End-Semester Minor Project Report

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

B.Tech. (Electrical and Electronics Engineering) degree

on

A PILOT RELAYING SCHEME FOR

SERIES-COMPENSATED TRANSMISSION
LINE

Submitted by

KASALA VIJETHA Roll No.2016UGEE048

PRIYA BHARTI Roll No.2016UGEE082
BALLA SATYA SRAVANI Roll No.2016UGEE020

Under the guidance of

Dr. OM HARI GUPTA

Autumn: 2019 - 2020

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAMSHEDPUR
Adityapur, Jharkhand- 831014, India
November, 2019
 Table of Contents

Topic Name Page No.

Introduction 01
Literature Survey 09
Motivation 10
Objectives 10
Methodology 11
Results and Discussion 13
Conclusion and Future Work 16
References 17
INTRODUCTION
Transmission lines are sets of wires, called conductors, which carry
electric power from generating plants to the substations that deliver
power to customers. Now the most challenging and elaborate function
is protection of the power system. About two third of faults in the
power system occurs on the transmission line and for that there are
numbers of relaying schemes. In order to effectively transmit the
power and to improve the stability of the system, regulation of
voltage, improving power factor and maintaining stable frequency is
necessary. To maintain the voltage stability and high power factor,
different compensation techniques such as series and shunt
compensations, FACTS devices are being used. Series compensation
provides an economical means of maximizing power transfer and
improving transmission efficiency over long distances by reducing
the series impedance of the transmission line which results in
significant increase in the transient and voltage stability in
transmission systems.
In this project we shall confine our study to protection scheme for
series compensated lines.

VARIOUS PROTECTION SCHEMES:

Faults are caused either by insulation failures or conducting path
failures which results in short circuits. Most of the faults on
transmission and distribution lines are caused by over voltages due to
lightning or switching surges or by external conducting objects falling
on overhead lines.
Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a power
system. The heavy short circuit currents damage the equipment if
suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are not provided for the
protection. If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an
automatic protective device is needed to isolate the faulty element as
quickly as possible to keep the healthy section of the system in normal
operation.

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The basic requirements of protective system are as follows:
1) Selectivity or discrimination
2) Reliability
3) Sensitivity
4) Stability
5) Fast operation
Over current protection: It is applied as main protection for
distribution lines and back-up for main lines, where main protection is
of distance or other faster type. A protective relay which operates
when the load current exceeds a preset value is called an over current
relay. These are used for protection of distribution lines, large motors,
power equipment, industrial systems etc.
Distance protection: Distance protection is used for faster protection.
It is the name given to the protection whose action depends on the
distance of the feeding point to the fault. These relays are double
energized with one coil energized by current and other by voltage.
The currents and voltages are measured at the location of CT and PT
and operation of relay depends upon the ratio of these two.
There are 3 types of distance relays.
1) Impedance relay
2) Reactance relay
3) Mho relay
Differential protection: A differential relay is suitably connected
over current relay operating on difference of two currents at two ends
of a protected element. For faults outside the protected element the
current in at one end equals the current out at the other end and hence
relay doesn’t operate.

2
Pilot wire protection: It is used for important lines of relatively short
distance. In this scheme some electrical quantity at the two ends of the
transmission line are compared and hence they require some sort of
interconnecting channel over which information can be transmitted
from one end to another and the interconnecting channel is called a
pilot.
Artificial Intelligence Based Numerical Protection: The computer
software of the existing energy management system (EMS) center is
usually the numerical analysis software, it is difficult to have the
target processing in operation of the power system, especially in the
fault condition using artificial intelligence techniques to assist
operational personnel to check and judge greatly reduces the work
load of operational staff also improves the efficiency of dealing with
incidents. This is one of the main causes in recent years for the
researches to work on application of artificial intelligence.
The commonly used protection scheme for transmission lines is
distance protection, but it mal-operates in case of series compensated
line. So there is a need to do further research and implement an
enhanced protection scheme for series compensated line.

Why series compensation?

Fixed series compensation has long been the preferred solution for
optimizing performance of transmission lines (mostly in extra and
ultra-high voltage line).
Installing a capacitive reactance in series in a transmission line
reduces both the angular deviation and the voltage drop, which
increases the loadability and stability of the line. It provides an
economical means of maximizing power transfer (1) and improving
transmission efficiency over long distances and also optimizes power
sharing between parallel circuits.
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅
𝑃= sin 𝛿 (1)
𝑋

3
where P – power transferred per phase (W)
VS – sending-end phase voltage (V)
VR– receiving-end phase voltage
X – series inductive reactance of the line
δ – phase angle between VS and VR

Hence, series compensation provides increased transient (angular)

stability of a power system and increased voltage stability of the grid
[1].

Location of Series capacitor:

The location of the series capacitor depends on the economic and
technical consideration of the line. The degree of compensation and
the characteristic of the line decide the location of the capacitors.
Series capacitors may be installed at one or both ends of the line. Line
ends are typical capacitor locations, because it is generally possible to
use space available in the substation which also reduces installation
cost. Another possibility is to install the series capacitors at some
central location on the line. Series capacitors located at the line ends
create more complex protection problems than those installed at the
center of the line. Capacitor banks consist of small units connected in
series, parallel, or both to get the desired voltage and Var rating.

Protection of series capacitors:

When the fault or overload occurs the large current will flow across
the series capacitor of the line. Thus, the excessive voltage drop
occurs across the capacitor. For protecting the capacitors from such
abnormal voltages, spark gaps and Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) are
connected across the capacitor terminals. A circuit breaker is also
connected in parallel with it as shown in figure 1.

4
 capacitor

Spark gap

MOV

CB

Figure 1: Over voltage protection of capacitor.

MOV: In high-current fault condition, voltage across the capacitor

increases to a truly high value, which triggers MOV conduction to
bypass the capacitor. In Figure 2 the V-I characteristics of MOV are
shown.

Figure 2: MOV VI characteristics.

And during low-current fault condition the MOV remains in its high
impedance state and the SC–MOV combination offers impedance
equal to parallel combination of the pair [2].

Spark gap: Spark-gap is considered to limit the absorption energy

during the operation of MOV to prevent it from the damage.

Circuit Breaker: Further a bypass circuit breaker automatically

closes for abnormal system conditions that cause prolonged current
flow through the air gap.

5
Effects of series compensation:

XS R XC XL
VS

Figure 3: Series compensated transmission line.

Voltage inversion:
A change of 90◦ or more in voltage phase angle is known as “voltage
inversion.” This type of condition occurs in a fault that occurs after
the series compensator. Voltage inversion causes the relay to see a
fault on the protected line to be in a reverse direction. The relay
voltage at bus R in Figure 3 can be expressed as

VR= jVS(XL-XC)/(XS+XL-XC)
The condition for voltage inversion is
1) XC > XL
2) XC < XL+XS

Current inversion:
Current inversion is a phenomenon in which the current phase angle
is changed by more than 90◦. For the forward fault in the line, if the
current at the relay location leads the source voltage by 90◦ due to
the large capacitive reactance in the fault loop and simultaneously
the relay voltage is in phase with the source voltage, current
inversion occurs. At this condition, the conventional directional
relaying algorithm also fails to provide the correct decision.
The fault current through the relay bus in Figure 3 will be

IR = Vs/j(XS+XL-XC)
6
and the condition for current inversion is

XC > XL + XS
From the above conditions, it is inferred that voltage and current
inversion do not occur for the same system configuration.
Apart from current and voltage inversions, the other various effects
due to series compensation on transmission line protection are
tabulated below [3]:
Table 1: Effects of series compensation on distance relays

Effect of series Consequences Problem with

compensation distance relay
Change in line Impedance calculation of  Over reach
impedance relay gets effected
 Loss of
directional
integrity

Sub harmonic  Due to the  Conducts MOV at

frequency combination of SC low fault currents
and line inductive
 Over reach
reactance
 Capacitor bypasses
before its voltage
limit

MOV  During low fault Increases difficulty in

current MOV doesn't relay setting
conducts and
impedance is equal to
capacitive
impedance.
 During high fault

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 current, MOV
conducts and
impedance is parallel
combination of
capacitor and MOV

Voltage inversion Voltage phase angle  Over reach if fault

shifts more than 90◦ circuit includes
capacitor
 Relay senses fault
in reverse
direction, if it
occurs just after
the capacitor

Current inversion Current phase angle Relay mal-operates

shifts more than 90◦

Unbalanced line Increase in already Affects the ground

impedance available unbalance due relay
unbalanced loading or
lack of transposition

Faults in capacitor Causes system Affects the ground

bank imbalances relay

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LITERATURE SURVEY
A majority of transmission systems are protected using impedance
relays but their performance is less satisfactory in series compensated
transmission system. During faults, non-linear operation of series
capacitors and other associated components may also lead to sub
harmonic or exponential DC offset conditions which sometimes lead
to under-reach or over-reach problems as explained in literature [4].
In [5] the mutual impedance between phases of a transmission line is
used for the design of new distance protection scheme for series
compensated line which overcomes the impact due to change in fault
path positive sequence impedance and mal-operation of distance
relays. However it shows its limitations when it comes to three phase
and phase-phase faults.
In [6], a decision tree based high-speed intelligent scheme for
series-compensated transmission line protection using differential
phase angle of superimposed current (DPASC) is proposed.
Series capacitors are commonly protected against transient
overvoltage by Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs). In [7], adaptive
distance protection of series compensated transmission lines is
proposed in which the nonlinear function of MOV is considered to
modify the distance protection by computing the voltage drop along
the series compensator.
In [8], problems associated with the directionality of protective
relays in series-compensated lines are addressed, where a new
process of directional relaying using the phase difference between
the pre-fault and post-fault currents is presented.
In [9], the authors proposed a universal pilot relaying scheme for
series and shunt-compensated transmission lines which is based on
incremental reactive power coefficients (IRPCs) which is unaffected
by the mutual coupling effect during asymmetrical fault.

9
MOTIVATION
Series compensation is a common practice to increase the
load-ability of transmission lines and improve the power system
stability. Series capacitors are used to compensate a portion of
inductive impedance of the line and provide a better voltage profile
along the transmission line. Most of transmission lines protected
using conventional phasor based distance relays that operate based
on voltage and current signals, measured locally. But when we use
distance relays on series compensated lines it mal-operates as
positive sequence impedance is used by the distance relays for fault
estimation which gets changed after series compensation with
change in other parameters too.
The rapid increase in electricity demand and delay in implementing
new transmission lines and interconnection of new generation
facilities such as large scale wind-farms have led to more widespread
use of series capacitors on transmission lines. But the presence of
series capacitors lead to abnormal conditions which in turn lead to
unintended operation of distance relays.

OBJECTIVES
Our objective is to implement an enhanced protection scheme which
is reliable, sensitive, selective and robust for series compensated
transmission line.
1) Implementing an algorithm for fault zone detection with respect to
capacitor, based on the dc component of line current using two ended
data.
2) To test the algorithm for various fault types, fault locations, fault
resistances, fault inception angle and various compensations.

10
METHODOLOGY
Fault Analysis of transmission line:

t=0 R
L
V(t)

Figure 4: Series RL circuit.

Considering uncompensated line and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law to the above series R-L circuit and solving the first order
differential equation, we observe that current consists of an
exponential term which is DC decaying component as given below
in (2).
V (t )  Vm sin( wt   )

𝑖𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (2)

𝑉𝑚
Where 𝐼𝑜 = − sin{𝜑 − tan−1 (𝜔𝐿⁄𝑅 )} and 𝜏 = 𝐿⁄𝑅
√𝑅 2 +𝜔2 𝐿2

t=0 R C
V(t) L

Figure 5: Series RLC circuit

Similarly by solving the above series compensated line, we observe
that the current consists of under damped sinusoidal DC component
which is given below in the first part of equation (3).
V (t )  Vm sin( wt   )
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 𝑉𝑚
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 [𝐾1 cos(𝛽𝑡 ) + 𝐾2 sin(𝛽𝑡 )] + 2
sin [𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 +
√𝑅2 +(1⁄ −𝜔𝐿)
𝜔𝐶
1
tan−1 {( − 𝜔𝐿)⁄𝑅}] (3)
𝜔𝐶

Where 
R
2L
and

 

 2L
R
2
1

LC 


Therefore, in the series compensated lines due to the presence of

capacitor the wave-forms of voltages and currents and especially DC
component of fault current alters. In the present algorithm we are
detecting the fault zone (before or after capacitor) using DC
component of fault current as it is dc decaying for the fault before
capacitor and sinusoidally under damped for the fault after capacitor.
And the first zero crossing time of sinusoidally under damped dc
component is less compared to that of the exponentially decaying dc
component which gives the idea about the location of the fault. The
below flowchart explains the step by step approach of the proposed
algorithm

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 Start

Phase currents from both

ends (Ias,Iar)

Compute dc components of Phase

currents (Idcs,Idcr)

Calculate first zero crossing time of DC

components (Tzs,Tzr)

NO YES
Is Tzs>Tzr?

Fault has been occurred Fault has been occurred

End
after capacitor before capacitor

Figure 6: Flowchart of proposed algorithm

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A series compensated transmission line is designed and is analyzed by
creating faults at different locations, and for various fault resistances,
fault inception angles and fault types using PSCAD/EMTDC and
MATLAB.
The single line diagram of typical series compensated line with faults
at different locations is shown below

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 Is Ir
Es Zs Er
F1 Vs F2 Zc F3 Vr F4 Zr

End-s End-r
Line-1 Line-2

Figure 7: Fixed series compensated transmission line.

The below figure is the snapshot of above mentioned transmission

line implemented in PSCAD with capacitor in the middle of the line
where
Voltage= 400 kV, frequency= 50 Hz
Generator S: Phase angle= 45o, Generator R: Phase angle= 0o
Length of line = 200km
Positive sequence reactance of line (XL) = 0.37e-3 ohm/m
And considering 30% compesation,
The value of series capacitor= 143.5μF

Figure 8: Series compensated transmission line in PSCAD

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The waveform of voltage, current and DC component of fault current
considering fault before and after capacitor is given below which
shows both pre-fault and fault conditions.

Figure 9: Waveforms of voltage, current and DC component of fault

current for ABC-G fault at F2 (before capacitor)

15
Figure 10: Waveforms of voltage, current and DC component of fault
current for ABC-G fault at F3 (after capacitor)

From the figure 9 and 10, it is observed that the first zero crossing
time of the current waveform is lesser when the fault circuit includes
capacitor compared to the fault circuit without inclusion of capacitor.
Based on this concept the first zero crossing time of DC component of
fault current from both sides is calculated and compared which gives
the location of fault (before or after capacitor).

CONCLUSION
An enhanced protection scheme is designed and an algorithm is
proposed for fault detection. Algorithm is tested and analyzed for
various types of faults under different conditions and we are able to
know whether the fault is before or after capacitor with respect to
sending end.

16
FUTURE WORKS
 Analyzing the algorithm for various fault locations, fault
resistances, fault types and various compensations.
 Improving the above scheme for shunt compensated line.
 Enhancing the algorithm for identifying the fault type.
 Identification of exact location of fault on transmission line.

REFERENCES
[1] F.M. Zellagui and A. A. Chaghi, “A comparative study of GCSC
and TCSC effects on MHO distance relay setting in Algerian
transmission line," International Journal of Engineering and
Technology, vol. 2, no.2, pp.220-228, February, 2012.
[2] M. M. Saha, B. Kasztenny, E. Rosolowski, and J. Izykowski,
“First zone algorithm for protection of series compensated lines,”
IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 200–207, Apr. 2001.
[3] Bhargav Y.Vyas, R.P.Maheshwari, B.Das “protection of series
compensated transmission lines: issues and state of art”, Electric
power system research, Feb 2014.
[4] H. J. Altuve, J. B. mooney, and G. E. Alexander, “Advances in
series compensated line protection”, presented at the 35th Annu.
Western Protect. Relay Conf. Spokane, WA, Oct. 2008.
[5] S.Hashemi, M. T. Hagh, and H. Seyedi, “A novel backup distance
protection scheme for series-compensated transmission lines,” IEEE
Trans. Power Del., vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 699–707, Apr. 2014.
[6] Mir Mohammad Taheri , Heresh Seyedi , Morteza Nojavan,
Mortaza Khoshbouy, and Behnam Mohammadi Ivatloo,
“High-Speed Decision Tree Based Series-Compensated
17
Transmission Lines Protection Using Differential Phase Angle of
Superimposed Current,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 33, no. 6,
Dec 2018.
[7] J E. Rosolowki, J. Izykowski, P. Pierz, M. M. Saha, P. Balcerek,
and M. Fulczyk, “Optimization of distance protection algorithm for
series compensated transmission line,” in Proc. IEEE Trondheim
PowerTech, 2011, pp. 1–7.
[8] P. Jena and A. K. Pradhan, “A positive-sequence directional
relaying algorithm for series-compensated line,” IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 2288–2298, Oct. 2010.
[9] Om Hari Gupta, Manoj Tripathy, “Universal pilot relaying
scheme for series and shunt-compensated lines” Published in IET
Generation, Transmission & Distribution, Vol: 12 , Issue: 4 ,
Page(s): 799 - 806, 08 Feb 2018.
[10] Badri Ram, D.N Vishwakarma, “Power system protection and
switchgear.

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