this industry amounted to 14
Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided
per cent of India’s total exports during 2000-
impetus to the growth of Mumbai port.
01. The Indian software exports rose from Rs
Machinery were imported through this port.
2.50 billion in 1990-91 to Rs. 283.50 billion
Hydroelectricity was developed in the Western
in 2000-01. The Indian software professionals
Ghat region to meet the requirements of this
have already created their brand image in the
industry.
global market. India’s software industry has
With the development of cotton textile
achieved a remarkable distinction for providing
industry, chemical industry also developed.
excellent quality products. A large number of
Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field
Indian software companies have acquired
and erection of nuclear energy plants added
international quality certification. Moreover,
additional magnetic force to this region.
majority of the multinational companies
operating in the area of Information Technology
have either Software Development Centre or Industrial Regions and Districts
Research Development Centre in India. India Major Industrial Regions (8): 1. Mumbai-
has however failed to make a dent in the Pune Region, 2. Hugli Region, 3. Bangalore-
hardware sector. Tamil Nadu Region, 4. Gujarat Region,
The domestic market for software is 5. Chotanagpur Region, 6. Vishakhapatnam-
increasing but not in consonance with the Guntur Region, 7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut
export market. Domestic software market had Region, and 8. Kollam-Thiruvanthapuram
registered revenue of Rs 26.00 billion in Region.
1996-97, which rose to Rs 94.00 billion in Minor Industrial Regions (13):1. Ambala-
2000-01. Amritsar, 2. Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-
Bijnaur, 3. Indore-Dewas-Ujjain, 4. Jaipur-
Ajmer, 5. Kolhapur -South Kannada,
INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERING 6. Northern Malabar, 7. Middle Malabar,
8. Adilabad-Nizamabad, 9. Allahabad-
Distribution of manufacturing industries is Varanasi-Mirzapur, 10. Bhojpur-Munger,
11. Durg-Raipur, 12. Bilaspur-Korba, and
not ubiquitous because the factors affecting
13. Brahmaputra valley.
location are not the same everywhere. Rather
Industrial Districts (15): 1. Kanpur,
they tend to concentrate on certain locations
2. Hyderabad, 3. Agra, 4. Nagpur,
because of the favourable locational factors.
5. Gwalior, 6. Bhopal, 7. Lucknow,
Several indices are used to identify the 8. Jalpaiguri, 9. Cuttack, 10. Gorakhpur,
clustering of industries, important among 11. Aligarh, 12. Kota, 13. Pur nia,
them are: (i) the number of industrial units, 14. Jabalpur, and 15. Bareilly.
(ii) number of industrial workers, (iii) quantum
132

4 5 2

Fig. 11.4 India: Industrial Regions
133

Besides, engineering goods, petroleum of this region. Location of petroleum refinery
refining, petrochemicals, leather, synthetic at Haldia has facilitated the development of a
and plastic goods, chemical drugs, fertilisers, variety of industries. Important industrial
electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software, centres of this region are Kolkata, Haora,
transport equipments and food industries also Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati,
developed. Important industrial centres are Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur,
Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Trombay, Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansbaria,
Pune, Pimpri, Nashik, Manmad, Solapur, Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc. However,
Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli. industrial growth of this region has slowed
Hugli Industrial Region: Located along the down in comparison to other regions. Decline
Hugli river, this region extends from of the jute industry is one of the reasons.
Bansbaria in the north to Birlanagar in the Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Industrial Region:
south for a distance about 100 km. Industries This region witnessed most rapid industrial
also have developed in Midnapur in the west. growth in post-Independence period. Till
Kolkata-Haora form the nucleus of this 1960, industries were confined to Bangalore,
industrial region. Historical, geographical, Salem and Madurai districts but now they
economic and political factors have have spread over all the districts of Tamil
contributed much to its development. It Nadu except Viluppuram. Since this region
developed with the opening of river port on is away from the coalfields, its development
Hugli in later part of the seventeenth century is dependent on the Pykara hydroelectric
(1662-1694). Kolkata emerged as a leading plant, which was built in 1932. Cotton textile
centre of the country. Later, Kolkata was industry was the first to take roots with the
connected with interior parts by railway lines presence of cotton. Along with cotton mills,
and road routes. Development of tea loom industry spread very rapidly. Several
plantation in Assam and northern hills of West heavy engineering industries converged at
Bengal, the processing of indigo earlier and Bangalore. Aircraft (HAL), watch (HMT),
jute later coupled with the opening of machine tools, telephone (HTL) and Bharat
coalfields of the Damodar valley and iron ore Electronics are industrial landmarks of is
deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau region. Important industries are textiles, rail
contributed to the industrial development of wagons, diesel engines, radio, light
the region. Cheap labour available from engineering goods, rubber goods, medicines,
thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, paper,
Pradesh and Orissa also contributed to its chemicals, film, cigarette, match box, leather
development. Kolkata, being the capital city goods, etc. Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron
of British India (1773-1912), attracted the and steel plant at Salem and fertiliser plant
British capital. The establishment of first jute are recent developments.
mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of
modern industrial clustering in this region. Gujarat Industrial Region: The nucleus of
The major concentration of jute industry this region lies between Ahmedabad and
is at Haora and Bhatapara. The partition of Vadodara but this region extends upto Valsad
the country in 1947 adversely affected this and Surat in the south and to Jamnagar in
industrial region. Cotton textile industry also the west. Development of this region is also
grew along with jute industry. Paper, associated with the location of the cotton
engineering, textile machinery, electrical, textile industry since 1860s. This region
chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser and became an important textile region with the
petrochemical industries have also developed decline of the cotton textile industry in
within this region. Factory of the Hindustan Mumbai. Located in cotton growing area, this
Motors Limited at Konanagar and diesel region has double advantage of the proximity

engine factory at Chittaranjan are landmarks of raw materials as well as of market of the
134

densely populated Ganga plain. The discovery region hinges upon Vishakhapatnam and
of oil fields led to the development of a variety Machilipatnam ports and developed
of petrochemical industries around agriculture and rich reserves of minerals in
Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Jamnagar. The their hinterlands. Coalfields of the Godavari
port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of basin provide power and energy. Ship building
this region. Petroleum refinery at Koyali industry was started at Vishakhapatnam in
provided raw materials to a host of 1941. Petroleum refinery based on imported
petrochemical industries. The industrial petroleum facilitated the growth of several
structure is now diversified. Besides textiles petrochemical industries. Sugar, textile, jute,
(cotton, silk and synthetic fabrics) and paper, fertiliser, cement, aluminium and light
petrochemical industries, other industries are engineering are principal industries of this
heavy and basic chemicals, motor, tractor, region. One lead-zinc smelter is functioning
diesel engines, textile machinery, engineering, in Guntur district. Iron and steel plant at
pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, sugar, Vishakhapatnam uses the Bailadila iron ore.
dairy products and food processing. Recently, Vishakhapatnam, Vijayavada, Vijaynagar,
largest petroleum refinery has been set up at Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kurnool
Jamnagar. Important industrial centres of this are important industrial centres.
region are Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region: Industries
Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar, Rajkot, located in this region have shown very fast
Surat, Valsad and Jamnagar. growth in the recent past. This region is
Chotanagpur Region: This region extends located far away from the mineral and power
over Jharkhand, northern Orissa and western resources, and therefore, the industries are
West Bengal and is known for the heavy light and market-oriented. Electronics, light
metallurgical industries. This region owes its engineering and electrical goods are major
development to the discovery of coal in the industries of this region. Besides, there are
Damodar valley and metallic and non-metallic cotton, woollen and synthetic fabrics, hosiery,
minerals in Jharkhand and northern Orissa. sugar, cement, machine tools, tractor, cycle,
Proximity of coal, iron ore and other minerals agricultural implements, chemical and
facilitated the location of heavy industries in vanaspati industries which have developed on
this region. Five large integrated iron and steel large scale. Software industry is a recent
plants at Jamshedpur, Bur npur -Kulti, addition. To the south lies the Agra-Mathura
Durgapur, Bokaro and Rourkela are located industrial area which specilalises in glass and
within this region. T o meet the power leather goods. Mathura with an oil refinery is
requirement, thermal and hydroelectric a petrochemical complex. Among industrial
plants have been constructed in the Damodar centres mention be made of Gurgaon, Delhi,
valley. Densely populated surrounding Shahdara, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar,
regions provide cheap labour and Hugli region Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura.
provides vast market for its industries. Heavy
Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region: This
engineering, machine tools, fertilisers,
industrial region is spread over
cement, paper, locomotives and heavy
Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alwaye,
electricals are some of the important
Er nakulam and Allappuzha districts.
industries in this region. Important centres
Plantation agriculture and hydropower
are Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri,
provide industrial base to this region. Located
Hazaribag, Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Rourkela,
far away from the mineral belt of the country,
Durgapur, Asansol and Dalmianagar.
agricultural products processing and market
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region: This oriented light industries predominate the
industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam region. Among them, cotton textile, sugar,
district to Kurnool and Prakasam districts in rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser
the south. Industrial development of this
135
and fish-based industries are important. Food

processing, paper, coconut coir products, regulated in India. In the case of both foreign
aluminium and cement industries are also technology agreement sought by the Indian
significant. Location of petroleum refinery at firms as well as foreign investment, it was
Kochi has added a vista of new industries to necessary to obtain specific prior approval
this region. Important industrial centres are from the government for each project. But in
Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kochi, the new industrial policy, Foreign Direct
Alappuzha, and Punalur. Investment (FDI) is seen as a means to
support the domestic investment for achieving
a higher level of economic development. FDI
IMPACT OF NEW INDUSTRIAL POLICY
benefits domestic industry as well as the
consumers by providing opportunities for
A new Industrial Policy was announced in
technological upgradation, access to global
1991. This policy deregulates the industrial
managerial skills and practices, optimal
economy in a substantial manner. Major
utilisation of natural and human resources,
objectives of the new policy are to build on
etc. Therefore, foreign investment has been
the gains already made, correct the distortions
liberalised and the government has permitted,
or weaknesses that have crept in, maintain a
except a negative list, access to an automatic
sustained growth in productivity and gainful
route for Foreign Direct Investment.
employment and attain inter national
Automatic route means that the foreign
competitiveness. The policy has three main
investors need to inform the Reserve Bank of
dimensions: liberalisation, privatisation, and
India within 30 days of bringing in their
globalisation.
investment, and again within 30 days of
Liberalisation: Major liberalisation measures issuing any share.
announced are; (1) abolition of industrial The system of Phased Manufacturing
licensing, (2) free entry to foreign technology, Programme, which was designed to enforce
(3) foreign direct investment policy, (4) access progressively greater degree of local content,
to capital market, (5) open trade, (6) abolition has been abolished. Government has also
of phased manufacturing programme, and announced changes in existing industrial
(7) liberalised industrial location programme. location policy. Industrial location is
The industrial licensing system has been discouraged only in large cities because of
abolished for all items except six industries environmental reasons. Under the new
related to security, strategic or environmental industrial policy, an industrial license is
concerns. At the same time, number of required when the project involves
industries reserved for the public sector since manufacture of an item which is on the list of
1956 has been reduced from 17 to only 4. industries under compulsory licensing, or the
Industries which continue to be reserved for project attracts locational restriction
the public sector, are in areas where security applicable to large cities with population of
and strategic concerns so require, such as more than one million or when an item
atomic energy, substances specified in reserved for small scale sector is intended to
Schedule of the Department of Atomic Energy be manufactured. Other projects need to
and railway transport. Government has also submit only a memorandum in the prescribed
decided to of fer a part of gover nment form.
shareholdings in the public sector enterprises
to financial institutions, general public and Privatisation: The industrial policy of 1956
workers. Threshold limit of assets has been assigned pivotal role to the public sector.
scrapped and none of the industries require Consequently, in 1961, the investment in five
prior approval of the gover nment for Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSE) was
investment in the delicensed industries. Rs 29 crore. This increased to Rs 252,554
As in the case of domestic investment, crore in 240 enterprises as on 31 March 2000.
foreign investment has also been traditionally
136
But the new policy calls for the reversal of

the earlier policy and bringing in the private However, with increasing foreign
sector as the major role player in industrial investment a number of undesirable features
development. Accordingly, government has of multinational corporations are noted. Joint
started reforms in public sector enterprises. ventures of Indian companies with foreign
The main elements of the government policy firms have not always been advantageous.
towards public sector undertakings are: Once the foreign firms gained a foothold in
1. To bring down government equity in all the Indian market, they have tried to shake
non-strategic public sector undertakings off the Indian partner. Rather, foreign firms
to 26 per cent or lower; want to set up 100% subsidiaries. It helps
2. To restructure and revive potentially viable them to retain proprietary control over
undertakings; technologies and products.
3. To close down undertakings which cannot Globalisation: Globalisation means
be revived; and integrating the economy of the country with
4. To protect fully the interest of the workers. the world economy. Under this process, goods
One major step towards privatisation is and services along with capital, labour and
the de-recognition of industries earlier listed resources can move freely from one nation to
for public sector. The 1956 industrial another. The thrust of globalisation has been
resolution had reserved 17 industries for to increase the domestic and exter nal
public sector but now industries of only 4 competition through extensive application of
categories are reserved for public sector. Other market mechanism and facilitating forging of
industries have been opened for private dynamic relationship with the foreign
sector. Even the defence industry sector has investors and suppliers of technology. In
been opened to private sector with foreign Indian context, this implies: (i) opening of the
direct investment up to 26 per cent. Even in economy to foreign direct investment by
industries reserved for public sector, private providing facilities to foreign companies to
sector participation can be invited on a invest in different fields of economic activity
discretionary basis. Further, with the objective in India; (ii) removing constraints and
to reduce the quantity of control and increase obstacles to the entry of multinational
the quality of accountability, the concept of companies in India; (iii) allowing Indian
Memorandum Of Understanding was companies to enter into foreign collaboration
introduced in 1988. It gives complete in India and also encouraging them to set up
autonomy to the public undertaking for joint ventures abroad; (iv) carrying out
working as private sector. massive import liberalisation programmes by
As mentioned earlier, industrial policy has switching over from quantitative restrictions
been liberalised to attract private investors – to tariffs in the first place, and then bringing
both domestic and multinational down the level of import duties considerably;
corporations. New sectors like mining, and (v) instead of a set of export incentives,
banking, telecommunications, highway opting for exchange rate adjustments for
construction, and management have been promoting export.
thrown open to private companies. In spite of The process of globalisation started in
all these concessions, foreign direct eighties itself when many concessions were
investment has been limited. There has been granted to foreign investors. Multinationals
a big gap between approved and actual foreign were allowed to enter in sectors including
direct investment, even though the number defence to which their entry was previously
and amount of foreign collaborations are restricted. The system of licensing has been
increasing. Larger part of this investment have abolished for all but save a few. Import has
gone to domestic appliances, finance, services, been made very liberal. However, the real
electronics and electrical equipment, and food thrust to the globalisation process was
and dairy products.
137
provided by the new economic policy

introduced by the Government of India in July investment by the industrial entrepreneurs
1991. Since then certain steps have been during 1991-2000 nearly one-fourth (23 per
taken towards globalisation. Indian rupee has cent) was for industrially developed
been made fully convertible on current Maharashtra, 17 per cent for Gujarat, 7 per
account. cent for Andhra Pradesh, and more than
In line with the proposal of World Bank, 6 per cent for Tamil Nadu while Uttar Pradesh
Indian import policy allows the free import of – the state with largest population – has only
all items including capital goods except a 8 per cent. In spite of several concessions
negative list. Various incentives and facilities seven northeastern states could get less than
have been offered to the foreign investors and 1 per cent out of the proposed investment. At
non-resident Indians for direct foreign the same time, nearly 17 per cent of approved
investment. Foreign Direct Investment again went to
A breakup of foreign collaboration Maharashtra, 13 per cent to Delhi, 8 per cent
approval reveals that the major share went to Karnataka and 7.7 per cent to Tamil Nadu,
to core, priority sectors while infrastructural in contrast to only 1.63 per cent to Uttar
sector was untouched. Further, gap between Pradesh, 0.29 per cent to Bihar and 0.06 per
developed and developing states has become cent to Jharkhand. In fact economically
wider. Major share of both domestic weaker states could not compete with the
investment as well as foreign direct developed states in open market in attracting
investment went to already advanced states. industrial investment proposals and hence
For example, out of the total proposed they are likely to suffer from these processes.
EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) Mention three features of industrial development in India before independence.
(b) Mention three features of industrial development in India after independence.
(c) Name the industries classified on the basis of raw materials.
(d) Name the industries classified on the basis of entrepreneurship.
(e) Mention five factors that control the location of industries.
(f) Name the iron and steel plants of India.
(g) Describe five features of the distribution of cotton textile industry in India.
(h) Name four indices which are used to identify industrial clustering.
2. Describe major factors that control the distribution of sugar industry in India.
3. Write salient features of the Mumbai-Pune industrial region.
4. Describe the impact of liberalisation on industrial development of India.
5. Why are all the iron and steel plants of India located in the peninsular plateaus?
6. Give a brief account of the distribution of cotton textile industry in India.
7. Explain the meaning of the following:
(a) Knowledge-based industries
(b) Privatisation
(c) Globalisation
Project Work
8. (a) On an outline map of India show the distribution of major cotton textile centres.

(b) Find out reasons for location of cotton textile centres in different regions.
138
!
CHAPTER
TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Transport network is established to facilitate passenger transport is only 0.2 per cent and
the movement of people and goods. It is the in freight transport only 0.1 per cent in
means of bringing together human beings and 1993-94.
the things they consume. It functions as a In India, the growing importance of road
lifeline of the spatial economy at all territorial transport vis-a-vis rail transport is rooted in
levels – global, national, regional and local. following reasons:
A transport system involves origin, destination, 1. Construction cost of road is much lower
route and the carrier. Origin is the point where than that of railway line;
the traffic originates; destination is the point 2. Roads can traverse comparatively more
where it terminates; route is the surface on dissected and undulating topography;
which movement takes place; and the carrier 3. Road transport can economically carry few
is the vehicle that moves the passenger or persons and relatively smaller amount of
cargo. A well-knit and coordinated system of goods.
transport plays an important role in the 4. Cost of loading and unloading is much
sustained economic growth of the country. lower in case of road transport, because
Communication network carries it provides door-to-door service.
infor mation from one place to another 5. Road transport also supplements the
physically like postal services, through wires other modes of transportation. It provides
like telegraph and telephone, or through link between railway stations and ports
airwaves like radio and television. Some and their hinterlands.
communication systems work in cooperation
with transport system like postal services.
Others, however, function independent of Integrating Role of Transport System
transport system such as radio. An integrated and coordinated transport
network reduces social distances, political
Modes of Transport fragmentation and economic isolation. It
also helps in generating centripetal forces
Among modern modes of transportation
and minimising the centrifugal forces in
roads, railways, waterways and airways are society, polity and economy.
important. Pipelines are used for transporting
liquid and gas. In India, a gradual change
from rail-dominated transport system to road-
dominated transport system is on for the last ROAD TRANSPORT
few decades. The share of railways in total
passenger kilometres decreased from about India has one of the largest road networks in
36 in 1980-81 to about 16 in 1993-94, and the world aggregating to about 3.3 million km
of freight (tonne km) from 62 to 42. Domestic at present. The road length increased from
air transport has grown but its share in 4,00,000 km in 1950-51 to 2.466 million km
Transport and Communication Networks

(excluding those under Jawahar Rozgar runs between Baharagora and Chennai.
Yojana) in 1996-97 (Table 13.1). Only 43.5 National Highway-6 is the second longest trunk
per cent of total roads are surfaced roads. route (1949 km) and runs between Kolkata
These roads are classified into six classes and Dhule via Sambalpur, Raipur, and Nagpur.
according to their importance: 1. Golden National Highway-7 is the longest one and
Quadrangle Super Highways, 2. National traverses 2,369 km between Varanasi and
Highways, 3. State Highways 4. Border roads, Kanyakumari via Jabalpur, Nagpur,
5. Major district roads, and 6. Rural roads Hyderabad, Bangalore and Madurai. Delhi
including village roads and other district roads. and Mumbai are connected by National
Highway-8. National Highway-15 covers most
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
of the Rajasthan desert (Fig. 13.2).
The government has launched a major road
development project linking Delhi-Kolkata- State Roads: These roads are constructed
Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane super and maintained by the State Public Works
highways. North-South corridors linking Department (PWD) in state and union
Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir) and territories. Roads linking state capital with
Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and East-West different district headquarters are known as
corridor connecting Silcher in Assam and State Highways. About 1,37,100 km of roads
Porbandar in Gujarat are part of this project were designated as State Highways in
(Fig. 13.1). The work on these highways is 1996-97. These roads constitute only 5.6 per
progressing fast and they are expected to be in cent of total length of all roads.
serviceable condition by the end of 2003.
Other Roads: Other roads are classed as
With the construction of these super
rural roads, which interlink rural areas and
highways the time-distance factor among the
villages with towns. More than 93 per cent of
mega cities of India will be considerably
the total roads belong to this class. Only half
reduced. These highway projects are being
(53.4 per cent) of these village roads are
implemented by the National Highway
metalled and remaining are just dusty tracks.
Authority of India.
Border Roads: The Border Roads
National Highways: These are the primary
Organisation was set up in 1960 for the
road systems and are laid and maintained by
development of the roads of strategic
the Central Public Works Department. In
importance in the northern and northeastern
1950-51, the total length of National
border areas. Since its inception in March
Highways was 19,800 km, which has 2002, it has completed 30,028 km of
increased to 57,700 km in 1999-2000. The formation works, surfaced 35,577 km of
National Highways constitute only two per roads, and constructed permanent bridges.
cent of the total road length but carry 40 per These roads have increased accessibility in
cent of the road traffic. The super highway areas of difficult terrain and hence have
project discussed above is part of the National helped in economic development also.
Highway Development Programme. The share of road transport in the haulage
National Highways link extreme parts of of passenger and goods has been increasing
the country. A number of major National consistently due to its inherent advantages.
Highways run in north-south and east-west Roadways have accounted for 1500 billion
directions. The historical Sher Shah Suri Marg passenger kilometre (pkm is product of
is called National Highway-1, between Delhi number of passengers multiplied by the
and Amritsar, and National Highway-2 distance travelled by them) during 1993-94,
between Delhi and Kolkata. National which was more than four times than that of
Highway-3 links Agra to Mumbai via Gwalior, railways. Because of its inherent flexibility and
Indore and Nashik. National Highway-4 links advantage in connecting the remote areas,

Chennai with Thane. National Highway-5 road transport accounts for 83 per cent of
149

E
N N
N N

Fig. 13.1 India: Super Highways
150

E
N N
N N

Fig. 13.2 India: National Highways
151

the passenger traffic and 57 per cent of the area in the country (1996-97). Goa has the
freight traffic. As traffic grew, number of highest density (153.8 km) of surfaced roads,
vehicles also increased. The number of while the lowest density is in Jammu and
passenger buses has increased more than 15 Kashmir (3.7 km), followed by Arunachal
times between 1950-51 and 1996-97. Number Pradesh (4.8 km). All states with higher
of trucks has also increased at the same density of all roads also have high density of
phenomenal rate. Progress of road transport metalled roads, except Assam and Nagaland.
since 1950-51 is presented in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1: India: Progress of Road RAIL TRANSPORT

Transport during Planned Period
Indian railway network is the largest in Asia
1950-51 1980-81 1996-97 and fourth largest in the world. It is a cheap
mode of inland transportation of freight and
Length of Roads
(000 Km)
passengers. It brings together people from the
farthest corners of the country and makes it
All 400 1419 2465.9
possible to distribute goods (food, fibre, raw
Surfaced 157.0 684.0 1394.1 materials, furnished products) from places of
National Highways 19.8 31.7 34.8 production to places of demand. Railways
State Highways NA 94.4 137.1 have been a great integrating force during the
last one and half century. From a very modest
Number of Registered
beginning in 1853, when the first train
vehicles (000)
steamed off from Mumbai to Thane for a
All 306 5391 37231 distance of 34 km, the Indian Railways have
Goods vehicles 82 554 2260 grown into a vast network. It has a route
Buses 34 162 488 length of 62,759 km on which 12670 trains
run every day connecting 6867 stations.
Distribution of roads is not uniform in the Railway network comprises three gauges:
country. Density of all roads (length of roads (a) Broad Gauge (1676 mm distance between
per 100 sq. km of area) varies from only 10 km two parallel lines) – route length 44383 km
in Jammu and Kashmir to 375 km in Kerala (70.7 per cent).
with a national average of 75 km (1996-97). (b) Metre Gauge (1000 mm) – route length
Road density is high in most of the northern 15013 km (23.9 per cent).
states and major southern states. It is low in (c) Narrow Gauge (762 mm and 610 mm) –
the Himalayan region, northeastern states, route length 3363 km (5.4 per cent).
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Nature of At the same time, the fleet of locomotives
terrain and the level of economic development of Indian railways consists of diesel, electric
are the main determinates of density of roads. and steam engines. About 23 per cent of the
Construction of roads is easy and cheaper in route is electrified. The network is divided into
the level plain area, while it is difficult and sixteen zones and further subdivided into
costly in hilly and highly dissected areas. divisions.
Therefore, not only density but also quality The distribution pattern of railway network
of roads is high in plain areas; and areas of in India has been influenced by several factors.
difficult terrain are almost devoid of roads. Before Independence railway tracks were
Density of population also facilitates the constructed to connect ports with large
construction of roads. commercial centres to facilitate export of raw
Density of metalled roads varies more materials and import of finished
widely. On an average, there are 42.4 km of goods. But now, railways are treated as a
surfaced roads per 100 square kilometres of

152
means of overall development of the nation.

Therefore, development of railway People prefer to travel by trains because
transportation is guided by the principles of it is relatively cheaper and punctual. The
regional development. number of passengers has risen from 1284
Density and direction of the railway million in 1950-51 to 4,585 million in 1999-
network have been greatly influenced by the 2000. For passenger service, five types of
physical character of land and density of trains are run by the Indian Railways, based
population. The northern Great Plains with on their speed and comfort levels – Ordinary
its level land, high density of population and Passenger trains, Express/Mail trains,
rich agriculture presents the most favourable Superfast trains, Rajdhani Express, and
conditions for the development of railway Shatabdi and Jan Shatabdi trains. Further,
network (Fig. 13.3). Large number of rivers, Indian Railways have introduced computer
requiring construction of bridges across their reservation system making it possible to get
wide beds are the only obstacle. But in the instant reservation between any two stations
hilly terrain of the peninsular region, it is from any booking office. On an average,
not possible to construct direct links between 13 million people are moved every day by the
places. Therefore, railway tracks are laid Indian Railways.
thr ough low hills or gaps or tunnels. Along with the passenger traffic, the
Similarly, the Himalayan mountainous freight traffic also increased tremendously.
region was unfavourable for the construction Development in industrial and agricultural
of railway line due to high relief, very sparse sectors has generated high demand for rail
population and absence of exportable natural transport. Major commodities transported by
resources. However, the railway tracks could railways include coal, iron and steel, ores,
be laid to some of the foothill towns like petroleum products and such essential
Jammu, Kotdwar, Haridwar, Kathgodam, etc. commodities as foodgrains, fertilisers, cement,
Likewise, it was difficult to lay railway line sugar, salt, edible oils, etc. (Table 13.3).
on the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, hilly Consequently, freight traffic increased from
and forest tracts of Madhya Pradesh, 73.2 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 473.35
Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Jharkhand, and million tonnes in 2000-01.
swamps of Gujarat and souther n West Indian railways run six units to
Bengal. The uninterrupted Sahyadri could be manufacture rolling stock. These are:
crossed only through gaps. (i)Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, Chittaranjan,
Table 13.3: India: Trend of Freight Handled by the Railways, 1950-2001

(Million tonnes)
Commodity 1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 2000-01
Coal 20.2 47.9 135.16 222.75

Raw material for steel Plants NA 16.1 25.9 38.75
Pig iron and finished steel NA 6.2 10.01 11.51
Iron ore NA 9.8 13.14 14.58
Cement 2.5 11.0 28.88 42.84
Foodgrains 7.8 15.1 25.25 26.65
Fertilisers NA 4.7 18.36 36.22
Petroleum 2.7 8.9 24.99 36.22
Other goods 40.0 48.2 36.61 52.81
Total traffic 73.2
153
167.9 318.40 473.25

E
N
N
Jaisalmer
Kumarghat
N N

Fig. 13.3 India: Distribution of Railways
154

(ii) Diesel Locomotive Works, Varanasi, were once very important navigable canals.
(iii) Integral Coach Factory, Perambur, (iv) Rail Navigability of rivers and canals depends on
Coach Factory, Kapurthala, (v) Wheel and Axle the regular flow of water with appropriate
Plant, Bangalore, and (vi) Diesel Component depth in which the craft can sail easily. But
Works, Patiala. the seasonal fluctuation of water, shallow
depth, undulating river beds and their silting,
and reduction of water level due to diversion
WATER TRANSPORT
for irrigation are some of the major problems
of the inland waterways.
Waterways are an important mode of transport
for both passenger and cargo traffic in India. Seaways: India has a vast coastline of about
It includes inland waterways and seaways. 7,516 km and over two million square
kilometres of Exclusive Economic Zone.
Inland Waterways: Water transport is the
Shipping provides transport facilities in this
cheapest means of transport and is therefore
vast coastal tract. The entire coastline is
suitable for carrying heavy and bulky
studded with 12 major ports and 184 minor
materials. It is a fuel-efficient and environment
and intermediate ports. About 98 per cent of
friendly mode of transport. Share of inland
the overseas trade is moved by the seaways.
water transport, however, is only one per cent
Coastal shipping also carries domestic traffic.
in the country’s transport system. India has
The country has the largest merchant
about 14,500 km of navigable waterways,
shipping fleet among developing countries and
which comprises rivers, canals, backwaters,
ranks 17th in the world in shipping tonnage.
creeks, etc. At present, only 3700 km of major
In 2001, Gross Registered Tonnage of 546
rivers are navigable by mechanised flat bottom
ships was 6.8 million tonnes. Indian vessels
crafts, but only 2000 km are actually used.
handled 37.07 million tonnes of imports and
Similarly, out of 4300 km of the network of
9 million tonnes of exports of India’s seaborne
navigable canals, only 900 km is navigable by
trade in 1993-94. The overall share of the
mechanised crafts.
Indian vessels in the country’s overseas trade
The Inland Waterways Authority of India
is however about 31.5 per cent only. Coal and
was set up in 1986 for the development,
petroleum products constitute bulk of the
maintenance, and regulation of National
cargo. During 1994, about 1.3 lakh
Waterways in the country. At present there
passengers travelled by the coastal shipping
are only three National Waterways in the
country; ten other waterways are being between the Mainland and the Andaman and
considered for upgradation as National Nicobar Islands and the Mainland and
Waterways. The three National Waterways are: Lakshadweep.
National Waterways-1: The Allahabad-Haldia Transportation Network and
stretch of the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river Indian Economy
system (1620 km); National Waterways-2: The
The most outstanding role of the transport
Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra
network is to integrate the economy of the
river (891 km); National Waterways-3: The
nation. In our country, production
West Coast Canal from Kottapuram to Kollam specialisations exist at the local levels.
along with Udyogmandal and Champakar These specialised products have local
canals (205 km). markets. Such specialisations in production
Besides the National Waterways, the as well as consumption get reflected in the
deltaic regions of the Godavari, Krishna and differences found in our clothing, diet and
Mahanadi rivers, the Barak river, the Mandovi artifacts. The transportation network
and the Juari rivers of Goa, the backwaters prefor med the most crucial task of
of Kerala are also used as inland waterways. integrating these local markets into our
national market. It further extended this
Buckingham canal in Andhra Pradesh and

integration to international markets.
Tamil Nadu and the Cumberjua canal in Goa
155

distances. Traditionally used for water supply,
AIR TRANSPORT
pipelines now transport petroleum and
petroleum products and natural gas to long
Air transport is the fastest and costliest mode of distances. Solids also can be transported by
transport. For India, this mode of transport is pipes as slurry.
important because of its large size and planned The pipelines have certain advantages over
economic development. Large industrial and other modes of transport: (i) they can be laid
commercial centres are located at great over difficult terrain as well as under water,
distances, which require fast transport links. (ii) their operation and maintenance cost is
Further, air transport is also vital for linking lower, and (iii) they are energy efficient and
India with other countries. The Airport environment friendly.
Authority of India is responsible for providing Oil India Limited constructed first pipeline
safe, efficient air traffic and aeronautical of 1152 km from Naharkatiya oilfield in Assam
communication services in the Indian air to Barauni refinery in Bihar via Noonmati
space. The Authority manages 11 international (1962-68). To transport refined petroleum
and 112 domestic airports including 28 products, Barauni-Kanpur pipeline was laid
passenger terminals at defence airfields. down in 1966. Haldia-Maurigram-Rajbandh
The air services in India are of two types pipeline was constructed later.
viz. international and domestic. Air India Extensive network of pipelines has been
provides international air services for both constructed in the Gujarat region. First
passengers and cargo traf fic to 35 pipeline connected the Ankleshwar oilfield
destinations from four focal points — Delhi, to Koyali refinery (1965). Later, Kalol-
Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. Air India
Sabarmati crude pipeline, the Navagaon-
carried 3.83 million passengers in 2000-01.
Kalol-Koyali pipeline and the Mumbai High-
Major international air routes are Delhi-
Koyali pipeline were laid. Ahmedabad has
Rome-Frankfurt, Mumbai-London, Delhi-
been linked with Koyali by pipeline for
Moscow, Kolkata-Tokyo, Kolkata-Perth,
transport of petr oleum pr oducts. Gas
Mumbai-London-New York.
pipelines have also been laid down between
In addition to Air India, a number of
Khambhat and Dhuvaran, Ankleshwar and
foreign airlines touch Indian airports like
Uttaran, and Ankleshwar and Vadodara. Gas
Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.
Authority of India Limited (GAIL) operates
Indian Airlines, Alliance Air (subsidiary of
over 4,200 km of pipeline in the country and
Indian Airlines), private scheduled airlines
supplies gas to power plants. Construction
and air taxis provide domestic air services.
of a cross country 1750 km long Hazira-
Indian Airlines operations also extend to the
Bijapur -Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline has
neighbouring countries of Southeast Asia and
already been completed. This pipeline has
West Asia. At present there are two private
now been extended from Bijapur to Dadri in
scheduled airlines operating on the domestic
Uttar Pradesh. GAIL is also implementing a
network; 38 companies hold non-scheduled
1246 km long LPG pipeline project from
air taxi operators permit. Private operators
Kandla/Jamnagar in Gujarat to Luni in Uttar
presently cater to nearly 52.8 per cent of the
Pradesh via Delhi.
domestic air traffic. The share of private sector
The Mathura refinery gets its crude from
airways has increased very rapidly after
the Mumbai High through pipeline, which
liberalisation.
extends from Salaya on the Gulf of Kachchh
to Mathura. Petroleum product supply
OIL AND GAS PIPELINES pipeline exists between Mathura and
Jalandhar via Delhi and Ambala, and between
Pipelines are the most convenient mode of Mumbai and Pune for the transport of

transporting liquids and gases over long petroleum products.
156

supported by computers. This modern
NATIONAL ELECTRICITY GRIDS
communication technology is extremely
important ingredient in the rapid development
It is a fact that the electricity cannot be stored, of India’s economy and society. This network
nor can it be imported from abroad (except through Internet and e-mail provides access
from neighbouring countries). Creation of to information from all over the world at a
generation capacity domestically is critical for comparatively low cost. Even transfer of
meeting the national demand for power. documents over a computer network is the
Unfortunately, shortage of electricity is still a cheapest and the fastest method.
regular feature in the country. It is because For mass communication, print media
of shortage of generative capacity and absence (newspapers and periodicals) and electronic
of a national grid. If a national grid is media (radio and television) are used. In a
established, at least at the time of emergency nation like India, mass communication
and in peak hours, electricity can be network plays a vital role in creating
transferred from surplus regions to deficit awareness about national policies and
regions. programmes by providing information and
To mitigate this problem the Union education. The Ministry of Information and
Gover nment approved in principle the Broadcasting is responsible for development
establishment of a centrally owned and and regulation of infor mation and
operated national power grid in 1980. The broadcasting in the country. Prasar Bharati,
Power Grid Corporation of India has been the autonomous Broadcasting Corporation of
vested with the responsibility of phased India, was constituted in 1997 by subsuming
development of the National Power Grid. To Doordarshan and All India Radio under it. It
start with, it is planned to interconnect now controls the electronic media of the
regional power grids. There are five regional country.
electricity grids in the country: Northern,
Western, Southern, Eastern and North- Akashvani: Radio is an effective means of
Eastern. Even these regional grids are not mass communication in the country. Radio
operated in a truly integrated manner, but as broadcasting started in India in 1927 with
a system of interconnected state networks. two private transmitters located at Mumbai
Each State Electricity Board (SEB) is afraid and Kolkata. All India Radio (AIR) was
of its power being drained away and constituted in 1936. It is also known as
frequencies dragged down. To overcome this Akashvani. At the time of Independence there
fear, back-to-back High Voltage Direct were six radio stations. At present, the All
Current (HVDC) interconnections have been India Radio has 208 stations and 327
planned. Such connections insulate the transmitting centres. These stations and
frequency of one SEB from the other. The transmitting centres provide services to 99
Eastern and the North-Eastern regions are per cent of the population and 90 per cent of
already interconnected with AC lines. Now, the area of the country. Private broadcasters
rest of the regions are to be interconnected. also have set up about 100 FM radio stations.
Some of them are partially interconnected. All India Radio broadcasts a variety of
programmes related to information, education
and entertainment. Information is broadcast
COMMUNICATION NETWORK in different forms. The news service of AIR
disseminates news and comments to listeners
Means of communication can be put into two in India and abroad. Special news bulletins
broad classes: (i) the personal communication are also broadcast at specific occasions like
network, and (ii) the mass communication sessions of Parliament and state legislatures.
network. Personal communication is made The External Services Division of AIR has been

through postal network and telecom projecting the Indian point of view on matters
157

of national and international importance The programmes telecast by Doordarshan
through its various programmes. include news, current affairs, science, cultural
All India radio has introduced commercial magazines, documentaries, music, dance,
programmes also. Vividh Bharati channels drama, serials and feature films. Government
have commercial broadcasting. Besides policies, development programmes, and
Vividh Bharati, other channels and local current affairs are broadcast regularly.
stations also provide commercial services. For Doordarshan brings to its viewers all the
rural audiences, several programmes are major programmes of national and
regularly transmitted. Similarly, programmes inter national importance thr ough live
on family welfare and health care are telecast. It also transmits educational
broadcast every day. Music and drama are programmes for schools and universities.
major components of the schedule of There are different channels for different
broadcasting. All India Radio commissioned kinds of programmes.
the National Channel in 1988, which is Satellites: Development and use of artificial
essentially a night service airing, evening to satellites brought revolution in the
morning broadcast. communication system in India and the
Doordarshan: Doordarshan, the national world. Russia was first to launch artificial
satellite. Development of satellites, launch
television of India, is one of the largest
vehicles and associated ground systems is the
terrestrial networks in the world. It has
part of the space programme of the country.
changed socio-cultural life of the people both
On the basis of configuration and
in villages and in towns. DD-1 operates
purposes, satellite systems in India can be
through a network of 1,042 terrestrial
grouped into two: Indian National Satellite
transmitters that reaches to over 87 per cent
System (INSAT), and Indian Remote Sensing
of the population. There are 65 additional Satellite System (IRS). The INSAT is a
transmitters giving terrestrial support to other multipurpose satellite system for
channels. telecommunication, meteorological observation
First telecast by Doordarshan was made and for various other data and programmes.
on 15 September, 1959 and its signals were INSAT system was established in 1983.
available only in Delhi. The regular service At present ISRO-built satellites serve the
with a news bulletin was started in 1965. system. Satellites have revolutionalised both
Television was confined to certain cities up personal and mass communication systems.
to 1975. The first experiment with satellite Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite
technology in India, known as the Satellite system was operationalised with the
Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), commissioning of IRS-1A in March 1988.
was conducted in 1975-76. National Since then satellites of two series have been
programme and use of colour television could launched. India has also developed her own
be started in the country only by 1992. launching vehicle, PSLV (Polar Satellite
Afterwards, television facility expanded very Launch Vehicle). These satellites collect data
rapidly. in several spectral bands and transmit them
Doordarshan has a three-tier primary to the ground stations for various uses. The
programme service — national, regional and National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) at
local. In the national programmes focus is on Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition
the events and issues of national interest. of data and its processing. These are useful
Regional programmes originate from the state in the management of natural resources.
capitals and are relayed by all transmitters Computers: Computers have a wide range of
in the respective states. Local programmes uses and play an important role in our society
are area-based and cover local issues today. Basically, a computer performs four

featuring local people. functions:
158

(a) It accepts data as input. The versatile use of computers in so many
(b) It stores data, keeps it in its memory, and different fields is infact an outcome of its
recalls the same as and when required. special capabilities in ter ms of speed,
(c) It processes data as per instructions given accuracy, consistency, storage capacity, and
to get required information, and automation. It has an important role to play
(c) It communicates the information as in the field of education and transfer of
output. knowledge.
EXERCISES
Review Questions

(a) Why is transport a vital sector of the Indian economy?
(b) What are the important modes of transport in India?
(c) What are the advantages of road transport?
(d) What are the disadvantages of road transport?
( e) What is the Golden Quadrilateral?
(f ) Name four National Highways mentioning their terminals.
(g) Mention different gauges of Indian railway.
(h) Name two National Waterways.
( i) Mention two advantages of pipeline transportation.
2. Describe regional variations in the density of roads in India.
3. Give an account of distributional pattern of the railways in India.
4. Examine the importance of radio and television in mass communication.
5. Describe the uses of satellites and computers in the present day life.
(a) Transport and communication,
(b) National Highways and State Highways,
(c) Personal communication and mass communication.
Project Work
7. (a) Find out the facilities that the Indian railways provide to the passengers.
(b) Find out the various uses of computer in modern days.
159
"
CHAPTER
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Although India’s volume of trade is small when 7500 items are exported from the country
compared to the developed countries, India is while nearly 6000 items are imported. Export
an important trading nation. Foreign trade has is composed of a wide range of items from
played a crucial role in India’s economic agricultural to industrial sectors as also
development, and hence it has changed a lot handloom, cottage and handicraft articles.
through time. In 1950-51, India’s total external Project exports, which include consultancy,
trade stood at Rs 12.14 billion. Since then, civil construction and contracts, have also
this has witnessed continuous increase. made a significant progress in recent years.
During 2000-01 total value of India’s foreign Computer software exports have also
trade reached Rs 4292.46 billion, recording increased significantly. But imports too have
more than 353 fold increase during 1950-51 increased substantially, bulk of which
and 2000-01. Import has grown much faster comprise items like petroleum and petroleum
(380 times), from Rs 6.08 billion to Rs 2308.73 products, fertilisers, precious and
billion, than the export (336 times), from semiprecious stones and capital goods. Thus,
Rs 6.06 billion to Rs 2035.71 billion during several new commodities have substituted the
this period. Consequently, gap between import traditional ones of both import and export.
and export values has widened, resulting a
mounting adverse balance of trade. There are Composition of Import
two major reasons for this state of affairs: first Imports are made to meet the essential
is the hike in prices on world level and second requirements of domestic consumption,
is declining value of Indian rupee in the world investment, production and inputs for export
market. Slow growth in production, increasing good. Two commodity-groups, i.e. (a) fuels and
domestic consumption and keen competition (b) raw material and minerals, heavily
in the world market are other reasons of slow dominate India’s import trade. These two
growth in export. As a result, India’s share in groups account for 63.0 per cent of total
the total world export trade dropped from 2.1 imports of the country. Petroleum and
per cent in 1950 and 1.2 per cent in 1960 to petroleum products constitute nearly one-
0.6 per cent in 2000-01. The gap between third (31.0 per cent) of the total import bill in
import and export was not very large during 2000-01, while coal accounted for 2.2 per cent.
the First Five Year Plan but started increasing In the second group, pearls, precious and
from Second Plan onwards. During 2000-01, semiprecious stones (9.6 per cent) and gold
total value of import was Rs 2308.73 and silver (9.3 per cent) were major items.
billion and of export Rs 2035.71 billion. Different chemicals (6.7 per cent) were also
Consequently, trade deficit reached to major items of import. Other items of the group
Rs 273.02 billion. are iron and steel, non-ferrous metals and
professional equipments and optical goods.
COMPOSITION OF TRADE Capital goods as a group are at third place
and account for 11.0 per cent of total imports.
India’s foreign trade is characterised by a Among them, non-electrical machinery,
great variety in its composition. More than apparatus and appliances including machine
International Trade

tools are most important, amounting to 5.4 and iron and steel products are the major
per cent of total cost of imports. Transport sufferers. Significant decline was registered
equipments, electrical machinery and in items of crude materia! group. In this
appliances, and project goods are other group, the decline in crude rubber, wood,
imported capital goods. Import of food items timber, textile fibres and ferrous minerals has
accounts for only 3.7 per cent of total import been most striking. This was due to increasing
value, of which edible oils are most important, domestic production of these products.
amounting to two-thirds of the total value of Changing composition of import trade is
this group. Cashew nuts and pulses are other presented in Table 14.1
major imported food items. Fertilisers and
newsprint, paperboard, pulp and waste paper Table 14.1: India: Changes in Commodity
groups account for 1.5 per cent and 0.9 per Composition of Imports, 1960-61 and 2000-01
cent of total import value. The last is
Commodity Group 1960- 2000- Changes during
miscellaneous group consisting of a variety
61 01 1960-2001
of items. Among them, medicinal and % % (Per cent)
pharmaceutical products, raw cotton, dyeing,
tanning and colouring materials, crude Food and allied 19.1 3.7 -15.4
rubber, raw wool, synthetic fibres and Products
artificial resins are worth-mentioning items. Cereal 16.1 Neg. -16.1
Pulses NA 0.2 ––
Changes in Import Composition: The import
Cashew nuts NA 0.4 +0.4
trade of India has undergone considerable
Edible Oils 0.4 2.6 +2.2
change in composition during last four
decades. Largest positive change occurred in Fuel 33.2 ++
petroleum and petroleum product group, Coal 2.2 ––
which gained 23.8 per cent points during Petroleum, Oil lubricants 6.2 31.0 +24.8
1960-61 and 2000-01. In 1960-61 these Fertilisers 0.9 1.5 +0.6
items accounted for only 6.2 per cent of total
Paper Board, 1.7 0.9 -0.8
import value but it reached to 19.2 per cent
Newsprint etc.
in 1973-74 and 31.0 per cent in 2000-01. This
rapid growth was more due to the increasing Capital Goods 31.8 11.0 -20.8
prices and less due to increasing quantity. Machinery except 18.1 5.4 -12.7
During 1974, oil producing and exporting Electrical and Tools
countries raised the price of crude petroleum Electrical Machinery 5.1 1.0 -4.1
excluding Electronics
many times. Consequently, petroleum bill
Transport Equipments 6.4 1.9 -4.5
jumped very high. Chemicals and fertilisers
also gained during this period. Value of Project Goods NA 1.5 ––
chemicals and chemical compounds Others NA 29.8 ––
increased from 3.5 per cent in 1960-61 to 6.7 Chemicals 3.5 6.7 +3.2
per cent in 2000-01. Fertilisers gained from Pearls, Precious,
0.9 per cent to 1.5 per cent during the same Semi-precious stones Neg. 9.6 +9.6
period. Machinery and electrical and non- Iron and Steel 10.9 1.4 -9.5
electrical apparatus, appliances and machine Non-ferrous metals 4.2 1.1 -3.1
tools also increased their share in import. Professional equipments, 1.7 ––
Contrary to them, import of food and allied Optical Goods
products such as cereals, pulses, dairy Gold and Silver NA 9.3 ––
products, fruits and vegetables declined very Unclassified items NA 19.9 ––
rapidly. At the same time, manufactured
goods also lost their significance. Among Total 100.0 100.0 ––
them, jute textile, cotton textile, leather goods
161
Neg. – Negligble, NA – Not available

Composition of Export All agricultural commodities witnessed drastic
reduction. Tea used to be the principal
Manufactured goods and agricultural
commodity of export by contributing 19.6 per
products dominate the export trade of India.
cent of total export value in 1960-61. But it
Manufactured sector alone accounted for 78.0
per cent of the total value of export in lost its significance. Tea export remained
2000-01, while agricultural produces only stagnant at about 200 thousand tonnes,
13.5 per cent in the same year. Thus, ranging from 199.2 thousand tonnes during
commodities of these two groups constituted 1960-61, to 202.3 thousand tonnes in 2000-
91.5 per cent of the total value of export from 01. Its share declined to just 1.0 per cent of
India. It may be recalled here that these two total export value. Export of raw cotton
groups are not insignificant in imports. declined from 32.6 thousand tonnes to 30.2
Among the manufactured goods, and jewellery thousand tonnes during this period. Though
and gems, readymade gar ments are of other agricultural commodities registered
outstanding importance as they account for growth in exported quantity, this growth was
16.6 per cent and 12.5 per cent of total value rather sluggish in comparison to
of exports. Cotton yar ns and fabrics; manufactured goods. Consequently, all of
machinery, pharmaceuticals and drug, fine them lost their significance drastically. Only
chemicals; and equipments, manufactures of marine products gained in both quantity and
metals; leather and leather products; percentage share.
transport equipments; electrical goods, Similarly, mineral sector also lost export
handicrafts and primary and semi-finished market. For example, in spite of increasing
iron and steel are other major manufactured export quantity of iron ore from 3.2 million
items of export. Export of dyes, intermediates, tonnes to 20.2 million tonnes, its share
coal tar chemicals and leather footwear is also declined from 6.2 per cent to 0.8 per cent.
important. Contrary to it, share of manufactured
Among agricultural produces, marine products rose from 44.1 per cent in 1960-61
products including fish and fish products are to 78.0 per cent in 2000-01. Even in this
at the top accounting for 3.1 per cent of the group, share of jute products, leather and
total value of export. Next in importance are leather manufactures including leather
cereals, tea, oil cake, cashew nuts, spices, products (footwear, travel goods and
fruits and vegetables, coffee and tobacco. garments), and even primary and semi-
A small quantity of raw cotton is also exported. finished iron and steel declined very rapidly.
With the increasing capacity of petroleum Jute products accounted for more than 20.0
refining, export of petroleum products has per cent of total export in 1960-61 but it is
increased substantially and accounts for 4.2 only 0.46 per cent now. It is due to the fact
per cent of the total value of all export. Earlier that several substitutes of jute are being used
India was known for exporting mineral ores in the importing countries. Synthetic fabrics
and raw materials. Now, ore and minerals are used in stead of jute for packing purposes.
contribute only 2.6 per cent of total export. Primary semi-finished iron and steel declined
13.4 percent points, from 15.4 per cent to
Changes in Export Composition: With the only 2.0 per cent. In stead of exporting
changing structure of the national economy, primary iron and steel their products are
composition of the Indian export has changed being exported now. Similarly, in place of
and diversified enormously. In 1960-61, cotton fabrics, readymade garments and
agricultural products including beverages handicrafts are preferred for export. Therefore
and tobacco and mineral ores together they have gained significance during this
accounted for more than half (52.7 per cent) period.
of the total export value but their share Engineering goods particularly machinery

has declined to 16.1 per cent in 2000-01. and equipments, transport equipments,
162
International Trade

Table 14.2: India: Changes in Commodity Composition of Export, 1960-61 and 2000-01
Commodity Share (in percentage) Percent point change

1960-61 2000-01
Agriculture 31.3 13.5 -17.8

Tea 19.9 1.0 -18.9
Coffee 1.1 1.0 -0.1
Cereal NA 1.7 —
Tobacco 2.5 0.3 -2.2
Spices 2.6 0.8 -1.8
Cashew nuts 3.0 0.9 -2.1
Oil cakes 2.3 1.0 -1.3
Fruits and vegetables 0.9 0.6 -0.3
Marine products 0.7 3.1 +2.6
Raw cotton 3.4 0.1 -3.3
Sugar 0.5 0.3 -0.2
Ores and Minerals 44.1 78.0 +33.9
Leather goods 4.0 3.8 -0.2
Gems and jewellery Neg. 16.6 +16.6
Chemicals 1.1 11.1 +10.0
Metal products NA 3.7 ––
Machinery and transport 0.6 6.1 +5.5
Iron and Steel 15.4 2.0 -13.4
Electronic goods NA 2.4 +2.4
Cotton textile 9.0 7.9 -1.1
Readymade garments Neg. 12.5 +12.5
Jute textiles 20.0 0.5 -19.5
Handicrafts Neg. 3.1 +3.1
Crude and petroleum NA 4.2 ––
product
Unclassified items NA 1.7 ––
Total 100.0 100.0 ––
Neg. – Negligible, NA – Not available
electronic goods and chemicals including products are being exported. Changes in
drugs, pharmaceuticals, etc. have emerged export composition would be clear from Table
as major export items from almost 14.2. Handicrafts, gems including jewellery
insignificant beginning. Thus, the present have become popular export items. Though
composition of export is the reflection of the India is an importer of crude petroleum, she
industrial development of the country during exports petroleum products in large quantity.
the last four decades. Now, rather than It is because India has increased petroleum

exporting raw materials their manufactured refining capacity by establishing eighteen
163

refineries in the country. Electronic goods are instruments, chemicals and precious stones
new entrants to export. Computer software from United States of America. Indian trade
exports have also increased. with Canada is very modest.
With the objective to reduce the trade
West Europe: West Europe is the largest
balance deficit, government has taken several
steps to increase export. Procedures and trading region of India accounting for 25 per
formalities are being decentralised and cent of total export and 27 per cent of total
simplified to reduce the transaction costs. It import during 2000-01. A major part of
is planned to promote exports through India’s export to this region reaches to eight
multilateral and bilateral initiatives, and countries, viz. Germany, UK, Belgium, Italy,
identification of thrust sectors and focus on France, Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland.
new regions. Hence, there is great potential of increasing
export to other countries of this region. Main
items of export to these countries include
DIRECTION OF TRADE gems and jewellery, textile products, leather
and leather goods, machinery, drugs,
India has trade relations with practically all phar maceuticals, handicrafts, plastic
countries of the world. Besides traditional products, carpets, etc. Among imported
trade partners, India has expanded bilateral items from this region are mainly precious
trade relations with most of the developing and semi-precious stones, gold, silver,
countries of the world. However, western machinery, instruments, medicinal
Europe, Anglo-America and OPEC are still its products, etc.
major trading partners of the country, though
their shares are declining. Contrary to it, Eastern Europe: India has traditionally
share of the developing countries, in both enjoyed close and multifaceted relations with
import and export, has been increasing. Asia Central and Eastern Europe. But most of the
and Oceania accounted for 37.48 per cent of countries of this region have witnessed
India’s total exports, followed by West Europe political changes during the last decade,
(25.35 per cent), and America (24.73 per cent) which led to decline in bilateral trade relations
during 2000-01. India’s imports were highest between India and Eastern and Central
from Asia and Oceania (27.50 per cent) European countries. Only 2.4 per cent of
followed by West Europe (27.09 per cent) and India’s export reached to this region and
Anglo America (7.88 per cent). Among nations, import from them was only 1.6 per cent of
United States of America is the largest trade total import in 2000-01. In terms of total trade
partner of India. Other countries in order of tur nover with the Easter n European
significance are United Kingdom, Belgium, countries, Poland continues to occupy the top
Germany, Switzerland and Japan. position followed by Czech Republic and
Hungary.
Anglo America: The United States of America
is India’s largest single trading partner. India’s CIS Countries and Baltic States: CIS
export to USA was at Rs 424.04 billion (20.9 countries came into existence after
per cent of total export) and import from USA disintegration of USSR. India’s trade with
was at Rs 128.12 billion (6.0 per cent of total erstwhile Soviet Union in 1990-91 was Rs
import) during 2000-01. During 1990s export 78.03 billion, while total trade between India
to USA increased substantially but import and the countries of this region was
registered gradual decline. India exports Rs 80.61 billion. Russia is the only important
mainly gems and jewellery, readymade trading partner in this region, which
garments, cotton yarn and fabrics, metals accounted for 2.0 per cent of India’s total
products, handicrafts, etc. and imports export and 1.0 per cent of total import trade
electronic goods, machinery, professional
164
in 2000-01.
International Trade

Table 14.3: India: Major Partners of Foreign Trades, 1960-61 and 2000-01
Region/Country Percentage of Total Import Percentage of Total Export

1960-61 2000-01 1960-61 2000-01
OECD 78.0 39.9 66.1 52.7
Belgium 1.4 5.7 0.8 3.3
France 1.9 1.3 1.4 2.3
Germany 11.2 3.5 3.1 4.3
Netherlands 0.9 0.9 1.3 2.0
UK 19.4 6.3 26.9 5.2
Anglo-America 31.0 6.8 18.7 22.4
Canada 1.8 0.8 2.7 1.5
USA 29.2 6.0 16.0 20.9
Australia 1.6 2.1 3.5 0.9
Japan 4.6 5.1 4.1 10.9
Iran 2.6 0.2 0.8 0.5
Iraq 2.0 0.2 0.5 0.2
Kuwait 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.4
Saudi Arabia 1.3 1.2 0.5 1.8
Eastern Europe 3.4 1.6 7.0 2.4
Other LDC 11.8 17.5 14.8 26.7
Africa 5.6 1.7 6.3 3.32
Asia 5.7 14.4 6.9 21.4
Latin America and Caribbean 0.4 1.5 1.6 2.1
countries
Others 2.2 36.2 8.0 7.3
OECD : Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

LDC : Less Developed Countries
West Asia and North Africa: India has trade drugs and pharmaceuticals and gems and
agreements with most of the countries of West jewellery sector.
Asia and North Africa. India’s trade with these
East Asia: India’s trade with ASEAN and East
countries has increased rapidly but the
balance of trade has not been in favour of Asian countries is significant. Japan,
India because of import of large quantities of Southeast Asian countries and Australia and
crude oil from this region. This region also New Zealand account for about one-fourth of
supplies some important agricultural and India’s total trade. The principal commodities
industrial inputs, viz. fertilisers, rock of India’s export to this region include oil
phosphate, cotton, etc. There is considerable cakes, gem and jewellery, electronic goods,
promise for the growth of India’s exports to cotton and cotton fabrics, readymade
this region, particularly in processed food,

165
garments, machinery and instruments, iron

and steel, drugs and pharmaceuticals, meat India has twelve major ports, six on each
products and marine products, etc. Major coast, and 184 other ports. Major ports are
imported commodities from this region are Mumbai, Jawaharlal Nehru (Nhava Sheva),
coking coal, machinery, electrical machinery, Kandla, Mormugao, New Mangalore, and
wood and wood products, non-ferrous metals, Cochin on the west coast; and Kolkata/
raw wool, pulses, etc. Haldia, Paradip, Vishakhapatnam, Chennai,
Ennore and Tuticorin on the east coast (Fig.
Africa: India’s trade in this region is largely
14.1). The major ports are in the jurisdiction
with South Africa, Nigeria, Mauritius,
of the Central Government, while other ports,
Cote d Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Tanzania, Kenya,
popularly termed as minor/intermediate
Benin, Ghana, Ethiopia and Senegal. India’s
ports, come under the jurisdictions of the
exports to this region constitute about 4.1 per
respective State governments.
cent of the total global exports of India during
2000-01. Export includes cotton and man-
made yarns and fabrics, readymade garments Ports are the Gateways
drugs, phar maceuticals and chemicals, The word ‘Port’ comes from the Latin word
manufactures of metals, transport Porta which means gateway. Port is the
equipments, iron and steel, plastic and gateway of a country as exports and
petroleum products, chemicals, etc. imports are handled through them. There
are different types of ports, namely sea port,
Latin America: India’s trade with this region riverine port and dry port. In dry port, the
has grown in recent years. About 2.1 per cent linkage is maintained by the air route.
of India’s total export reached to the countries
of this region in 2000-01, while import from
them was 1.5 per cent. Exports to the region The capacity of Indian ports increased
include mainly manufactured goods such as from 20 million tonnes of cargo handling in
textiles and readymade garments, drugs and 1951 to more than 300 million tonnes at
phar maceuticals, engineering goods, present. The number of cargo vessels handled
automobiles, diesel engines, leather goods, at major ports is 15000 per annum. The
etc. India imports crude minerals, iron and aggregate cargo handled during 2000-01 was
steel and their products, non-ferrous metals, 281 million tonnes.
vegetable oils, pulp and paper waste, raw
wool, etc. from this region. Distribution of Minor Ports in India
The minor ports are located in Gujarat (40),
Maharashtra (53), Goa (5), Daman and
SEA PORTS
Diu (2), Kar nataka (9), Kerala(13),
Lakshadweep (10), Tamil Nadu (14),
Sea ports function as focal points for foreign Pondicherry (1), Andhra Pradesh (12) Orissa
trade of India. They act as collection centres (2), and Andaman and Nicobar Island (23).
of commodities from hinterland for further
shipment to foreign destinations on one hand,
and as receiving points of foreign Mumbai is a natural harbour and the biggest
consignments coming to India for distributing port of the country. This port played very
them in the interior part of the country. crucial role in the industrial development of
A port is that place on the coast, with docks, the country. The bulk of the commodities
wharves and berthing facilities. There is a handled at Mumbai consist of petroleum
difference between a harbour and a port. products and dry cargo. To release the
A harbour is a partially enclosed area in the pressure of the Mumbai port a new
sea providing shelter to the sailing ships. mechanised port named Jawaharlal Nehru
Natural harbours generally occur along an port has been developed at Nhava Sheva, off

indented coastline. the Mumbai port.
166
International Trade

E
N
N
Haldia
Colom
bo
pe
Ca
N N
NM - Nautical Miles

Fig. 14.1 India: Major Ports
167

Kandla is located at the western end of Rann Paradip on Orissa coast mainly handles iron
of Kachchh. It was the first port developed ore and coal.
soon after the independence to ease the
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the
increased pressure on Mumbai port in the
deepest land-locked and protected port. The
wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan. In traffic handled by this port consists of iron
order to cater to the northwestern part of the ore, crude oil, petroleum products and
country, Kandla was developed as a major fertilisers.
port. The traffic handled at Kandla consists
of crude petroleum, petroleum products, Chennai is also one of the oldest but artificial
fertilisers, food, cotton. cement, sugar, edible port on the east coast. It handles petroleum
oil and scrap. and its products, fertiliser, iron ore and
general cargo. It is ill-suited for large ships
Mormugao located in Goa, is a natural because of the shallow waters near the coast.
harbour. It is mainly involved in export of iron
ore, fish products, coconut and spices. Among Ennore, a new port, has recently been
import consignments are fertilisers, chemicals, constructed 25 km north of Chennai. It has
food articles etc. been developed to reduce the pressure on
Chennai port. The Ennore Port Company
New Mangalore, located in the state of Limited manages this port.
Karnataka, caters to the export of Kudremukh
iron ore and iron concentrates. It also handles Tuticorin located in the extreme south is a
fertilisers, petroleum products, edible oils, new port in Tamil Nadu. It deals with a variety
coffee, tea, wood, pulp, yarn, granite stone, of cargoes including coal, salt, food-grains,
molasses etc. edible oils, sugar, chemicals and petroleum
products.
Cochin in Kerala handles crude petroleum
and petroleum products along with fertilisers
AIRPORTS
and raw materials. It caters to the needs of
Kerala, south Karnataka and southwestern
Tamil Nadu. Air transport terminals are called airports. Air
transport cost is comparatively very high, and
Kolkata located on the Hughly river, is therefore, it is mainly used for passenger
actually a riverine port and is located about services. Only light and valuable cargo is
128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal. Like dispatched by cargo aircraft. In order to help
Mumbai this port was also developed by the Indian exporters and make their export more
British and had the initial advantage of being competitive, the Gover nment of India
the capital of British India. It’s a tidal port introduced the ‘open sky policy’ for cargo.
and requires constant dredging of Hughly for Under this policy any foreign airlines or
maintaining a minimum level of water in the association of exporters can bring freighters
river to ensure its navigability, water is to the country for upliftment of cargo.
supplied from the Farrakka barrage on the There are 11 inter national airports
Ganga. Kolkata port serves very large and rich (Fig. 14.2) and 112 domestic airports
hinterland. Another port at Haldia 105 km functioning in the country. These ports are
downstream from Kolkata, has been under the management of the ‘Airports
constructed to remove the congestion at Authority of India’. These airports are grouped
Kolkata port. These ports jointly handle a into four classes: international airports, major
variety of cargo, among them engineering national airports, medium airports and minor
goods, machines, petroleum and petroleum airports. International airports are located at
products, chemicals, tea, sugar, iron and Mumbai (called Santa Cruz and Sahar Airport),
steel, jute and jute products, cotton and Delhi (Indira Gandhi International Airport),
cotton yarn are major ones.
168
Kolkata (Subhas Chandra Bose), Chennai
International Trade

E
N
N
N N

Fig. 14.2 India: Air Routes
169

(Meenembakam), Bangalore, Hyderabad, Imphal, Jaipur, Khajuraho, Lucknow,
Ahmedabad, Goa, Amritsar, Guwahati and Mangalore, Nagpur, Pannagarh, Patna,
Kochi. These ports provide international air Ranchi, Thiruvananthapuram, Udaipur,
services along with domestic services. Tiruchirappaili etc. Majority of airports
Major national airports are at Agartala, belongs to medium and minor classes, which
Aurangabad, Varanasi, Bhubaneshwar, Bhuj, do not have regular air services.
EXERCISES
Review questions

(a) Mention the characteristics of India’s foreign trade.
(b) Name four important items which India imports from other countries.
(c) Name four important items which India exports to other countries.
(d) Name five countries of Africa with which India has trade relations.
(e) Name the ports of India located on the east coast.
( f ) Name a state of India which has two major ports.
(a) Export and Import
(b) Port and Harbour
(c) Foreign and Domestic trade
3. Describe the major trading partners of India and the commodities involved
in trade with them.
4. Describe the composition of export and import trade of India during the
last forty years.
Project Work
1. On an outline map of India, show the following:

(a) Major ports
(b) International airports
2. Explain the meaning of hinterland and dry port with suitable examples.
170
#
CHAPTER
POVERTY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
During the last five decades India has made obtained from the large sample surveys on
tremendous progress in various spheres of consumer expenditure, which are conducted
life. Its economy has expanded and by the National Sample Survey Organisation
diversified, society has become cohesive and (NSSO) at an interval of approximately five
polity democratised. It has also faced many years. On this basis, comparable estimates
problems, some of which have successfully of poverty are available at national and state
been solved, but many others still plague it. level from 1973-74 to 1999-2000.
In this chapter we propose to examine two The poverty ratio (percentage of
major challenges India faces today – Poverty population living below poverty line to total
and Environmental Degradation. population) is estimated at 26.10 per cent for
the total population in 1999-2000. It ranges
from 23.62 per cent in urban areas to 27.09
POVERTY
per cent in rural areas. The incidence of
poverty has witnessed a steady decline from
Poverty alleviation has been on the national 54.88 per cent in 1973-74 to 36.0 per cent in
agenda for more than sixty years. As early as 1993-94 and 26.10 per cent in 1999-
in 1938, the Indian National Congress 2000(Table 15.1). Though the poverty ratio
constituted a National Planning Committee declined, the number of poor remained stable
headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, which declared at around 320 million for long period of two
that the social objective should be “to ensure decades (1973-93), due to a countervailing
an adequate standard of living for the masses, growth in population.
in other words, to get rid of the appalling Rural poverty has shown a consistent
poverty of the people.” The importance of reduction. The rate of decline was faster in
reduction of poverty and provision of other the 1980s. The decline in the poverty in the
basic needs has been emphasised in all the eighties could be attributed to stable
Five Year Plans particularly since the Fifth Five agricultural growth and the impact of the
Year Plan. The government has two-pronged Government poverty alleviation programmes.
approaches, viz. promoting economic growth It is seen that public action in the form of
and direct action towards poverty alleviation. employment generation makes a greater
impact on alleviating poverty. The non-farm
Trend of Poverty Ratio
employment also increased during the 1980s
Several estimates on poverty are available. and helped in reducing rural poverty. It is
The Planning Commission has been remarkable to note that on national level
estimating the incidence of poverty at the urban poverty ratio has always been lower
national and state level using the methodology than the ratio in rural areas.
contained in the report of the Expert Group The proportion of poor declined in all
on Estimation of Proportion and Number of states during the period under consideration.
Poor (Lakdawala Committee). The estimates However, Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Goa,
are applied to consumption-expenditure data Lakshadweep, Delhi, Andhra Pradesh,

Table 15.1: India: Trend of Poverty Ratio, 1973-2000 (Number in million persons)
Year All India Number All India % Rural Number Rural % Urban Number Urban %
1973-74 321.3 54.9 261.3 56.4 60.0 49.0

1977-78 328.9 51.3 264.3 53.1 64.6 45.2
1983 322.9 44.5 252.0 45.7 70.9 40.8
1993-94 320.3 36.0 244.0 37.3 76.3 32.4
1999-2000 260.3 26.1 193.2 27.1 67.0 23.6
2007* 220.1 19.3 170.5 21.1 49.6 15.1
* Projected
Source: Economic Survey 2002-03
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal Pradesh,Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh,

and Andaman and Nicobar Islands recorded Uttaranchal, Bihar, and Jharkhand. Contrary
significant reduction. While some states such to it, poverty ratio is between 20 and 30 per
as Punjab and Haryana have succeeded in cent in southern states and low and very low
reducing poverty by following the path of high in western and northern states.
agricultural growth, others have focussed on On the national level, proportion of poor
particular areas of development. Kerala has population is higher in rural areas than in
focussed on human resource development, urban areas. But on the state level, there is a
West Bengal on vigorous implementation of mixed picture. Urban-rural difference is as
land reform measures and empowerment of high as 15.58 points in Andhra Pradesh. In
Panchayats, and Andhra Pradesh on direct 16 states and union territories it is higher in
public intervention in the form of public urban areas than in rural areas. These states
distribution of foodgrains. cover southern, central and western parts of
the country and form a continuous belt from
Regional Disparity in Poverty Ratio Tamil Nadu in the south to Delhi and Haryana
Poverty at the national level is estimated as in the north. Even in Delhi, difference between
the weighted average of state-wise poverty urban and rural poverty ratios is quite high
levels. The poverty ratio is estimated from the (7.02 per cent points). It may be because,
state-specific poverty lines and the unlike in rural areas, there has not been any
distribution of persons by expenditure groups anti-poverty programme in urban areas. The
obtained from the NSS data on consumption rural-urban migration has also enhanced this
expenditure. State-wise poverty ratio is gap. Majority of the people living in the slums
presented in Table 15.2. developed in and around towns and cities
The incidence of poverty ranges from only constitute major segment of the urban poor.
3.48 per cent in Jammu and Kashmir, being On the other side, public distribution systems
the lowest, to 47.15 per cent in Orissa being of food are much better in urban places than
the highest. Though the poverty ratio has in rural areas.
declined substantially during the last three
Poverty and Hunger
decades, one has to go a long way to remove
poverty. In Bihar and Orissa more than 40 The extent of poverty can be gauged from the
per cent of population live below poverty line proportion of people getting two square meals
(Fig. 4.3). In other ten states, it is between 30 a day. In 1981, the proportion of rural
to 40 per cent. All states of central, north- households that claimed that they could have
central and eastern India fall in this class. two square meals per day was 81 per cent.

Major states among them are Madhya By 1993, this percentage rose to 93 per cent.
172
Poverty and Environmental Degradation

Table 15.2: India: State-wise Poverty Ratio, 1973-74 and 1999-2000.
State 1973-74 1999-2000

Total Total Rural Urban
Andhra Pradesh 48.96 15.77 11.05 26.63

Andaman and Nicobar Is* 55.56 20.99 20.55 22.21
Arunachal Pradesh 51.93 33.47 40.04 7.47
Assam 51.21 36.09 40.04 7.47
Bihar 61.91 42.6 44.3 32.91
Chandigarh* 27.96 5.75 5.75 5.75
Dadra and Nagar Haveli* 46.55 17.14 17.57 13.52
Daman and Diu* NA 4.44 1.35 7.52
Delhi* 49.61 8.23 0.40 9.42
Goa 44.26 4.40 1.35 7.52
Gujarat 48.15 14.07 13.17 15.59
Haryana 35.36 8.74 8.27 9.99
Himachal Pradesh 26.39 7.63 7.94 4.63
Jammu and Kashmir 40.83 3.48 3.97 1.98
Karnataka 54.47 20.04 17.38 25.25
Kerala 59.79 12.72 9.38 20.27
Lakshadweep* 59.68 15.60 9.38 20.27
Madhya Pradesh 61.78 37.43 37.06 38.44
Maharashtra 53.24 25.02 23.72 26.81
Manipur 49.96 28.54 40.04 7.47
Meghalaya 50.20 33.87 40.04 7.47
Mizoram 50.32 19.47 40.04 7.47
Nagaland 50.81 32.67 40.04 7.47
Orissa 66.18 47.15 48.01 42.83
Pondicherry* 53.82 21.67 20.55 22.11
Punjab 28.15 6.16 6.35 5.75
Rajasthan 46.14 15.28 13.74 19.85
Sikkim 50.86 36.55 40.04 7.47
Tamil Nadu 54.94 21.12 20.55 22.11
Tripura 51.00 34.44 40.04 7.47
Uttar Pradesh 57.07 31.15 31.22 30.89
West Bengal 63.43 27.02 31.85 14.86
All India 54.88 26.10 27.09 23.62
* Union Territory

173

In other words, only 7 per cent of the people aspects of human life – longevity, knowledge
reported that they did not have enough to and a decent standard of living – in the
eat. It shows that there has been a reduction construction of human poverty index. These
in the percentage of hungry people. Poverty aspects are represented by (i) the percentage
line was originally determined mainly on the of people expected to die before 40 years of
basis of income needed to meet the minimal age, (ii) percentage of illiterate adults, and
food requirement, and therefore, there (iii) average of three variables, namely,
should not be such a wide gap between (a) percentage of people without access to safe
poverty ratio and percentage of hungry water, (b) percentage of people without access
people as in the present case. to health services, and (c) percentage of
Sometimes trends in net per capita moderately and severely underweight children
availability of foodgrains are used as an under five years of age. Humans, being a
indicator of changes in poverty. It is pertinent biological entity can live in a healthy state.
to mention that per capita availability of The human poverty index is constructed by
foodgrains declined considerably from 469 taking a simple average of the three variables.
grams per capita per day in 1971 to 417 The human poverty index thus calculated
grams in 2001. Generally, people at the by UNDP is quite high, that is, 36.7. One
bottom end of the income scale eat better major indicator of human poverty is a short
when the harvest is good and prices are low. life. Dying before 40 years of age represents a
When the availability of foodgrains declines severe deprivation. In India nearly one-fifth
and prices rise abnormally as a result of poor of the total population is expected to die before
crop, a higher proportion of people will be this age. This is four times of the proportion
unable to meet the nor mative level of in industrially developed countries. Similarly,
consumption and hence are counted among adult illiteracy rate was as high as 48.8 per
the poor. Thus, the public management of cent in 1994 and 34.6 per cent in 2001.
foodgrains is important for poverty reduction. Deprivation in social provisions is also high.
Thus, India has a long way to go in alleviating
Human Poverty Index human poverty.
Although income focuses on an important
dimension of poverty, it gives only a partial ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
picture. To get a complete idea of poverty, it
should be measured in terms of deprivations Environmental problems emerge from the
and not merely in terms of income as the lowering of environmental quality in the
poverty manifests itself in the deprivation of process of development. Development involves
the lives. Poverty is thus a denial of choices greater use of natural resources. So long as
and opportunities for living a tolerable life. the use is in consonance with ecological
This is the concept of human poverty. It principles, no harm is done. But armed with
means that opportunities and choices most moder n technology, human becomes
basic to human development are denied to unmindful of ecology and gives rise to
lead a long, healthy, creative life and to enjoy environmental pollution, which in turn affects
a decent standard of living, freedom, dignity, his or her health and quality of life in general
self-respect and the respect of others. adversely.
United Nations Development Programme Pollution results from ‘the release of
(UNDP) in its Human Development Report substances and energy from waste products
1997, has introduced the human poverty of human activities, which result in changes,
index. The Report acknowledges that human usually har mful, within the natural
poverty is larger than any particular measure environment’. Usually three criteria are used
including the human poverty index. However, for identifying pollution. These are (i) the waste
UNDP focussed on the deprivation in the three
174
materials resulting from human activities and

disposal of human wastes, (ii) damages accompany many industrial processes
caused by disposed wastes whether directly particularly the paper and pulp, leather and
or indirectly, and (iii) the circumstances where chemical industries.
the effect of damage is met by third party. Urban air quality has generally
There are many types of pollution. It is deteriorated throughout India. The reasons
because the pollutants and the media through are absence of pollution abatement and rising
which pollutants are transported and diffused number of motor vehicles that use leaded
are many and varied. A pollutant is defined fuels. The annual mean concentration trends
as any form of energy or matter that causes for the National Environmental Engineering
degradation and pollution in the existing Research Institute (NEERI) for some cities
natural balance of ecosystems. They can be observed various atmospheric pollutants.
in gaseous, liquid and solid forms. Pollution From figures, it is clear that nitrogen dioxide
can thus be classified into three categories concentration trend is stabilising for Mumbai,
on the basis of medium of transportation of Kolkata and Chennai, whereas sulphur
the pollutants. These are (i) air pollution, dioxide concentrations are decreasing in Delhi
(ii) water pollution, and (iii) land pollution. but still increasing in Mumbai and Kolkata.
Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
Air Pollution concentrations have somewhat increased in
Major sources of air pollution are natural all these cities.
sources such as volcanic eruption, dust, storm, The vehicles which use leaded fuel,
fires, etc. and human-made sources such as account for about 95% of air borne lead
factories, urban centres, automobiles, aircrafts, pollution. The growth of number of motor
fertilisers and pesticides, power plants, etc. vehicles in the last three decades has been
Industries emit several poisonous gases, ash almost 32 times. In 1997-98, there were 0.53
and dust; powerhouses emit sulphur, nitrogen million buses, 2.53 million trucks, 28.24
oxide and carbon oxide; and automobiles release million two-wheelers, 1.34 million
carbon monoxide and lead in the atmosphere. autorickshaws and 5.05 million cars, jeeps
At the same time, chlorofluorocarbon is also and taxis. The estimated emissions in the air
emitted in the atmosphere, which depletes the from the traffic in metropolitan cities are given
ozone layer. Besides all these, noxious smells in Table 15.3.
Table 15.3: India: Estimated Vehicular Emission Load in certain Metropolitan Cities
(Vehicular Pollution Load tonne per day)
City SPM Sulfur Oxide of Hydrocarbons Carbon Total
dioxide nitrogen monoxide
Delhi 8.58 7.47 105.38 207.98 542.51 872

Mumbai 4.66 3.36 59.02 90.17 391.6 549
Bangalore 2.18 1.47 21.85 65.42 162.8 254
Kolkata 2.71 3.04 45.58 36.57 156.87 245
Ahmedabad 2.46 2.41 33.33 56.46 149.28 244
Pune 1.99 1.07 13.5 61 135.2 213
Chennai 1.95 1.68 23.51 42.05 119.35 188
Hyderabad 1.62 1.3 14.03 46.94 105.14 169
Jaipur 0.98 1.04 12.74 17.49 42.73 75
Kanpur 0.88 0.9 11.14 18.53 40.35 72
Lucknow 0.95 0.79 8.07 18.75 41.02 70
Nagpur 0.46 0.34 4.24 13.6 29.16 48
SPM: Suspended Particulate Matter
175

Effects of air pollution: The air pollution Industries produce several undesirable
modifies weather and climate, ef fects products including industrial wastes, polluted
human health and biotic community. waste water, poisonous gases, chemical
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) cause depletion residuals, numerous heavy metals, dust,
of ozone layer which enable ultraviolet rays smoke, etc. Most of the industrial wastes are
of the sun to reach the earth and increase disposed off in running water. Consequently,
atmospheric temperature. Increased poisonous elements reach the reservoirs,
concentration of carbon dioxide and other rivers and other water bodies, which destroy
gases in the atmosphere causes greenhouse the bio-system of these waters. Major water
effect raising the atmosphere temperature. polluting industries are leather, pulp and
Smoky fog over cities called as urban smog is paper, textiles and chemicals.
caused by these gases. It proves very harmful
to human health. Air pollution can also cause Pollution of Rivers
acid rains. Rainwater analysis of urban
environment has indicated that pH value of With rapid urbanisation and industrialisation,
the first rain after summer is always lower huge quantities of waste water enter rivers.
than the subsequent rains. Studies conducted About 873 million litres per day (mld) of
by NEERI show that the minimum pH of 4.5 waste water drained into the Ganga before
the Ganga Action Plan was initiated. The
was in Kochi, while the average pH of all rains
Sabarmati, a small river, alone receives 998
at all the urban agglomerations ranged from mld of dirty water from the city of
6.2 to 7.6. Ahmedabad.
Air pollution causes diseases of the lungs,
heart, nervous and circulatory systems.
A study conducted in the ambient air of Urban sources of polluted water are
Kolkata (in 1994) concluded that three out of sewage, municipal and domestic garbages,
every ten persons in the city suffered from industrial effluents, automobile exhausts, etc.
some kind of respiratory diseases like cough The dimension of discharge of urban effluents
and bronchitis, which were associated with can be imagined by citing example of more
concentrations of suspended particulate than 150 leather factories located in Kanpur
matter. Children are especially at risk from metropolitan area which discharge more than
air pollution because of effect on their lung. 5.8 million litres of waste water in the Ganga
It also causes psychological and physiological river every day. The Yamuna river at Delhi
damages. has, in fact, become a sewage drain as 323
million gallon of sewage enter the Yamuna per
Water Pollution day through 17 open drains. The urban
Increased demand for water, consequent sewerage nallas, draining dirty and polluted
upon increasing population and industrial water into the Ganga river are major culprits
expansion, has degraded the quality of water of making this river unsacred. Out of its total
considerably. When the amount of foreign stretch of 2555 km, about 600 km long course
undesirable substances are added by human of the river has been badly polluted. The
to the water beyond its self-purifying capacity, Ganga and the Yamuna rivers can be cited as
it gets polluted. examples of water pollution from industrial
Though water pollutants are also created and urban sources (Table 15.4).
from natural sources (erosion, landslides, Various types of chemicals used in the
decay and decomposition of plants and inorganic fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides
animals, etc.) pollutants from anthropogenic are pollution generating components. These
sources are the real causes of concern. They chemicals are washed down to rivers, lakes
include industrial sources, urban source, and tanks. They also infiltrate the soil to reach
agricultural source, cultural source, etc.
176
the ground water. Fertiliser induces an

Table 15.4: Sources of Pollution in the Ganga and the Yamuna Rivers
River and state Polluted stretches Nature of pollution Main polluters
Ganga (a) Downstream of Kanpur 1. Industrial pollution from Cities of Kanpur,

(Uttar Pradesh) (b) Downstream of Varanasi towns like Kanpur Allahabad, Varanasi,
(c) Farrakka barrage to 2. Domestic wastes from Patna and Kolkata
Allahabad urban centres release domestic waste
3. Dumping of carcasses in into the river
the river
Yamuna (a) Delhi to confluence with 1. Extraction of water by Delhi dumping its
(Uttar Pradesh) Chambal Haryana and Uttar domestic waste
(b) Mathura and Agra Pradesh for irrigation
2. Agricultural run of f
resulting in high levels of
micro-pollutants in the
Yamuna
3. Domestic and industrial
waste of Delhi flowing
into the river
increase in the nitrate content of surface caused due to construction of dams,

waters. Cultural activities such as pilgrimage, reservoirs, canals and tanks in geologically
religious fairs, tourism, etc. also cause water unsuitable areas, excessive use of canal
pollution. In India, almost all surface water irrigation and diversion of floodwater in areas
sources are contaminated and unfit for of impervious rocks also reduce the fertility
human consumption. of land. Because of over-irrigation, saline and
The diseases commonly caused due to alkaline areas have increased in the northern
contaminated water are diarrhoea, trachoma, plains of the country. Irrigation also changes
intestinal worms, hepatitis, etc. Recent World the structure of the soil. Besides, use of
Bank and World Health Organisation data chemical fertilisers, pesticides, insecticides
shows that about one-fourth of the and herbicides degrades the soil by destroying
communicable diseases in India are their natural, physical, chemical and
water-borne. biological properties. Chemical fertilisers
destroy micro-organisms of the soil, which are
Land Pollution agents of nitrogen conversion in the soil. They
Land pollution encompasses the degradation increase sterility and reduce water-holding
and pollution of soil and vegetative cover. capacity of the soil. They also leave their traces
Deterioration in the quality of soil occurs in crops, which act as slow poison for human
because of soil erosion, reduction in plant beings. Similarly, organic phosphate
nutrients, decline in soil micro-organisms, compounds used to kill insects can stay for
lack of moisture, concentration of various longer time in soils destroying micro-
harmful elements, etc. Erosion is caused by organisms.
natural and human factors. Deforestation, Improper disposal of industrial and urban
overgrazing and improper use of land also wastes, and irrigation of agricultural fields
accelerate soil erosion. It is estimated that 130 with polluted urban sewage water near urban
million hectares of land are affected by erosion and industrial areas degrade the soil. The
problems in the country. Shifting agriculture toxic chemical substances of industrial
alone has affected about 30 million hectares. effluents and urban sewage enter the soil
Besides erosion, salinisation and flooding
177
mostly in their neighbourhoods and pollute

Table 15.5: India: Per day Per Capita and Total Urban Municipal Solid Waste Generated
Waste generated 1971 1981 1991 1997

Per Capita (gm/day) 375 430 460 490
Total waste (Mt*/day) 14.9 25.1 43.5 48.1
Mt: Metric Tonne
them. Besides, gaseous and solid particulate gm/day during 1971-1997 in urban areas of
pollutants emitted by the factory chimneys the country. This increase along with the
and other sources are transported to the areas population increase has tremendously
far away from the source of the emission of swollen up the figures of total waste
pollutants by winds. These pollutants, generation quantum (Table 15.5).
containing toxic substances, are deposited on At the same time, the composition of solid
soils and pollute them. Sulphur emitted from waste changes from biodegradable organic
factories causes acid rains, which increase the material to plastic and other synthetic
acidity of the soils. Large quantities of materials, which take much longer time to
particulate matters emitted from cement decompose (Table 15.6). When this solid waste
factories, lime kilns, coal mining and is not collected and disposed off efficiently and
transport vehicles, thermal power plants, etc. effectively, it attracts rodents and flies which
also pollute the soils on large scale. spread diseases. It also pollutes and degrades
land and water resources.
Urban Waste Disposal Problems: The
It is evident from Table 15.6 that shares
environmental problems of cities include
of plastics, glass and metals increased
water, air and noise pollution and disposal of
remarkably through time. Plastics recorded
toxic and hazardous wastes. Lack of sewers
or other means to dispose off human excretes five-fold jump within twenty years. Most of
safely and the inadequacy of garbage these do not have a good recycling value and
collection services adds to water pollution hence are disposed off by municipalities as
because many of the uncollected wastes are part of the kitchen waste.
washed into streams. Concentration of Inability to collect solid waste is a serious
industrial units in and around urban centres problem. In metropolitan cities like Mumbai,
gives rise to a series of environmental Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc. about 90
problems. The dumping of industrial waste per cent of the solid waste is collected. But in
into rivers is a major cause of water pollution. most of the cities and towns about 30 to 50
River pollution from city-based industries and per cent of the waste generated are left
untreated sewage leads to serious health uncollected which accumulate on streets, in
problems downstream. open spaces between houses and in
Solid waste generation continues to wasteland, contributing to serious health
increase in both absolute and per capita terms hazards. It is remarkable that both formal and
in cities. It is estimated that per capita waste informal sectors are involved in collection of
generation increased from 375 gm/day to 490 solid waste, yet the problem of urban waste
Table 15.6: India: Composition of Solid Wastes from Cities (in Percentage)
Components Paper Plastics Metals Glass Rags Ash and Total
Year fine earth degradable
1971-73(40 cities) 4.14 0.69 0.60 0.40 3.83 49.20 41.24

1995 (23 cities) 5.78 3.90 1.10 2.10 3.50 40.30 41.80
178

disposal remains unresolved. These wastes economic well-being by over -exploiting
should be treated as resource and utilised for natural r esour ces on large scale.
generating energy and compost. Industrialisation and urbanisation are the
About 90 per cent of the municipal waste natural outcome of the current trend of
collected by the civic authorities is dumped development. They, however, have
in low-lying areas outside the city/town limit accelerated the pace of the environmental
without any provision for treatment. As a degradation and pollution. Developmental
result, heavy metals find their way to the activities of the last few decades have
underground water rendering it unfit for accentuated these problems phenomenally.
drinking. Untreated wastes ferment slowly What we need today is a balanced approach
and r elease noxious biogas to the to development. We can neither ignore
atmosphere, including methane (65 to 75 per development nor af ford to destroy our
cent) which is a greenhouse gas and which habitat which is the basis of our existence.
has a global warming potential 34 times more Thus, there is an urgent need to move in
than carbon dioxide. the direction of sustainable development.
Let us not forget what Gandhiji said in this
Conclusion regard. ‘There is enough on this earth to
Human impact on environment is a direct meet everyone’s need but not everyone’s
function of patter ns of use of natural greed.’ The time has come to look afresh at
resources and of emission of pollutants into our development policies and to create a
the ecosphere in the process of production need-based economy. This alone can solve
and consumption of goods and services. the twin problems of human poverty and
People ar e striving to impr ove their environmental pollution.
EXERCISES
Review Questions:

(a) What is poverty?
(b) What percentage of people in India are below poverty line?
(c) Mention two states which have a poverty ratio of more than 40 per cent.
(d) Mention four states which have a poverty ratio of less than 10 per cent.
(e) Mention three aspects of human life which are used for the construction of
human poverty index.
( f ) Mention the criteria used for identifying pollution.
(g) What is the difference between pollution and pollutants?
(h) Mention major problems associated with urban waste disposal in India.
2. Describe the major sources of air pollution.
3. What are the effects of air pollution on human health?
4. Describe the nature of water pollution in India.
5. Suggest measures for reduction of land pollution in the country.
Project Work
6. (a) Identify the nature of environmental pollution in your locality.

(b) Write about major pollutants and suggest measures to control them.

179
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part IV A
Fundamental
Duties of Citizens
ARTICLE 51A
Fundamental Duties – It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diverstities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement.

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INDIA

People and Economy

Textbook in Geography for Class XII

1.1. India: State-wise Distribution of Area and Population

2.1. India: Urbanisation, 2001 16

3.1. Distribution of Scheduled Caste Population in India, 1991 25

4.1. India: State-wise Distribution of Literacy, 2001 36

5.1. India: Distribution of Rural Population according to

6.1. Class-wise Distribution of Urban Population of India, 2001 54

7.1. Interaction between Human, Culture and Environment

7.3. Classification of Resources (After B. Goodall, 1987) 62

8.1. Utilisation of Potential Ground Water 69

9.1. India: Land Use 1950-51 and 1998-99 81

10.1. India: Coal Fields 103

11.1. India: Iron and Steel Plants 123

13.1. India: Super Highways 150

14.1. India: Major Ports 167

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS v

1. Population: Distribution and Growth 1

3. Social and Cultural Attributes of Population 23

7. Natural Resources : Theoretical Background 60

10. Mineral and Power Resources 100

11. Manufacturing Industries 119

12. Development Planning 139

13. Transport and Communication Network 148

14. International Trade 160

Census Population Absolute Change Average Progressive

1. Period of stagnant growth rate [before

Reasons of Total migrants % of Total % of male % of female

Marriage 1303 56.1 4.0 76.1

Source: Census of India 1991, Migration Tables, Vol. V, Part 1.

Rural-Urban Composition Urban Population

Urbanisation Based on age, population is generally

Fig. 2.2 India: Age and Sex Structure, 1991

Fig. 2.3 Sex Ratio in India and Selected Countries

1. Answer briefly the following:

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL

Variables Total Population Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes

Total Literacy 52.21 37.41 29.60

Table 3.2 : India: Growth of Population of Scheduled Tribes 1951-1991

Attributes 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991

Population (in millions) 22.5 29.9 38.0 53.6 67.7

Promotion of Languages 9. Malyalam 30.38 3.62

1. Answer briefly the following:

Country Human Development Index Gender Development Index

Norway 0.933 0.939 0.911 0.937

Indicator 1951 1971 1981 1991 1999

Total fertility rate 6.0 5.2 4.5 3.6 2.9

1. The data relates to the year 1998

72° East of Greenwich 80° 84° 88° 92°

Literacy Ratio Enrolment Ratio Enrolment Ratio Drop-Out P-T Ratio

Year P M F B G T B G T Pr. U.Pr Pr. U.

Abbreviations: P = Person. M = Male. F = Female. B = Boy. G = Girl. T = Total.

Economic Indicators 1950-51 1970-71 1990-91 1999-2000

GDP at Current Prices (Rs Billion) 95.47 422.22 5109.54 17556.38

Source: Economic Survey 2001-2002.

10.0 AND BELOW

40.1 AND ABOVE

Percentage 17.9 24.3 25.0 19.7 10.8 1.8 0.5 100.0

Both size and spacing increase in the

Inter-village distance Average size of village Rural density Village density

Below 2.00 752 350 47

* Excluding Jammu and Kashmir.

POPULATION SIZE OF VILLAGES