WORD CLASS

ENGLISH BASIC

2017

0
TIRA NUR FITRIA SPD MPD
 PREFACE
Praise to Allah SWT, the Almighty God, who has given His bless to the writer for
finishing the English Module entitled “Part of Speech” for the students' textbook in
higher education.
The materials and learnings was arranged with the purpose of providing
instructional materials for English lessons for the students. This module contains of
material of English such as grammar and structure. It also contains the example and
the exercise for the students. Materials and learning are developed with the principles
of four language skills, for example listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Besides
material and integrative learning task to develop life skills in a broad sense and
increase awareness of diversity. Materials and learning activities in this book was
developed to encourage the learning of students.
Related with the completion of the writing of this module, we thank the various
parties that have provided support during the drafting process. In particular, the
writer would like to thank and award the highest to the father, mother, brothers, and
lover who have patiently encouraging step by step in the writing of this module.
The writer realizes that this book still has shortcomings. The writer expect an
input from various stakeholders, especially teachers and students using these
materials, for improvement of this module. The writer hopes these materials provide
benefits to learning English for the students. Hopefully, this paper can help the
readers generally to expand their knowledge about English material.

Surakarta, Januari 2017

Tira Nur Fitria M.Pd

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
Cover
Acknowledgment
Table of Content
ENGLISH 1
PART OF SPPEECH (WORD CLASS) 3

 NOUN 6
 PRONOUN 28
 ADJECTIVE 47
 Degree of Comparison 60
 Adjective Order 66
 DETERMINER / ARTICLE 73
 VERB 80
 ADVERB 89
 PREPOSITION 111
 CONJUNCTION 122
 INTERJECTION 136

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 PART OF SPEECH (WORD CLASS)

Part of speech is a class of words based on the word's function, the way it works in a
sentence. The parts of speech are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition,
conjunction, and interjection. All words belong to categories called word classes (or parts of
speech) according to the part they play in a sentence.
In contemporary linguistics, the label part of speech has generally been discarded in
favor of the term word class or syntactic category. Tthe parts of speech (or word classes)
are commonly divided into open classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and closed
classes (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections).
It is important to be able to recognize and identify the different types of words in
English, so that you can understand grammar explanations and use the right word form in
the right place. Here is a brief explanation of what the parts of speech are:

A noun is a naming word. It names a person, place, thing, idea, living creature,
Noun quality, or action.
Examples: cowboy, theatre, box, thought, tree, kindness, arrival
A verb is a word which describes an action (doing something) or a state (being
Verb something).
Examples: walk, talk, think, believe, live, like, want
An adjective is a word that describes a noun. It tells you something about the
Adjective noun.
Examples: big, yellow, thin, amazing, beautiful, quick, important
An adverb is a word which usually describes a verb. It tells you how something
Adverb is done. It may also tell you when or where something happened.
Examples: slowly, intelligently, well, yesterday, tomorrow, here, everywhere
A pronoun is used instead of a noun, to avoid repeating the noun.
Pronoun
Examples: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
A conjunction joins two words, phrases or sentences together.
Conjunction
Examples: but, so, and, because, or
A preposition usually comes before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase. It joins
Preposition the noun to some other part of the sentence.
Examples: on, in, by, with, under, through, at
An interjection is an unusual kind of word, because it often stands alone.
Interjections are words which express emotion or surprise, and they are
Interjection
usually followed by exclamation marks.
Examples: Ouch!, Hello!, Hurray!, Oh no!, Ha!
An article is used to introduce a noun.
Article Examples: the, a, an

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Macam Part of Speech Contoh Kalimat Part of Speech
Noun (Kata Benda)
Part of speech ini digunakan untuk menamai orang, benda,
hewan, tempat, dan konsep abstrak. Macam-macam
noun antara lain:  book, house, car, love
 Your book is on the table.
 Countable dan Uncountable Noun (Bukumu di atas meja.)
 Proper dan Common Noun
 Abstract dan Concrete Noun
 Collective Noun

Pronoun (Kata Ganti)

 It is on the table.
Pronoun digunakan untuk menggantikan noun.
(Itu di atas meja.)
Part of speech ini bermanfaat untuk menghindari repetisi
 This is your cake.
penggunaan noun. Macam-macam pronoun antara lain:
(Ini kuemu.)
 He didn’t blame himself for
 Personal Pronoun (I, you, they, she)
the accident.
 Demonstrative Pronoun (this, those)
(Dia tidak menyalahkan
 Interrogative Pronoun (who, what, which)
dirinya sendiri terhadap
 Relative Pronoun (who, which, that)
kecelakaan tersebut.)
 Indefinite Pronoun (anything, none)
 Friends help each other.
 Reflexive Pronoun dan Intensive Pronoun (myself,
(Teman membantu satu sama
yourself)
lain.)
 Reciprocal Pronoun (each other, one another)
Soal Pronoun
Verb (Kata Kerja)
Part of speech ini digunakan untuk menunjukkan tindakan
dari subject, menunjukkan peristiwa, atau keadaan. Macam-
macam verb antara lain:  hit, touch, write
 You hit the nail on the head.
 Transitive dan Intransitive Verb (idiom: melakukan sesuatu
 Regular dan Irregular Verb dengan cara paling efektif.)
 Action dan Stative Verb
 Finite dan Non-Finite Verb Soal Regular – Irregular Verb, Soal
 Linking Verb Linking Verb, Soal Causative Verb
 Causative Verb

Adjective (Kata Sifat)

 Vina is a beautiful girl.
(Vina adalah gadis yang
cantik.)
Part of speech ini digunakan untuk menerangkan noun atau
 I am not angry with you.
pronoun.
(Saya tidak marah padamu.)

Soal Adjective vs. Adverb

Adverb (Kata keterangan)
Part of speech ini digunakan untuk menerangkan verb,  They met by chance
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adjective, maupun adverb lain. Macam-macam adverb antara yesterday.
lain: (Mereka bertemu tidak
sengaja kemarin.)
 adverb of time (yesterday, now)  He is not here.
 adverb of manner (softly, quickly) (Dia tidak disini)
 adverb of degree (very, so)  I go fishing sometimes.
 adverb of modality (likely, maybe) (Saya pergi memancing
 adverb of frequency (always, sometimes) kadang-kadang.)
 adverb of place (here, somewhere)
 adverb of focus (also, only) Soal Adverb of Manner, Soal Adverb
of Frequency
Preposition (Kata depan)
 in the classroom, on the floor
 Is sleeping on the floor
Part of speech ini dikombinasikan dengan noun atau
good for my back?
pronoun untuk membentuk phrase (prepositional
(Apakah tidur di lantai baik
phrase) yang menerangkan verb, noun, atau adjective
untuk punggung saya?)

Conjunction (Kata sambung)

 I like that car, but I don’t have
enough money to buy it.
Part of speech ini digunakan untuk menghubungkan dua kata, (Saya suka mobil itu, tapi saya
frasa (phrase), klausa (clause), atau paragraf (paragraph). tidak punya cukup uang
Kata ini terbagi menjadi: untuk
membelinya.)
 coordinate conjunction (and, but, yet)  He would rather send a text
 correlative conjunction (either…or, rather…than, message than make a phone
if…then) call.
 subordinate conjunction (after, although, when) (Dia lebih suka mengirim
 adverbial conjunction (however, hence, then) pesan text daripada
menelepon.)

Soal Conjunction
Interjection (Kata Seru)
 “Alas, he failed.”
Interjection merupakan ucapan pendek digunakan untuk
 “Oy! Look at me!”
mengungkapkan emosi.

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 NOUN
A noun is a part of speech that refers to a person, animal, place, thing, or idea.
The English word noun has its roots in the Latin word nomen, which means “name.” Every
language has words that are nouns. Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence:
Subject: Doctors work hard.
Object: He likes coffee.
Subject and object: Teachers teach students.

But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a pronoun or a
phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is "doctor" but the subject is "My
doctor".Examples.
Chair, table, book, cup, computer, picture, (names of things)
New York, Paris, Canada, Toronto, school, hospital, cinema, garden, (names of places)
John, Newton, R.H Stephen, Einstein, man, boy, doctor (names of persons)

Traditional grammarians define a noun as "a person, place, thing, or idea."

Child designates a person; therefore, child is a noun.
Similarly, democracy designates an idea; therefore, democracy is a noun.
In addition, nouns can be identified by the presence of signal words such as the.

Word order can also provide clues about nouns. For example, in the following sentence, it is
clear that the part of speech that will fit into slot #1 and slot #2 must be nouns:

Often, suffixes will suggest that a word is a noun. For example, -tion, -ness, -ment, or -er
at the end of a word usually signify that the word is a noun, as in suggestion, happiness,
involvement, and diner.
Nouns may be made plural, usually with the suffix -s or -es, as in books and foxes.
Nouns show ownership with the addition of an apostrophe and, sometimes, an additional -s,
as in a book's pages, twenty students' essays.
Common nouns such as school, business, or person designate an entire class.
Proper nouns, on the other hand, designate a specific example of a class: Towson
University, Black and Decker Company, Joe. Proper nouns are capitalized.
Nouns may be countable (1 fork, 2 forks, 3 forks, etc.) or non-countable (sugar, oil).
Nouns may signify concreteness (computer, fingernail) or abstractness (peace, friendship).

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 FUNCTION OF NOUNS

Subject (S) - a noun or pronoun partnered with a predicate verb.

A subject
1. does an action with an action verb

2. exists with a verb of being

3. is renamed or described after a verb of being or a linking verb

4. is acted upon with a passive verb

Object of Preposition (OP) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" after a

preposition in a a prepositional phrase.

Direct Object (DO) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" after an action verb.
A direct object "receives" or is the "object" of the action.

Retained Object (RO) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" after a passive
verb.

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Indirect Object (IO) - a noun or pronoun answering "to whom/what" or "for whom/what"
after an action verb.
An indirect object
always precedes a direct object
never has the word “to” or “for” stated

Subjective Complement (SC) - a noun, pronoun, or adjective that renames or describes

(equals) the subject after a verb of being or a linking verb.

Objective Complement (OC) - a noun, pronoun, or adjective that renames or describes

(equals) the direct object.
Test for OC: insert "to be" between the DO and the OC

Appositive (App) - a noun or pronoun that renames another noun; An appositive is usually
placed next to the noun it renames..

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 Gourmet renames the noun Joe. Therefore, gourmet is an appositive of Joe.
When an appositive is not placed next to the noun it renames, the appositive is called a
delayed appositive.

A delayed appositive may rename the word it in some sentence constructions.

In the above sentence, the appositive to meet you renames it. It (to meet you) is a
pleasure.
In this sentence, pleasure is the subjective complement of it.
Therefore, it = pleasure = to meet you.

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 SINGULAR & PLURAL NOUN

The label number refers to the grammatical category which relates to the number of countable
objects in the world. In English, number is important with nouns. An English noun exhibits a two-way
distinction of number: a singular form and a plural form.

SINGULAR (NOUN)
Quite simply, a singular noun is a noun that refers to only one person, one place, one thing,
or one idea. If you look at one object and name it, you have an example of a singular noun.
For example there is one lamp on my bookcase and one chair at my desk. In these examples
the nouns lamp, bookcase, chair, and desk are all singular because they indicate only one.

EXAMPLES OF SINGULAR NOUNS:

Singular nouns that refer to a person
Girl Boy Mother Singular nouns that refer to a thing
Father Friend Woman Bicycle Doll Train
Man Grandmother Grandfather Yacht Baseball Glove
Waiter Doctor Nurse Letter Computer Picture
Shelf Floor Ruler
Singular nouns that refer to a place
City Town State Singular nouns that refer to an idea
Country Park Ocean Dream Truth Pride
River Sea Continent Thought Love Hate

PLURAL (NOUN)
Plural nouns are words used to indicate that there is more than one person, animal, place,
thing, or idea. The difference between singular and plural nouns is simple once you know
what to look for. Here, we take a look at singular and plural nouns, providing both singular
nouns examples and plural noun examples to help you recognize plural nouns when you see
them.
A plural noun is a word that indicates that there is more than one person, animal place,
thing, or idea. When you talk about more than one of anything, you’re using plural nouns.
When you write about more than one of anything, you usually use the same word, simply
adding an s, es, or ies to the end. There are a few exceptions to this rule, but not many –
one of the best is that a single moose is a moose, and a group of moose are still moose.
The plural form denotes two or more of something. Examples are: trees, cats, flowers, girls,
boys etc.
Singular noun usually has no marking while the plural form carries the suffix -s or -es.
Cat / cats Fox / foxes
Dog / dogs Fruit / fruits

A few dozen nouns form their plurals irregularly. Examples are:

Child / children Woman / women
Man / men Foot / feet
Tooth / teeth
Mouse / mice

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RULE OF SINGULAR CHANGE INTO PLURAL
Plurals of Nouns:
Add an "s" to form the plural of most nouns.
zebra -- zebras
piano -- pianos
block -- blocks

If the word ends in any of the following hissing sounds: s, z, x, ch, or sh, add an "es" to form
the plural.
zebra -- zebras
piano -- pianos
block -- blocks

If the word ends in a vowel plus "y", add "s".

trolley -- trolleys
ray -- rays
key -- keys

If the word ends in a consonant "y", change the "y" into an "ie" and add "s".
baby -- babies
daisy -- daisies
fairy -- fairies
If the word ends in "is" change the "is" to "es".
synopsis -- synopses
thesis -- theses
metastasis -- metastases

A few words that end in "fe" or "f" have plurals formed by "ves".
wife -- wives
knife -- knives
shelf -- shelves
elf -- elves

Words that end in "o" can often have two plural forms, but some can only have one plural
form. Consider the following guidelines:
If the word ends in a vowel plus "o", just add a "s".
stereo -- stereos
fascia -- fascias
imbroglio -- imbroglios

If a musical term ends in "o", just add a "s".

solo -- solos
piano -- pianos
piccolo -- piccolos
cello -- cellos

Some words can be formed with either a "s" or and "os".

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avocados/avocadoes
cargos/cargoes
innuendos/innuendoes
lassos/lassoes
peccadillos/peccadilloes
(there are other pairs like this)
Note that the spell-check in most word processors will usually
recognize only one of these forms as legitimate, which is fine.

The plurals of numbers, single capital letters, or acronyms take a single "s" with no
apostrophe:
10s
Zs
ATMs

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 SUBJECT AND NOUN AGREEMENT

1. When two or more nouns or pronouns that are connected by and are the subject of a
sentence, use a plural verb.
 Right: George and his buddies are going to the concert.
 Wrong: George and his buddies is going to the concert.
Because they are connected by and they are considered as a group of things, and the
verb must reflect the plurality of the group.

2. When two or more nouns or pronouns that are connected by or or nor are the subject of
a sentence, use a singular verb.
 Right: The knife or the candlestick is the murder weapon.
 Wrong: The knife or the candlestick are the murder weapon.
Because they are connected by or or nor they are considered separately, and the verb
must reflect that uniqueness (singularity).

3. Compound subjects (more than one noun) are tricky. When there is both a singular noun
and a plural noun forming the compound, the verb form must agree with the noun that
is closest.
Consider: The woman plays hard. -or- The women play hard.
 Right: The men or the woman plays hard.
 Wrong: The man or the woman play hard.
Note than the noun closest to the verb, woman, is singular so the verb, plays, must
agree as it would if there were only woman as the subject.
We can also turn that around:
 Right: The man or the women play hard.
 Wrong: The man or the women plays hard.
Again, note the noun closest to the verb.

4. Phrases that are inserted between the subject and the verb can cause confusion.
Consider the sentence without the phrase to clarify the proper usage.
Consider: One is empty. [Leaving out the phrase.]
 Right: One of the jars is empty.
 Wrong: One of the jars are empty.
Yes, jars is a plural noun but the phrase specifies one of the jars.
 Right: Mia, along with her teammates, is tense. [The basic sentence is, "Mia is
tense."]
 Wrong: Mia, along with her teammates, are tense.
Note that if the sentence were structured so as to compound the subjects, then the rule
above would apply.
Consider: Mia or her teammates are tense.

5. Be careful with contractions.

 Don't is a contraction of do not. It should be used with a plural subject.
 They don’t like it.
 Republicans don’t support that policy.
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  Quarks don’t subdivide.
 Doesn’t is a contraction of does not. It should be used with a singular subject.
 He doesn’t like it.
 The President doesn’t support that policy.
 A dollar doesn’t buy as much as it once did.
 EXCEPTION: When using the pronouns I or you, the contraction don’t is the proper
form.
 I don’t like it.
 You don’t like it.

6. Some words and phrases are singular and require a singular verb. They are:
anybody anyone each each one
either neither everyone nobody
no one somebody someone

Consider: Each is empty. [Leaving out the phrase.]

Right: Each of the jars is empty.
Wrong: Each of the jars are empty.

Consider: Someone is lying. [Leaving out the phrase.]

Right: Someone in this room is lying.
Wrong: Someone in this room are lying.

7. There are nouns that have an "s" on the end that are, nevertheless, singular. Think about
what they are. Measles is a disease. It is news, and there are no such things as newses
(sic). These nouns require a singular verb. Some examples are:
civics mathematics physics stasis
measles news tuberculosis basis

Example: Mathematics is necessary for that major.

SPECIAL CASE: When referring to dollars as things, it requires a plural verb. When referring
to an amount of money in dollars, it requires a singular verb.
 Right: Ten-thousand dollars is a tidy amount.
 Wrong: Ten-thousand dollars are a tidy amount.

 Right: Dollars are the preferred medium of exchange.

 Wrong: Dollars is the preferred medium of exchange.

8. There are some nouns that refer to things that have two or more parts to them and the
subject is, therefore, plural. Again, think about what they are and the two or more parts
that they’re made of.
pliers tweezers shears trousers
pants slacks shoes lips
ears feet sides margins

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  The pliers are rusty.
 My toes are cold.
 The slacks are made of wool.

9. When a sentence begins with there is or there are the subject is following the verb. The
verb must then agree with the following subject. In other words, there is not the subject.
In the following examples the subject is in italics and the verb is underlined.
 There are many logs.
 There are too many people to be counted.
 There are a few simple rules that apply.

 There is a log.
 There is but one who stands to be counted.
 There is a simple rule that applies.

10. Some nouns refer to a collection or group but are considered singular. Family is a good
example. A family has more than one member by definition but is a recognizable entity
in itself, and is therefore considered singular.
family team inventory group
set class committee membership

Their family holds a reunion every year.

The inventory is counted today.
The committee decides on matters of policy.

EXCEPTION: When referring to a portion or distinct members of the group the plural verb is
used.
Her family are disagreeing with each other.

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 SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS IN SENTENCE
The difference between singular and plural nouns is easy to spot. When a noun indicates
one only, it is a singular noun. When a noun indicates more than one, it is plural.

Singular Noun Examples

The following sentences contain singular nouns examples.
The boy had a baseball in his hand.
My horse prefers to wear an English saddle.
That cat never seems to tire of jumping in and out of the box.
You stole my idea and didn’t give me any credit.
Your mom is going to be upset about that broken lamp.
It’s not difficult to grow a tree as long as you give it plenty of water.
I can’t believe you let your dog stick his head out the window while you drive.

Plural Noun Examples

The following sentences contain plural noun examples.
The boys were throwing baseballs back and forth between bases.
Our horses are much happier wearing lightweight English saddles.
Those cats never seem to tire of chasing one another in and out of those boxes.
You stole my ideas and didn’t give me any credit.
Our moms are going to be upset that we stayed out all night going to parties.
It’s not too difficult to grow trees as long as you provide them with plenty of water.
I can’t believe you allow your dogs to climb all over the seats while you are driving.

Choose the correct form of the noun in each sentence.

1)I have three (child, children).
2)There are five (man, men) and one (woman, women).
3)(Baby, Babies) play with bottles as toys.
4)I put two big (potato, potatoes) in the lunch box.
5)A few men wear (watch, watches).
6)I put a (memo, memos) on the desk.
7)I saw a (mouse, mice) running by.
8)There are few (bus, buses) on the road today.

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7
 COMPOUND & COLLECTIVE NOUN

COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Collective nouns are names for a collection or a number of people or things. Words like
group, herd, and array are collective noun examples. Here, we’ll take a closer look at
collective nouns, and provide even more examples, placing them in context so you can gain
a greater understanding of how they work.
You might not know it, but you encounter collective nouns in everyday speech. Collective
nouns are words for single things that are made up of more than one person, animal, place,
thing, or idea. You can’t have a team without individual members; even so, we discuss a
team as a single entity.

Collective Noun Examples

Remember that nouns are words naming people, animals, places, and things. Collective
nouns are in a class all their own. Once you’ve read these examples, you’ll find it much
easier to recognize collective nouns when you see them.
Our class took a field trip to the natural history museum.
The herd of bison ran across the prairie, leaving a massive dust cloud in its wake.
We waited anxiously for the jury to come to a verdict.
This year’s basketball team includes three players who are over six feet tall.
Napoleon’s army was finally defeated at Waterloo.
The town council has approved plans to create a new park.
He comes from a huge family: he’s the oldest of eleven kids.
The rock group has been on tour for months.
Everyone in the audience applauded loudly when Elvis appeared on stage.

LIST OF COMMON COLLECTIVE NOUNS

This list of common collective nouns contains words that describe groups of animals,
people, or things. These words are sometimes interchangeable, and English writers and
speakers often use them to describe different things. For example, the word swarm is
usually used to discuss a group of insects such as ants, flies or bees, but many writers use it
to talk about a very busy crowd of people. Once you are familiar with these words, you’ll
notice that they are used in a variety of situations.
 Herd– A group of herbivore animals
 Pack– A group of canine animals such as wolves or dogs; also used to describe
playing cards and packages containing multiple objects
 Flock– A group of birds; also used to discuss small hooved animals such as sheep or
goats
 Swarm– A group of insects
 Shoal– A group of fish
 Group – A very general term used to describe people, places, things, and animals
 Crowd – Usually used to describe a group of people
 Gang – Usually used to describe a group of criminals; also used to describe a group
of workers, particularly sailors or dock workers
 Mob – Normally used to describe an angry or unruly group of people; also used to
describe a group of kangaroos
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  Staff – A group of people who work in the same place
 Crew – Usually used to denote a group of workers; also used to describe aircraft and
ships personnel
 Choir – A large, organized group of singers
 Orchestra – A large, organized group of instrumentalists, led by a conductor
 Panel – A group of experts
 Board – A group of people, usually professionals, who take on an advisory role
 Troupe – A group of actors or acrobats; also used to describe a group of monkeys
 Bunch – Usually a group of smallish objects such as grapes, flowers, keys, or bananas
 Pile – An untidy collection of items such as rubbish
 Heap – A mounded collection of items; used interchangeably with “pile”
 Set – A tidy group of matched objects such as dishes; also used to describe rules or a
social group of people
 Stack – A group of items neatly laid one on top of another; i.e., a stack of books
 Series – Used to discuss movies, books, or events that follow one after another, i.e.
Star Trek or Harry Potter
 Shower – Usually used to describe rain, although it can be used to describe gifts or
compliments
 Fall – Often used to discuss weather, such as rain, snow or hail

What happens if you can’t decide whether a collective noun is singular or plural?
You can use different words to compose your sentence to be sure there is no agreement
error. For example, you can insert the word “members” after a collective noun or use a
different word such as “players” instead of “team” or “zebras” instead of “herd” or
“students” instead of “class.” Reread what you have written to be sure it sounds natural,
and give yourself some time to practice. Soon enough you’ll be able to use plural verbs
without worrying whether you have made mistakes.

HOW TO USE COLLECTIVE NOUNS

People who are new to writing often encounter some trouble with sentence agreement
when using collective nouns. This is understandable, because a collective noun can be
singular or plural, depending on a sentence’s context. How do you know if a collective noun
is singular? How can you tell if it’s plural? What pronouns and verbs are best for pairing with
the collective noun you’ve chosen?
Here’s a simple trick you can use to decide how to use collective nouns in sentences:
Imagine a herd of zebras grazing peacefully on the savanna. Suddenly, a lion jumps out of a
clump of tall grass. What do the zebras do? They run away as a single unit as they attempt
to make a getaway, galloping across the savanna in the same direction.
Often, people behave in the same way, engaging in a single activity in unison with everyone
else in their group. When individuals are in a team, a choir, a committee, or part of any
other collective noun, that noun is singular and is paired with singular pronouns and singular
verbs. As you read the examples that follow, notice that each individual who is part of the
collective noun is doing the same action at the same time as others who are part of that
collective noun.
Every morning, the herd follows its leader to the watering hole for a drink.

9
 → Herd is a singular collective noun. Follows is a singular verb, and the word its is a
singular pronoun. All the animals in the herd arrive at the watering hole at the same
time.
Today, Ms. Kennedy’s class takes its SOL test.
 → Class is a singular collective noun. Takes is a singular verb, and the word its is a
singular pronoun. All the students in Ms. Kennedy’s class are taking the same test at the
same time.
The committee agrees that people are misusing their cell phones, so its verdict is that
phones must not be used during working hours.
 → Committee is a singular collective noun. Agrees is a singular verb, and the word its is
a singular pronoun. All the members of the committee are thinking alike.

Now imagine three teenagers in the living room. Are they all doing the same thing at once?
Not likely! One is watching TV intently. Another is reading a book and listening to music. The
third has one eye on the TV and the other on his computer. There is a single group of
teenagers, but the members of the group are doing different things.
Members of collective nouns can act the same way, as individuals doing their own thing.
When members of a collective noun act as individuals, that collective noun is plural and
must be paired with plural pronouns and plural verbs. As you read the following examples,
you’ll notice that members of the collective noun are not functioning in unison.
After eight hours sitting in the stuffy courtroom, the jury stretch, look at their watches, and
head to their cars for the commute home.
 → Jury is a plural collective noun in this instance. Stretch, look, and head are plural
verbs, and their is a plural pronoun. The members of the jury are stretching and looking
at their individual watches before they head to different cars to go to their own homes.
 After taking a test, the class start their papers on Shakespeare’s sonnets.
 → Class is a plural collective noun in this instance. Start is a plural verb, and their is a
plural pronoun. Although the students are in the same class, they are beginning their
own papers on different sonnets written by Shakespeare.

COLLECTIVE NOUN EXERCISES

Each of these sentences contains a collective noun. Select the correct answer from the
options that follow the sentence:
1. Keys, marbles, and rubber bands were just a few of the things in the pile of objects in
his drawer.
A – marbles, B – things, C – pile
2. The boys decided to join the navy after graduation.
A – boys, B – navy, C – graduation
3. After the performance, all the actors joined hands and bowed toward the audience.
A – performance, B – actors, C – audience
4. The team celebrated heartily after scoring a winning goal.
A – team, B – winning, C – goal
5. Most of the students on the council are also on the honor roll.
A – students, B – council, C, – honor roll
6. The boat’s crew worked all night to stop the leak.
A – boat’s, B – crew, C – leak
10
 7. The talent show featured several individual performers, along with three bands.
A – show, B – performers, C – bands
8. Our extended family includes great-grandparents and second cousins.
A – family, B – great-grandparents, C – cousins
9. All of the students are attending a school assembly on Friday.
A – students, B – school, C – assembly
10. The senate will be voting on three education funding bills tomorrow.
A – senate, B – bills, C – tomorrow
11. The teachers and administrators held a meeting in the faculty office.
A – teachers, B – administrators, C – faculty
12. The sheep clustered in a tight flock to ward off the cold weather.
A – sheep, B – flock, C – weather

Answer key: 1 – C, 2 – B, 3 – C, 4 – A, 5 – B, 6 – B, 7 – C, 8 – A, 9 – C, 10 – A, 11 – C, 12 –B

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COMPOUND NOUN

What are compound nouns? Here, we’ll take an up-close look at compound nouns so you
can recognize them when you see them, plus we’ll provide you with some compound noun
examples that will help you use them effectively.
Compound nouns are words for people, animals, places, things, or ideas, made up of two or
more words. Most compound nouns are made with nouns that have been modified by
adjectives or other nouns.
In many compound nouns, the first word describes or modifies the second word, giving us
insight into what kind of thing an item is, or providing us with clues about the item’s
purpose. The second word usually identifies the item.
Compound nouns are sometimes one word, like toothpaste, haircut, or bedroom. These are
often referred to as closed or solid compound nouns.
Sometimes compound nouns are connected with a hyphen: dry-cleaning, daughter-in-law,
and well-being are some examples of hyphenated compound nouns.
Sometimes compound nouns appear as two separate words: full moon, Christmas tree, and
swimming pool are some examples of compound nouns that are formed with two separate
words. These are often referred to as open or spaced compound nouns.

COMPOUND NOUN EXAMPLES

The more you read and write, the more compound noun examples you’ll encounter. The
following sentences are just a few examples of compound nouns. Compound noun
examples have been italicized for easy identification.
1) Compound nouns can be made with two nouns:
Let’s just wait at this bus stop.
I love watching fireflies on warm summer nights.
While you’re at the store, please pick up some toothpaste, a six-pack of ginger ale,
and some egg rolls.
2) Compound nouns can be made with an adjective and a noun:
Let’s watch the full moon come up over the mountain.
Please erase the blackboard for me.
3) Compound nouns can be made with a verb and a noun:
Be sure to add bleach to the washing machine.
Let’s be sure to stay somewhere with a swimming pool.
4) Compound nouns can be made with a noun and a verb:
He always gets up before sunrise.
I really could use an updated hairstyle.
5) Compound nouns can be made with a verb and a preposition:
Checkout is at noon.
Please remember to schedule your dog’s annual check-up.
6) Compound nouns can be made with a noun and a prepositional phrase:
My mother-in-law is the kindest person I know.
7) Compound nouns can be made with a preposition and a noun:
Do you believe in past lives?
This city is vibrant, so it’s hard to believe it has a thriving criminal underworld.
8) Compound nouns can be made with a noun and an adjective:
We need a truckful of mulch for the garden.
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COMPOUND NOUNS EXERCISES
Choose the word that makes each of these nouns into a compound noun.
1. Fund __________ (A – driver, B – seat, C – raiser)
2. News __________ (A– paper, B – story, C – travels)
3. Sun ____________ (A– day, B – glasses, C – heat)
4. Child ___________ (A – hood, B – ren, C – play)
5. Door ___________ (A– frame, B – handle, C – way)

Answer Key: 1 – C, 2 – A, 3 – B, 4 – A, 5 – C

Fill in the blanks to complete each compound noun, or with the one-word compound noun
that fits best.
6. Prevent a heart _________ by eating properly and getting enough exercise. (A –
stroke, B –attack, C – murmur)
7. Do you prefer peppermint or cinnamon flavored _____________? (A– cookies, B –
toothpaste, C – applesauce)
8. The full ___________ looked enormous as it rose over the horizon. (A – moon, B –
sun, C –sunset)
9. I’m going to the barber for a _____________. (A – trim, B – new style, C – haircut)
10. They’re digging a new swimming ____________ in the park. (A – suit, B – pool, C –
game)
11. I’d love to learn to pilot an ____________(A–boat, B – airplane, C – submarine)
12. One reason donuts are fattening is that they’re fried in cooking _____. (A – oil, B –
sugar, C –pans)
13. Sherrie is upset because she lost an ______________. (A – input, B – earring, C –
friendship)
14. We put a ____________ in the garden to chase birds away.(A – runway, B –
sunshade, C –scarecrow)
15. I’ve got to pick up a package at the post ___________. (A – man, B – office, C – book)

Answer Key: 6 – B, 7 – B, 8 – A, 9 – C, 10 – B, 11 – B, 12 – A, 13 – B, 14 – C, 15 – B

13
 ABSTRACT & CONCRETE NOUN

ABSTRACT NOUNS
What are abstract nouns? You probably can recall that nouns are words that name people,
animals, places, things, and ideas. Here, we’ll define abstract nouns, provide abstract noun
examples, and give you the information you need for using an abstract noun to write
interesting sentences.
Abstract nouns are words that name things that are not concrete. Your five physical senses
cannot detect an abstract noun – you can’t see it, smell it, taste it, hear it, or touch it. In
essence, an abstract noun is a quality, a concept, an idea, or maybe even an event.
Abstract nouns and concrete nouns are usually defined in terms of one another. Something
that is abstract exists only in the mind, while something that is concrete can be interacted
with in a physical way. Qualities, relationships, theories, conditions, and states of being are
some examples of the types of things abstract nouns define.

TYPES OF ABSTRACT NOUNS

It’s not always easy to determine if a noun is abstract or concrete. Many grammar experts
argue over whether certain terms, making things even worse. The line separating abstract
nouns from concrete nouns is often quite blurry. For example, many abstract noun lists
include the word laughter, but others leave it out, as it’s something that can be heard, seen,
and physically felt.

ABSTRACT NOUN EXAMPLES

The following lists contain different types of abstract nouns. Certain abstract nouns,
especially the ones describing feelings and emotions, easily fit into multiple categories, as
they can be used in different ways. Get to know them, and it’ll be easier for you to spot an
abstract noun when you see one.

FEELINGS STATES EMOTIONS QUALITIES CONCEPTS IDEAS EVENTS

Anxiety Being Anger Beauty Charity Beliefs Adventure
Confusion Chaos Despair Beauty Comfort Communi- Birthday
cation
Fear Freedom Happiness Brilliance Culture Curiosity Career
Pain Liberty Hate Courage Deceit Democracy Childhood
Pleasure Luxury In- Dedication Energy Friendship Death
difference
Satisfaction Misery Joy Determination Failure Interest Future
Sensitivity Nervous- Grief Generosity Faith Knowledge Holiday
ness
Stress Open-ness Love Honesty Motivation Thought Life
Sympathy Peace Sadness Patience Opportunity Sacrifice Marriage
Warmth Pessimism Sorrow Trust Perseve- Wisdom Past
rance

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MORE EXAMPLES
Although you may not realize it, you experience abstract nouns every day and in many
different types of situations. Once you’ve read these abstract noun examples, you’ll
probably find it very easy to come up with some abstract nouns of your own.
• Love, fear, anger, joy, excitement, and other emotions are abstract nouns.
• Courage, bravery, cowardice, and other such states are abstract nouns.
• Desire, creativity, uncertainty, and other innate feelings are abstract nouns.

These are just a few examples of non-concrete words that are sensed. The following
sentences contain abstract noun examples which have been italicized for easy identification.
Notice that although the ideas expressed are real, they are things you can’t see, touch,
taste, smell, or hear.
• I want to see justice served.
• I’d like the freedom to travel all over the world.
• Joe felt a nagging sense of doom.
• Love is a kind of irresistible desire; it’s hard to define.
• When Sarah jumped into the lake to rescue a drowning cat, her bravery astonished
onlookers.

ABSTRACT NOUNS EXERCISES

Many abstract nouns are formed from adjectives, though some are formed from verbs or
nouns. You’ll find one of these words in parenthesis at the end of each sentence. Use it to
form an abstract noun to fill in the blank.
1. _______________ is something almost everyone appreciates. (kind)
2. The wrestlers exhibited immense ___________________. (strong)
3. As the sun dipped below the horizon, _______________ came over the city. (dark)
4. It is my _______________ to welcome the mayor. (please)
5. Our ________________ will last forever. (friend)
6.
Answer Key: 1 – Peace 2 – Pilgrimage 3 – Scarcity 4 – Power 5 – Tact

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CONCRETE NOUN

Concrete nouns are things that you can experience through your five senses: sight, smell,
hearing, taste, and touch. On the other hand, abstract nouns refer to ideas and concepts.

GENERAL TYPES OF NOUNS

A. Two Broad Categories Of Nouns Would Be The Common And Proper Nouns:
 Proper nouns are capitalized, as they refer to one person, place, thing, or idea in
particular. They can be names of people, movies, books, places, months, days,
organizations, buildings, etc. Examples are: Jane, Star Wars, Pride and Prejudice,
Yellowstone Park, March, Friday, Girl Scouts, and the Statue of Liberty.
 Common nouns are everything else, like stream, air, boys, whale, and love.

B. Two other groups that you can sort nouns into are countable and uncountable:
 If it can have a number in front of it, it is a countable noun, like cat, mile, jar, house,
sack, cup, or moon.
 Uncountable nouns are sometimes referred to as mass nouns, because they have
mass but you can’t count them. Some examples are: air, milk, rice, butter, oil, gas,
furniture, luggage, happiness, coffee, and money.
Collective nouns refer to a group of objects. They are like a collection or a unit.
You can have more than one unit, so they may appear as singular or plural. For example:
one family or two families, or one school or two schools.
Other collective nouns are: faculty, team, troupe, gaggle, herd, swarm, coven, and senate.

DEFINING A CONCRETE NOUN

You experience concrete nouns through your five senses: sight, smell, hearing, taste, and
touch. If you cannot see, hear, taste, touch, or smell something, it is not a concrete noun.
Concrete nouns can be:
 Common nouns
 Proper nouns
 Countable and uncountable nouns
 Collective nouns
Concrete nouns can appear in singular or plural forms. Examples are:
flower, bear, music, Niagara Falls, pie, incense, tornado, ranch, milk, team, Declaration of
Independence, lotion, stars, Europeans, water, Big Ben, colony, and car

16
 CONCRETE VERSUS ABSTRACT NOUNS
When you think of nouns, you probably think of people, places or objects. While these are all nouns,
they are not the only type. While concrete nouns are something tangible, abstract nouns are
intangible. People, places, animals and objects are all concrete nouns. Conversely, abstract nouns
encompass actions, events, ideas, states of mind, qualities and conditions.

CONCRETE NOUNS
Concrete nouns are perceivable by the senses and name something you can see, hear, smell, taste or
touch. These include people, animals, places and objects. Consider the following concrete nouns:
People: dentist, firefighter, man, Rita
Animals: barracuda, gorilla, puppy, tiger
Places: Empire State Building, island, mountain, Turkey
Objects: cake, fruit, keys, coffee cup
Consider the following examples:
Example 1: Kathy nestled the black kitten in her arms.
“Kitten” is an example of a concrete noun. A kitten registers with the five senses: you can see a
kitten, pet its fur, smell its breath, hear it purr and taste its kisses.
Example 2: Kyle and Nina ordered a large pizza for lunch.
“Pizza” is an example of a concrete noun. You can see, feel, smell and taste pizza.

ABSTRACT NOUNS
Abstract nouns name things you cannot see, hear, smell, taste or fell. In other words, abstract nouns
are not tangible. They name actions, events, ideas, states of mind and qualities. Consider the
following abstract nouns:
Actions and events: childhood, Friday, September, war
Ideas: energy, freedom, ideas, luck
States of mind: anger, courage, depression, freedom
Qualities: beauty, truth, kindness, truth
Conditions: cancer, a cold, the flu, diabetes

Abstract nouns exist, but your senses cannot perceive them. Instead, you are encompassing the
meaning because you perceive its existence even though you cannot picture it in your mind.
Consider the following examples:
Example 1: When Anthony dove into the swimming pool to rescue a drowning child, his bravery
amazed the people sitting poolside.
“Bravery” is an abstract noun. You can see the other nouns “Anthony,” “swimming pool” and
“people.” You cannot see the quality “bravery.” It has no flavor, texture, size, shape or color.
Example 2: Naomi’s childhood was traumatic.
“Childhood” is an example of an abstract noun. You can see the other nouns “Naomi” and “private
detective.” You cannot see Naomi’s “childhood.”
While abstract nouns are intangible, in some cases, you may question whether a noun is concrete or
abstract or feel unsure. Consider the following example:
Example 3: Samantha saw the jump from the corner of her eye.
In order for a jump to take place, there is a jumper (subject), and the “jumper” is omitted in the
above sentence. “The jump” is an abstract noun. By writing “the jump,” you change a verb into a
noun and abstract the animal, person or thing that did “the jumping.” If you wanted to avoid the
abstract noun “jump,” you would write:
Samantha saw the fish jump above the lake’s surface from the corner of her eye.

17
When the sentence is reconstructed, “jump” turns into a verb, eliminating the use of “jump” as an
abstract noun. You can imagine a jump occurring, but you cannot imagine it without the fish doing
the action.

COMMON & PROPER NOUN

COMMON NOUN
NOUN is a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. All nouns can be further
classified as proper or common. Common nouns are words used to name general items
rather than specific ones. Go into your living room. What do you see? Lamp, chair, couch,
TV, window, painting, pillow, candle – all of these items are named using common nouns.
Common nouns are everywhere, and you use them all the time, even if you don’t realize it.
Wherever you go, you’ll find at least one common noun. Street, closet, bathroom, school,
mall, gas station; all of these places are named using common nouns.
People in general are named using common nouns, though their official titles or given
names are proper nouns. When we refer to people using common nouns, we use words like
teacher, clerk, police officer, preacher, delivery driver, boyfriend, girlfriend, grandma,
cousin, and barista.
The takeaway is this: common nouns are general names and unless they are part of a title
like Postmaster General or begin a sentence, they’re not usually capitalized.

COMMON NOUN EXAMPLES

The following common noun examples will help you to recognize common nouns. In the
sentences that follow, common noun examples are italicized. Notice that the examples
providing proper nouns name specific versions of the same type of person, animal, place,
thing, or idea.
1. Common Noun: You broke my favorite mug. Proper Noun: I can’t believe you broke
my Snoopy mug.
2. Common Noun: I really want a new pair of jeans. Proper Noun: I really want to buy a
new pair of Levis.
3. Common Noun: I wish I could remember the name of that painter. Proper Noun: I
really love art by Van Gogh.
4. Common Noun: They’re all waiting for us at the restaurant. Proper Noun: Everyone
else is at Bill’s Burgers.
5. Common Noun: I really want to live in a big city someday. Proper Noun: Of all the
places I’ve lived, Denver was best.
6. Common Noun: Let’s go to watch a live game at the stadium. Proper Noun: Let’s try
to get good seats at Wrigley Field.

COMMON NOUN EXERCISES

Choose the common noun or the phrase containing the common noun to fill in each blank.
1. I’d really like some ____________ after lunch.
a. Entenmann’s chocolate cake
b. Vanilla pudding with coconut
c. Marie Callender’s peach pie
d. Breyer’s ice cream
18
 2. I received ______________ from my grandmother today.
a. A copy of War and Peace
b. A photo of Abraham Lincoln
c. A handmade sweater
d. A pack of Trident gum
3. Please call ____________.
a. Jennifer
b. The police
c. Aunt Sally
d. Smith’s department store
4. _______________ brought our drinks promptly.
a. Simon
b. Rinaldi
c. The waiter
d. A flight attendant named Sarah
5. I heard that ________________ is going to San Francisco in May.
a. My cousin
b. Bernard
c. Wilson
d. The whole Nuggets baseball team

ANSWER KEY:
B – I’d really like some vanilla pudding with coconut after lunch.
C – I received a handmade sweater from my grandmother today.
B – Please call the police.
C – The waiter brought our drinks promptly.
A – I heard that my cousin is going to San Francisco in May.

COMMON NOUN EXERCISES

Identify the common noun in each sentence:
1. Sarah finally got her degree
A – Sarah, B –her, C – degree
2. Jennifer and her brother are going to Disneyland next month.
A – Jennifer, B – brother, C – Disneyland
3. I told Donald that I prefer vegetarian food.
A – told, B – Donald, C – food
4. Harry went to the park with his friend Keisha.
A – Harry, B – park, C – Keisha
Answer Key: 1: C, 2: B, 3: C, 4: B

Is the highlighted noun a common noun or a proper noun?

1. Karen loves to eat at the restaurant on the corner.
2. I went to the dentist for a root canal.
3. We’re going to have fish for dinner.
4. His favorite car is a Porsche.
Answer Key: 1: Proper noun, 2: Common noun, 3: Common noun, 4: Proper noun

19
Identify the common noun in each sentence:
1. This calendar covers January through December.
A – calendar, B – January, C – December
2. Jethro named his boat the Karen II.
A – Jethro, B – boat, C – Karen II
3. North America and Asia are continents.
A – North America, B – Asia, C – continents
4. This book was co-written by doctors Smith and Klein.
A – book, B – Smith, C – Klein
5. Nick and Terry got into a fight with Dennis.
A – Nick and Terry, B – fight, C – Dennis
Answer Key: 1: A, 2: B, 3: C, 4: A, 5: B

Fill in the blank with the common noun that fits best:
1. I’m going to see the _____________ about my tooth.
A – Dr. Ling, B – dentist, C – cardiologist
2. The ________________ sank during the storm.
A – Karen II, B – bridge, C – sailboat
3. Of all animals, _____________ are my favorite.
A – dog, B – dogs, C – pretzels 4
4. The ___________ were named Nick and Jerry.
A – kitchen, B – library, C – spa
5. The __________________ is full of books, including classics by everyone from
Shakespeare to Tolkien.
A – Nick and Terry, B – fight, C – Dennis
Answer Key: 1: B, 2: C, 3: B, 4: A, 5: B

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PROPER NOUN

Proper nouns have two distinct features:

They name specific one-of-a-kind items, and they begin with capital letters, no matter
where they occur within a sentence. Here, we’ll take a closer look at proper nouns, provide
proper noun examples, and help you learn how to use a proper noun the right way.
Remember that all nouns are words naming people, animals, places, things, and ideas. Use
of CAPITAL LETTER for proper noun. The first letter of proper noun is always written in
capital letter. For examples:
 He lives in Paris
 She studies in Oxford University.
 Author of this book is John Stephen.
 Laws of motion were presented by Newton
 The richest person of the world is Bill Gates.

PROPER NOUN EXAMPLES

In the following sentences, proper noun examples are compared with common nouns.
Notice that the proper nouns are specific and unique, while the common nouns are much
more general in nature.
 Common noun: I want to be a writer.
Proper noun: Agatha Christie wrote many books.
 Common noun: I’d like to adopt a cat.
Proper noun: Cleopatra is the cutest kitten ever.
 Common noun: Would you like a cookie?
Proper noun: I’m craving Oreos.
 Common noun: Let’s go to the city.
Proper noun: Let’s go to San Francisco.
 Common noun: My teacher starts work before sunup.
Proper noun: Mr. Bell seems to understand what students need.
 Common noun: I think that’s a planet, not a star.
Proper noun: I can see Jupiter tonight.
 Common noun: He’s always hanging out with his girlfriend.
Proper noun: He never goes anywhere without Sarah.
 Common noun: There are a lot of important documents in the archives.
Proper noun: There are many important documents at The Library of Congress.

HOW TO USE PROPER NOUNS

It’s easy to use proper nouns, once you know what they are. Simply place them in your
sentences as you would common nouns, ensuring that you capitalize them. Here are some
examples to help you get started.
Brett had hoped for an easy teacher for his algebra class, but he got Ms. Boggs, whose
unreasonable demands and short temper made the semester unbearable.
→ Teacher is a common noun. Ms. Boggs is a proper noun.
Gloria had a craving, and not just any cookie would do. She went to the store and bought a
box of Oreos.
→ Cookie is a common noun. Oreos is a proper noun.
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We wanted to try a new restaurant, so we went to Taste of Thai.
→ Restaurant is a common noun. Taste of Thai is a proper noun.

PROPER NOUN EXAMPLES

Identify the proper noun in each sentence:
1. The boy threw the ball to his dog, Wilson.
2. I’d like you to meet my friend Jeremy.
3. We’ll be vacationing in Aspen this year.
4. My second grade teacher was Mrs. Gilbert, an old battle-axe.
5. We went to Smith’s Furniture and bought a new couch to replace our old one.
6. Do you think the Dolphins will win the game?
7. I’m flying first-class on Emirate Airlines.
8. Thomas Jefferson was a president and philosopher.
9. My best friend moved to Israel to study.
10. When the Titanic sank, the captain went down with the ship.

Answers: 1 – Wilson, 2 – Jeremy, 3 – Aspen, 4 – Mrs. Gilbert, 5 – Smith’s Furniture, 6 –

Dolphins, 7 – Emirate Airlines, 8 – Thomas Jefferson, 9 – Israel, 10 – Titanic

USE OF “THE” FOR PROPER NOUN.

 The article “the” is used before some proper nouns. Here are some rules for the use of
article “the” before proper nouns.
 Article “the” is not used before the name of countries, cities, for example New York,
Mexico, Canada, Toronto, London, Paris, America. But if the name of country or city or
place expresses group of places or lands or states, then article “the” will be used before
it. For example, the Philippines, the Netherlands, the United States
 Article “the” is not used before the name of universities, for example Oxford University,
Yale University, or Columbia University. But if the name of university is written in a order
that it includes the word “of” then article “the” will be used before it, for example, the
University of British Colombia, the university of Oxford, the University of Toronto.
 Article “the” is used before names composed of both common noun and proper noun,
for example the New York city, the Dominion of Canada, the River Nile
 “The” is used before the names of laws, principles, theories or devices, for example, the
Pythagorean Theorem, the Fahrenheit Scale, the Law of Newton, the Allais effect. But if
the proper noun is used in possessive form, no article will be used, for example
Newton’s Laws of Motion, Hooke’s Law of Elasticity, Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures.
 “The” used by the name of ocean, sea, river, dessert or forest (except lakes and fall) for
example the Pacific Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Sahara, the Black Forests.
 “The” is used before the names of buildings, hotels, libraries having particular names, for
example the Brunel Hotel, the Lahore Museum, the Library of Congress,
 “The” is used before the name of a geographical region and points on globe, for example
the Middle East, the West, the Equator, the North Pole
 “The” is usually used before the names of organizations for example, the Association of
Chartered Accountants, the World Health Organization

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 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

COUNTABLE NOUNS
Countable nouns are individual people, animals, places, things, or ideas which can be
counted. Uncountable nouns are not individual objects, so they cannot be counted. Here,
we’ll take a look at countable and uncountable nouns and provide both countable noun
examples and uncountable noun examples.

COUNTABLE NOUN EXAMPLES

Anything that can be counted, whether singular – a dog, a house, a friend, etc. or plural – a
few books, lots of oranges, etc. is a countable noun. The following countable noun examples
will help you to see the difference between countable and uncountable nouns. Notice that
singular verbs are used with singular countable nouns, while plural verbs are used with
plural countable nouns.
 There are at least twenty Italian restaurants in Little Italy.
 Megan took a lot of photographs when she went to the Grand Canyon.
 Your book is on the kitchen table.
 How many candles are on that birthday cake?
 You have several paintings to study in art appreciation class.
 There’s a big brown dog running around the neighborhood.
For example, "book" is countable noun because we can count it and can say one book, two
books, three books and so on. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are
examples countable nouns. A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article “a” or
“an” is used before singular noun but not before plural noun. If a singular noun starts with
consonant letter then “a” is used before it, i.e. a book, a cat, a pen.
Pen is countable noun because we can count it and can say one pen, two pens, three pens
or more pens. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples countable
nouns.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUN (COUNTABLE NOUN)

A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article “a” or “an” is used before singular
noun but not before plural noun.
If a singular noun starts with consonant letter then “a” is used before it, i.e. a book, a cat, a
pen. If a singular noun starts with a vowel letter or with consonant which sounds like vowel
in that word, “an” is used before it i.e. an apple, an umbrella, an onion, an hour.
Plural noun means more than one person, place or thing. Word “chair” is a singular noun
but word “chairs” is plural noun.
Plurals are usually formed by adding –s or –es to singular noun for example book–books,
cat–cats, box–boxes, tax–taxes. If a word ends with “y”, the “y” is changed to “I” then –es is
added to make it plural, for example, baby–babies, lady–ladies. There may be some
exceptions.
Some plurals are formed in different ways for example, man–men, child–children, leaf–
leaves, wife–wives, foot–feet, toot–teeth, datum–data, basis–bases. Such plurals are called
irregular plural forms. Some nouns have same plural and singular form, for example, sheep–
sheep, deer–deer, swine–swine.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN
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Anything that cannot be counted is an uncountable noun. Even though uncountable nouns
are not individual objects, they are always singular and one must always use singular verbs
in conjunction with uncountable nouns.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUN EXAMPLES

The following uncountable noun examples will help you to gain even more understanding of
how countable and uncountable nouns differ from one another. Notice that singular verbs
are always used with uncountable nouns.
Uncountable noun refers to substances which cannot be counted.
For example, water is an uncountable noun because we cannot count it. We cannot say, one
water or two water. Such substances which cannot be counted in terms of numbers are
called uncountable noun.
Examples: Water, milk, bread, honey, rain, furniture, news, information, pleasure, honesty,
courage, weather, music, preparation, warmth, wheat are examples of uncountable nouns.
 There is no more water in the pond.
 Please help yourself to some cheese.
 I need to find information about Pulitzer Prize winners.
 You seem to have a high level of intelligence.
 Please take good care of your equipment.
 Let’s get rid of the garbage.

Uncountable nouns can be paired with words expressing plural concept. Using these words
can make your writing more specific. Here are some examples of how to format interesting
sentences with uncountable nouns.
• Garbage – There are nine bags of garbage on the curb.
• Water – Try to drink at least eight glasses of water each day.
• Advice – She gave me a useful piece of advice.
• Bread – Please buy a loaf of bread.
• Furniture – A couch is a piece of furniture.
• Equipment – A backhoe is an expensive piece of equipment.
• Cheese – Please bag ten slices of cheese for me.

Uncountable nouns are usually treated as singular noun for auxiliary verbs in sentence but
articles “a or an” are usually not used before uncountable nouns. Examples.
Water maintains its level.
Necessity is the mother of invention
His preparation was not good.
The Weather is very pleasant today.
This information is very helpful in solving the problem.
The warmth of sun causes evaporation of water.

Uncountable nouns may be used as countable noun when it refers to an individual thing. For
example life is uncountable noun but it be used as countable noun if refers to individual,
lives. For example:
It was feared that two lives had been lost.

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We can also use word like “some, any, no, little, more etc” before uncountable nouns if
needed in sentence. Examples.
They have no information about the accused.
There is little milk in the glass.

Changing Uncountable nouns into countable nouns.

We can change uncountable noun into countable noun if we specify a unit or measuring
standard for it. For example “water” is an uncountable noun but we can make it countable
by saying one glass of water or two glass of water etc. In this example we selected a unit
that is glass. We can also say one litre of water or one cup of water etc. By selecting such
units or measuring standards we can change uncountable noun in to countable which can
be counted in terms of numbers. Examples.
Uncountable – countable
Bread – a piece of bread.
Wheat – a grain of wheat.
Milk – a glass of milk
Information – a piece of information

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS EXERCISES

1. Is the underlined noun countable or uncountable?
2. The children fell asleep quickly after a busy day of fun.
3. Be careful! The water is deep.
4. The parade included fire trucks and police cars.
5. We like the large bottles of mineral water.
6. My mother uses real butter in the cakes she bakes.
7. How many politicians does it take to pass a simple law?
8. Most kids like milk, but Joey hates it.
9. Most pottery is made of clay.
10. Michael can play several different musical instruments.
11. I was feeling so stressed that I ate an entire box of cookies.

Answers: 1 – countable, 2 – uncountable, 3 – countable, 4 – countable, 5 – uncountable, 6 –

countable, 7 – uncountable, 8 – uncountable, 9 – countable, 10 – countable

25
 GENDER NOUN (MASCULINE FEMINIM & NEUTRAL)

There are four types of gender nouns in English.

Masculine gender nouns are words for men, boys, and male animals.
Feminine gender nouns are words for women, girls and female animals.
Common gender nouns are nouns that are used for both males and females.
Neuter gender nouns are words for things that are not alive.
GENDER NOUNS FOR PEOPLE
Here are some examples of masculine and feminine nouns for people.
Male Female
actor actress
boy girl
bridegroom bride
brother sister
count countess
dad mom
duke duchess
emperor empress
father mother
gentleman lady
grandfather grandmother
heir heiress
host hostess
husband wife
king queen
landlord landlady
man woman
nephew niece
policeman policewoman
prince princess
sir madam
son daughter
steward stewardess
uncle aunt
waiter waitress
widower widow
wizard witch

GENDER NOUNS FOR ANIMALS

Here are some examples of masculine and feminine nouns for animals.
ANIMAL MASCULINE FEMININE
bear boar sow
cat tom queen
cattle bull cow
chicken rooster hen
deer buck or stag doe or hind
donkey jack jenny
duck drake duck
elephant bull cow
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fox dog vixen
goose gander goose
horse stallion mare
leopard leopard leopardess
lion lion lioness
peacock peacock peahen
pig boar sow
rabbit buck doe
sheep ram ewe
swan cob pen
tiger tiger tigress
whale bull cow

Common Gender Nouns

Here are some examples of common gender nouns that used for both males and females.
babies dancers
students parents
reporters teachers
singers engineers
lawyers artists
spouse partner
doctor student
astronaut chef
nurse dentist

Neuter Gender Nouns

Here are some examples of neuter gender nouns that are used for objects and places.
hospital school
knife chair
cave floor
phone fire
pen stick
book bag
pencil crayons
flower shoes

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 PRONOUN
In grammar, a pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that may be substituted for a noun or
noun phrase, which once replaced, is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. How is this
possible? In a nutshell, it’s because pronouns can do everything that nouns can do. A
pronoun can act as a subject, direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, and
more.
Without pronouns, we’d have to keep on repeating nouns, and that would make our speech
and writing repetitive, not to mention cumbersome. Most pronouns are very short words.
Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun, e.g. he, she, it, they, his, her, him its etc.
Example.
John is an intelligent student. He goes to school daily. He studies a lot. He is making
preparation for examination. He will get high marks examination.
In the above paragraph pronoun “he” is used instead of noun “John”. If we do not use
pronoun in above paragraph we will have to use the noun “John” again and again in each
sentence. So, the purpose of pronoun is to avoid the repetition of a noun.

Examples. He, she, it, they, you, I, we, who, him, her, them, me, us, whom, his, its, their,
your, mine, our and whose, myself, himself, herself , yourself, which, this, that these, those,
are the pronouns which are mostly used.

Pronoun can be divided into following groups.

 Personal Pronouns: e.g. I, you, He, she, it, they, who, me, him, her, them, whom
 Possessive Pronouns: e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs,
 Reflexive Pronouns: e.g. myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, ourselves,
themselves
 Reciprocal Pronoun: e.g. each other, one another
 Relative Pronouns: e.g. who, whom, whose, which, that
 Demonstrative Pronoun: e.g. this, these, that, those

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 TYPES OF PRONOUN

There five types of pronoun

1. Personal Pronoun
2. Possessive Pronoun
3. Reflexive Pronoun
4. Relative Pronoun
5. Demonstrative Pronoun

1. PERSONAL PRONOUN
Personal pronoun describes a particular person or thing or group.
Personal pronoun describes the person speaking (I, me, we, us), the person spoken to (you),
or the person or thing spoken about (he, she, it, they, him, her, them). Example.
He helps poor.
The pronoun “he” in above sentence describes a person who helps poor.

Use of Personal Pronouns.

Personal Pronoun
Number Person
Subject Object
1st Person I Me
Singular 2nd Person You You
3rd Person He, She, It Him, Her, It
1st Person We Us
Plural 2nd Person You You
3rd Person They Them

Examples.
She is intelligent
They are playing chess.
He sent me a letter.
It is raining.
We love our country.
The teacher appreciated them.
I met him yesterday.
He gave her a gift.
Did you go to home?

2. POSSESSIVE PRONOUN
Possessive Pronoun indicates close possession or ownership or relationship of a
thing/person to another thing/person.
e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, hers,
Example.
This book is mine.

29
The pronoun “mine” describes the relationship between book and a person (me) who
possesses this book or who is the owner of this book.

Number Person Possessive Pronoun

1st Person Mine
Singular 2nd Person Yours
3rd Person Hers, his, its
1st Person Ours
Plural 2nd Person Yours
3rd Person Theirs

Examples.
That car is hers.
Your book is old. Mine is new.
The pen on the table is mine.
The smallest cup is yours.
The voice is hers.
The car is ours not theirs.
I have lost my camera. May I use yours?
They received your letter. Did you received theirs.

Note: Possessive adjectives (my, her, your) may be confused with possessive pronouns.
Possessive adjective modifies noun in terms of possession. Both possessive adjective and
possessive show possession or ownership, but possessive adjective is used (with noun) to
modify the noun while Possessive pronoun is used instead (in place of) a noun.

Examples.
This is my book. (Possessive adjective: “my” modifies the noun “book”)
This book is mine. (Possessive pronoun: “mine” is used instead of noun “to whom the book
belongs”)

3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
Reflexive pronoun describes noun when subject’s action affects the subject itself.
e.g himself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves, itself are reflexive pronouns.
Reflexive pronouns always act as objects not subjects, and they require an interaction
between the subject and an object.

Number Person Subject Reflexive Pronoun

1st Person I Myself
Singular 2nd Person You Yourself
3rd Person He, she, it Himself, Herself, Itself
Plural 1st Person We Ourselves

30
 2nd Person You Yourselves
3rd Person They Themselves

Examples.
I looked at myself in the mirror.
You should think about yourself.
They prepared themselves for completion.
She pleases herself by think that she will win the prize.
He bought a car for himself.
He locked himself in the room.
He who loves only himself is a selfish.

Note: Reflexive noun can also be used to give more emphasis on subject or object. If a
reflexive pronoun is used to give more emphasis on a subject or an object, it is called
“Intensive Pronoun”. Usage and function of intensive pronoun are different from that of
reflexive pronoun.

For example, she herself started to think about herself.

In the above sentence the first “herself” is used as intensive pronoun while the second
“herself” is used as reflexive pronoun.
See the following examples of intensive pronouns.

Examples. (Intensive Pronouns)

I did it myself. OR. I myself did it.
She herself washed the clothes.
He himself decided to go to New York.
She herself told me.

4. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN
Reciprocal Pronouns are used when each of two or more subjects reciprocate to the other.
It is used when two subjects act in same way towards each other, or, more subjects act in
same way to one another.
For example: A loves B and B love A. we can say that A and B loves each other.
There are two reciprocal pronouns
Each other
One another.
Examples.
John and Marry are talking to each other.
The students gave cards to one another.
The people helped one another in hospital.
Two boys were pushing each other.
The car and the bus collided with each other.
The students in the class greeted one another.

5. RELATIVE PRONOUN
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Relative Pronoun describes a noun which is mentioned before and more information is to be
given about it. Relative pronoun is a pronoun which joins relative clauses and relative
sentences.
For example, It is the person, who helped her.
In this sentence the word “who” is a relative pronoun which refers to the noun (the person)
which is already mentioned in beginning of sentence (It is the person) and more information
(he helped her) is given after using a relative pronoun (who) for the noun (the person).
Similarly, in above sentence the pronoun “who” joins two clauses which are “it is the
person” and “who helped her”.

Examples. The most commonly used 5: who, whom, whose, which, that.
“Who” is for subject and “whom” is used for object. “who” and “whom” are used for
people. “Whose” is used to show possession and can be used for both people and things.
“Which” is used for things. “That” is used for people and things.

Examples.
It is the girl who got first position in class.
Adjective is a word that modifies noun.
The man whom I met yesterday is a nice person.
It is the planning that makes succeed.
The boy who is laughing is my friend.
It is the boy whose father is doctor.
The car which I like is red.

6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN
Demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points to a thing or things.
e.g. this, that, these, those, none, neither
These pronouns point to thing or things in short distance/time or long distance/time.
Short distance or time: This, these.
Long distance or time: That, those.
Demonstrative pronouns “this and that” are used for singular thing while “these or those”
are used for plural things.
Examples
This is black.
That is heavy.
Can you see these?
Do you like this?
John brought these.
Those look attractive.
Have you tried this.

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33
PRONOUNS
Pronouns replace nouns. A different pronoun is required depending on two elements: the
noun being replaced and the function that noun has in the sentence. In English, pronouns
only take the gender of the noun they replace in the 3rd person singular form. The 2nd
person plural pronouns are identical to the 2nd person singular pronouns except for the
reflexive pronoun.
Subject Object Possessive Possessive Reflexive or
Pronoun Pronoun Adjective Pronoun Intensive
(Determiner) Pronoun
1st person I me my mine myself
singular
2nd person you you your yours yourself
singular
3rd person he him his his himself
singular,
male
3rd person she her her hers herself
singular,
female
3rd person it it its itself
singular,
neutral
1st person we us our ours ourselves
plural
2nd person you you your yours yourselves
plural
3rd person they them their theirs themselves
plural

SUBJECT PRONOUNS
Subject pronouns replace nouns that are the subject of their clause. In the 3rd person,
subject pronouns are often used to avoid repetition of the subject's name.
Examples
I am 16.
You seem lost.
Jim is angry, and he wants Sally to apologize.
This table is old. It needs to be repainted.
We aren't coming.
They don't like pancakes.

OBJECT PRONOUNS
Object pronouns are used to replace nouns that are the direct or indirect object of a clause.
Examples
Give the book to me.
The teacher wants to talk to you.
Jake is hurt because Bill hit him.
Rachid recieved a letter from her last week.
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Mark can't find it.
Don't be angry with us.
Tell them to hurry up!

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (DETERMINERS)

Possessive adjectives are not pronouns, but rather determiners. It is useful to learn them at
the same time as pronouns, however, because they are similar in form to the possessive
pronouns. Possessive adjectives function as adjectives, so they appear before the noun they
modify. They do not replace a noun as pronouns do.
Examples
Did mother find my shoes?
Mrs. Baker wants to see your homework.
Can Jake bring over his baseball cards?
Samantha will fix her bike tomorrow.
The cat broke its leg.
This is our house.
Where is their school?

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns replace possessive nouns as either the subject or the object of a
clause. Because the noun being replaced doesn't appear in the sentence, it must be clear
from the context.
Examples
This bag is mine.
Yours is not blue.
That bag looks like his.
These shoes are not hers.
That car is ours.
Theirs is parked in the garage.

REFLEXIVE & INTENSIVE PRONOUNS

Reflexive and intensive pronouns are the same set of words but they have different
functions in a sentence.
Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the clause because the subject of the action
is also the direct or indirect object. Only certain types of verbs can be reflexive. You cannot
remove a reflexive pronoun from a sentence because the remaining sentence would be
grammatically incorrect.
Examples
I told myself to calm down.
You cut yourself on this nail?
He hurt himself on the stairs.
She found herself in a dangerous part of town.
The cat threw itself under my car!
We blame ourselves for the fire.
The children can take care of themselves.

35
Intensive pronouns emphasize the subject of a clause. They are not the object of the action.
The intensive pronoun can always be removed from a sentence without changing the
meaning significantly, although the emphasis on the subject will be removed. Intensive
pronouns can be placed immediately after the subject of the clause, or at the end of the
clause.
Examples
I made these cookies myself.
You yourself asked Jake to come.
The Pope himself pardoned Mr. Brown.
My teacher didn't know the answer herself.
The test itself wasn't scary, but my teacher certainly is.
We would like to finish the renovation before Christmas ourselves.
They themselves told me the lost shoe wasn't a problem.

TYPES OF PRONOUNS
Pronouns can be divided into numerous categories including:
 Indefinite pronouns – those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or
places
 Personal pronouns – those associated with a certain person, thing, or group; all except
you have distinct forms that indicate singular or plural number
 Reflexive pronouns – those preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, or noun to
which they refer, and ending in –self or –selves
 Demonstrative pronouns – those used to point to something specific within a sentence
 Possessive pronouns – those designating possession or ownership
 Relative pronouns – those which refer to nouns mentioned previously, acting to
introduce an adjective (relative) clause
 Interrogative pronouns – those which introduce a question
 Reciprocal pronouns – those expressing mutual actions or relationship; i.e. one another
 Intensive pronouns – those ending in –self or –selves and that serve to emphasize their
antecedents

PRONOUN RULES
There are a few important rules for using pronouns. As you read through these rules and the
examples in the next section, notice how the pronoun rules are followed. Soon you’ll see
that pronouns are easy to work with.
Subject pronouns may be used to begin sentences. For example: We did a great job.
Subject pronouns may also be used to rename the subject. For example: It was she who
decided we should go to Hawaii.
Indefinite pronouns don’t have antecedents. They are capable of standing on their own. For
example: No one likes the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard.
Object pronouns are used as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions.
These include: you, me, him, her, us, them, and it. For example: David talked to her about
the mistake.
Possessive pronouns show ownership. They do not need apostrophes. For example: The cat
washed its whiskers.
36
Examples of Pronouns
In the following examples, the pronouns are italicized.
We are going on vacation.
Don’t tell me that you can’t go with us.
Anybody who says it won’t be fun has no clue what they are talking about.
These are terribly steep stairs.
We ran into each other at the mall.
I’m not sure which is worse: rain or snow.
It is one of the nicest Italian restaurants in town.
Richard stared at himself in the mirror.
The laundry isn’t going to do itself.
Someone spilled orange juice all over the countertop!

PRONOUN EXERCISES
Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. This is __________ speaking.
a. John
b. He
c. He john
d. Am
2. Greg is as smart as __________ is.
a. I
b. me
c. she
d. we
3. The dog chewed on __________ favorite toy.
a. it’s
b. it is
c. its’
d. its
4. It could have been __________ .
a. Jerry
b. anyone
c. better
d. more difficult
5. Terry is taller than __________ am.
a. I
b. me
c. she
d. we
Answers
B. This is he speaking.
C. Greg is as smart as she is.
D. The dog chewed on its favorite toy.
B. It could have been anyone.
A. Terry is taller than I am.

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 FUNCTION OF PRONOUN

The grammatical function of a pronoun is said to be the work or the job that the pronoun is
doing in a sentence.Pronouns can perform any of the following five functions:
 Subject of the verb
 Object of the verb
 Complement of the verb
 Object of the preposition
 Apposition to a noun

PRONOUN FUNCTIONING AS THE SUBJECT OF A VERB

Here, the pronoun will always come before the main verb in the sentence. It is also the one
the entire sentence focuses on. Simply put, whenever a pronoun is used as the subject in a
sentence, then it functions as the subject of a verb.
Examples:
He is very sick.
You may let them come in.
I hate the way the movie ended.
She likes me.
It is a shame the way you mistreat the child.
They love soccer.
We voted for Barack Obama in the last election.
All the highlighted pronouns in the sentences above are all subjects and they are therefore
functioning as subjects of their respect verbs. For example, in sentence 1, the pronoun “he”
is functioning as the subject to the verb “is”.

PRONOUN FUNCTIONING AS OBJECT OF A VERB

A pronoun will function as an object of a verb when it comes after an action verb and
receives the action of the verb.
Examples of pronouns functioning as object of verbs include the following:
James slapped me.
I kissed her.
Elton likes her a lot.
The hunter killed it.
You showed him the money.
The security spotted us.
Each of the highlighted pronouns above is functioning as an object of the verb coming
before it. They are all objects because they are receiving action from their respective action
verbs.

PRONOUN FUNCTIONING AS A COMPLEMENT OF A VERB

When a pronoun functions as a complement of a verb, what it basically does is it comes
after a linking verb or state-of-being verb and receives no action from the verb.
Examples of pronouns functioning as complements of verbs include the following:
The thief was he.
It was I who called you last night.
38
The winner was he.
The visitor was she.
The men arrested in China were they.
It was you.
Every highlighted pronoun in the sentences above is functioning as a complement of the
verb preceding it. The reason they are complements is because they come after linking
verbs and state-of-being verbs and are receiving no action from these verbs.

PRONOUN FUNCTIONING AS OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION

When a pronoun functions as an object of a preposition, it comes after a preposition. Any
pronoun coming after a preposition is the object of the preposition.
Examples are as follow:
I bought the book for her.
The teacher is angry with us.
I want to go with you.
It is for you.
I took a picture of her.
Please give it to me.
The words for, with, of, to are all prepositions. It therefore goes without saying that all the
highlighted pronouns coming after them are objects of the prepositions. For example, in the
first sentence, the pronoun “her” is functioning as the object of the preposition “for”.

PRONOUN FUNCTIONING IN APPOSITION TO A NOUN

When a pronoun functions in apposition to a noun, it comes after a noun in the sentence or
statement and renames the noun or tells readers something more about the noun.
Examples of pronouns functioning in apposition to nouns include the following:
The boys, those who killed the dog, have gone.
My friends, those who stood by me, have all been rewarded.
The pronoun “those” is functioning in apposition to the noun “boys” in the first sentence
and the noun “friends” in the second sentence.
You can clearly see that the pronoun “those” can be used to rename the nouns in the
sentences above.
NOTE: Of all the functions of pronouns, it is the last function that is rarely used in sentences.
Now that you have seen the various grammatical functions of the pronoun, let us see if you
can tell the grammatical functions of the pronouns in the sentences below:
Jesus he knows me.
Come with me.
Please remind me when we get there.
I hate what you are doing to yourself.
I think I love you.
The captain of the team is he.
He is my friend.
Do you believe in him?
We hate it when our friends become successful.
I will buy a bicycle for you if you pass your examinations.

39
 USAGE - PRONOUN CASE

The pronoun's function in a sentence determines which case to use.

RULE: Use a subjective case pronoun

1) Personal pronoun subject

2) Personal pronoun subjective complement ("completes" the subject)

RULE: Use an objective case pronoun

40
 1) Personal pronoun direct object

2) Personal pronoun indirect object

3) Personal pronoun object of preposition

Additional pronoun case rules

1. When a pronoun is used along with a noun, choose the pronoun case that matches the
noun's function.

41
 2. When a pronoun is part of a compound element, choose the pronoun case that would
be correct if the pronoun were not part of a compound element.

NOTE: To make certain that pronoun case is correct in compound elements, omit one
half of the compound to check each pronoun.

42
 3. When a personal pronoun is used in a comparison, choose the correct pronoun case
by carrying the sentence out to its logical conclusion.

4. Choose who or whom depending upon the function of the pronoun in the sentence.
Who is subjective case like the pronouns he, she, they, I, and we.
Use who as the subject or subjective complement of a sentence.

43
 Helpful tip: To see whether who is the correct choice, substitute he for who.
If the sentence sounds correct, then who is the correct choice.

Whom is objective case like the pronouns him, her, them, me, and us.
Use whom as the direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition in a
sentence.

44
Helpful tip: To see whether whom is the correct choice, substitute him for whom.
If the sentence sounds correct, then whom is the correct choice.

45
 NOTE: In an adjectival subordinate clause, choose who or whom by determining the
pronoun's function within the subordinate clause.

5. Use possessive case pronouns with gerunds.

Reminder: A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing, used as a noun.

46
 ADJECTIVE
An adjective is a part of speech which describes, identifies, or quantifies a noun or a
pronoun. So basically, the main function of an adjective is to modify a noun or a pronoun so
that it will become more specific and interesting. Instead of just one word, a group of words
with a subject and a verb, can also function as an adjective.
Adjective is a word that modifies (gives more information about) a noun or pronoun.
For example, tall man, old house, red car. The words “tall, old, red” are adjectives which
give more information about nouns “man, house, and car” in these examples.

More than one adjective can also be used for a single noun in sentence. Examples.
The beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, thin, beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, thin, beautiful and intelligent girl entered into the room.

An adjective gives information about the colour, size, characteristic, quality, quantity or
personal traits of a noun or pronoun. Some examples.

 White, red, black, green, purple, yellow, orange, brown, and black are adjectives
because they mention the colour of noun or pronoun.
 Beautiful, pretty, ugly, thin, slim, fat, tall, and short are adjectives and they describe
physical characteristic of a noun or pronoun.
 Intelligent, brave, courageous, determined, exuberant and diligent are adjective and
they describe the personal traits of a noun or pronoun.

USE OF ADJECTIVE IN SENTENCE

Adjective is used in sentence at two places depending upon the structure of sentence.
- Before noun
- After some verbs (After stative verbs like seem, look, be (when used as stative verb),
feel etc)
-
USE OF ADJECTIVE BEFORE NOUN (EXAMPLES)
He ate a delicious mango.
She bought a red car.
A fat man was running in the street.
I saw a cute baby.
I don’t like hot tea.
They live in a small home.
Poor can’t afford expensive clothes.
Severe headache and fever are symptoms of malaria.
He is facing a difficult problem.

47
USE OF ADJECTIVE AFTER VERBS
Adjectives may be used after stative verbs (i.e. seem, look, sound, taste, appear, feel, be).
Adjective are used after such verbs which behaves like stative verbs.
For example, Iron is hot
“Hot” is adjective in the above sentence which comes after “is” and “is” behaves like a
stative verb in this sentence. “Hot” after verb “is” but it tells us about the noun (subject)
“iron”

Examples.
Your problem seems difficult.
That book was good.
This pizza tastes delicious.
The story sounds interesting.
He is stupid.
The man became angry.
She looks attractive.

An adjective is a word that describes something.

A red car (red is an adjective because it describes the car. How is the car? Red)
A big book (big is an adjective because it describes the book. How is the book? Big)
See our other grammar notes about Adjectives in English. (LINK)
But sometimes we use more than one adjective to describe something.

Now that you already know the answer to the question, “What is an adjective?” you should
know that not all adjectives are the same. They modify nouns and pronouns differently, and
just like the other parts of speech, there are different kinds of adjectives. These are:
1. Descriptive Adjectives
Among the different kinds of adjectives, descriptive adjectives are probably the most
common ones. They simply say something about the quality or the kind of the noun or
pronoun they’re referring to.
Examples:
Erika is witty.
She is tired.
Adrian’s reflexes are amazing.

2. Adjectives of Number or Adjectives of Quantity

As the name suggests, this kind of adjective answers the question, “How many?” or “How
much?”
Examples:
Twenty-one students failed the exam.
The plants need more water.

3. Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives point out pronouns and nouns, and always come before the words
they are referring to.
Examples:
I used to buy this kind of shirts.
48
When the old man tripped over that wire, he dropped a whole bag of groceries.
4. Possessive Adjectives
Obviously, this kind of adjectives shows ownership or possession. Aside from that,
possessive adjectives always come before the noun.
Examples:
I can’t answer my seatwork because I don’t have a calculator.
Trisha sold his dog.

5. Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives ask questions and are always followed by a noun.
Examples:
What movie are you watching?
Which plants should be placed over here?

49
FORMING ADJECTIVES
Typical adjective endings
Some adjectives can be identified by their endings. Typical adjective endings include:
-able/-ible understandable, capable, readable, incredible
-al mathematical, functional, influential, chemical
-ful beautiful, bashful, helpful, harmful
-ic artistic, manic, rustic, terrific
-ive submissive, intuitive, inventive, attractive
-less sleeveless, hopeless, groundless, restless
-ous gorgeous, dangerous, adventurous, fabulous

Sometimes when adding these endings changes have to be made. Here are some rules for
forming adjectives and their exceptions:
Add Exceptions Word Adjective
-al If ending with an ‘e‘, drop it Nature Natural
Function Functional
-y If ending with an ‘e‘, drop it Ice Icy
Oil Oily
-ful If ending with a ‘y‘, replace with an ‘i‘ Beauty Beautiful
Peace Peaceful
-ous/-ious If ending with a ‘y‘, drop it Mystery Mysterious
Danger Dangerous
-ic If ending with a ‘y‘, drop it History Historic
Rust Rustic

Forming adjectives from nouns and verbs

Adjectives can be formed from different words. They can be formed from nouns:
Noun Adjective
accident accidental
danger dangerous
length long
star starry
wind windy
From verbs:
Verb Adjective
enjoy enjoyable
help helpful
obey obedient
play playful
talk talkative
Or even from other adjectives:
Adjective Adjective
comic comical
correct corrective
elder elderly
50
red reddish
sick sickly

EXAMPLES OF FORMING ADJECTIVES

Our house color is a kind of yellow. → We live in a yellowish house.
He often acts like a child. → He often acts in a childish way.
The event was a big success. → We enjoyed a successful event.
We enjoyed the sound of the drum’s rhythm. → We enjoyed the drum’s rhythmic sound.
She adopted a dog without a home. → She adopted a homeless dog.
Look out, that plant is poison. → Look out for that poisonous plant.
It looks like it will rain today. → It looks like we’ll have rainy weather today.
She always acts with courtesy. → She always behaves in a courteous manner.
Her hair is pretty. → She has the prettiest hair.
We go for a walk each day. → We go for a daily walk.

FORMING ADJECTIVES EXERCISES

1. Choose the adjective from each of the following groups of words:
inventive, invent, invented
curiosity, curious, curiousive
proliferate, prolific, proud
Answers: A – inventive B – curious C – prolific
2. Form adjectives from the following nouns:
smell
chill
width
Answers: A – smelly B – chilly C – wide
3. Form adjectives from the following verbs:
interested
amazed
annoyed
Answers: A – interesting B – amazing C – annoying
4. Form adjectives from the following verbs. Some words may be formed into more than
one adjective:
escape
improve
damage
Answers: A – escaped, escaping B – improved, improving C – damaged, damaging
5. Form longer adjectives from the following adjectives. Some words may be formed into
more than one adjective:
funny
incorrect
blue
Answers: A – funnier, funniest B – incorrectly C – bluest, bluer, blueish
6. Form adjectives from the following nouns:
magic
fool

51
lady
Answers: A – magical B – foolish C – ladylike
7. Form two adjectives from each of the following nouns:
life
power
friend
Answers: A – lifelike, lifeless B – powerful, powerless C – friendly, friendless
8. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:
cost
war
month
Answers: A – costly B – warlike C – monthly
9. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:
poison
courtesy
mystery
Answers: A – poisonous B – courteous C – mysterious
10. Form adjectives from each of the following nouns:
athlete
photograph
science
Answers: A – athletic B – photographic C – scientific

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COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
A compound adjective is an adjective that contains two or more words the same noun.
These terms should be hyphenated to avoid confusion or ambiguity. In general we put a
hyphen between two or more words (before a noun) when we want them to act as a single
idea (adjective) that describes something.
We use a hyphen to connect the word English with speaking to show that it is one adjective
(or one idea). This adjective with two words joined by the hyphen is called a compound
adjective.
A compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives are joined together to modify
Some more examples of compound adjectives are:
 Our office is in a twenty-storey building.
 I have just finished reading a 300-page book.
 He is a well-known writer.
 Diana submitted a 6-page document.
 She adopted a two-year-old cat.
 I live in an English-speaking country. English-speaking is an adjective (used to
describe the country).

There are many types of Compound Adjectives. Here is a list of the most common types:
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES + PERIODS OF TIME
When he have compound adjectives using numbers + a time period, that word referring to a
time period is in singular form and is joined to the number with a hyphen.
I work eight hours every day --> I work an eight-hour day
I'm going on vacation for three weeks --> I have a three-week vacation
There was a delay of 5 seconds --> There was a five-second delay
Notice how we normally write the number as a word, not in numerical form.

ADVERBS AND COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

Adverbs modify a verb.
She walks slowly.
How does she walk? Slowly. Slowly is an adverb that modifies (or describes) the verb.
Adverbs can also be used to modify an adjective.
It is very hot today. (Very is an adverb)
She is extremely intelligent. (Extremely is an adverb)
Notice how we do not put a hyphen between an adverb and an adjective (not even before a
noun).
It is a very hot day.
She is an extremely intelligent girl.

Adverb + Past Participle

However when we have an Adverb + past participle, we put a hyphen between the two
words to make it a compound adjective.
This is a brightly-lit room.
She is a well-known actress.
We live in a densely-populated city.

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Noun + Past Participle
When we have a noun + past participle, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it
a compound adjective.
We should start using wind-powered generators to cut costs.
I love eating sun-dried raisins.

Noun + Present Participle

When we have a noun + present participle, we put a hyphen between the two words to
make it a compound adjective.
I bought some mouth-watering strawberries.
That was a record-breaking jump.

Noun + Adjective
When we have a noun + adjective, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a
compound adjective.
She is a world-famous singer.
This is a smoke-free restaurant.

Adjective + Noun
When we have an adjective + noun, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a
compound adjective.
It was a last-minute decision.
We watched the full-length version of the movie.

Adjective + Past Participle

When we have an adjective + past participle, we put a hyphen between the two words to
make it a compound adjective.
That is an old-fashioned dress
Reptiles are cold-blooded creatures.

Adjective + Present Participle

When we have an adjective + present participle, we put a hyphen between the two words
to make it a compound adjective.
She is a good-looking girl.
It left a long-lasting taste in my mouth.

Compound Adjectives with Proper Nouns

A proper noun is the name of something or someone (e.g. John, Susan Sanders).
Compound Adjectives made from Proper nouns don't need a hyphen though must have
capital letters.
I bought the James Jackson tickets for us.
James Jackson is a compound adjective describing the tickets (What type of tickets? James
Jackson tickets). Since the adjective is a Proper noun, we don't need a hyphen between the
two names.

How do we know when to put a hyphen?

54
If you can use the word “and” between the two adjectives or words, then a hyphen isn't
necessary.
She has a big blue book.
(Big and Blue are adjectives)
Can we say: She has a big and blue book. (Yes, it is possible)
He is a world famous singer
Can we say: He is a world and famous singer. No, it doesn't sound correct so we need a
hyphen to join the words world and famous.
Also, look at the following:
It's an old coal-mining town
Notice how we didn't put a hyphen between the word old and coal. If we had have done
that, we would have been referring to old coal, as in coal that is old. We want to emphasis
that the town in old and not the coal.
Here we can say it is old and a coal-mining one.

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES – EXCEPTIONS

Note that combining an adverb and an adjective does not create a compound adjective. No
hyphen is required because it is already clear that the adverb modifies the adjective rather
than the subsequent noun. For example:
It was a terribly hot day.
It is an amazingly good idea.
In addition, you should not place a hyphen in a compound adjective if the adjectives are
capitalized, such as when they are part of a title.
Examples of compound adjectives
This is a four-foot table.
Daniella is a part-time worker.
This is an all-too-common error.
Beware of the green-eyed monster.
He is a cold-blooded man.
I love this brightly-lit room!
Danny’s dog is well-behaved.
You have to be open-minded about things.

COMPOUND ADJECTIVE EXERCISES

1. From each group, choose the sentence that contains a compound adjective:
A. Sheila was horribly moody.
B. We’d like you to be part of the decision-making process.
C. The company showed steady improvement in their stock trades.

A. This is a widely used procedure for finishing wood floors.

B. Moths ate his woolen socks.
C. That was really generous of you.

A. Sharon’s adopted son is five years old today.

B. My new car has leather upholstery.
C. She was a well-known actress by the time she reached age five.

55
Answers:B, A, C

2. Using hyphens in compound adjectives: Which sentences are correct?

A. The group was full of rowdy 10 year old schoolboys.
B. The group was full of rowdy 10-year-old schoolboys.

A. The actress is well known.

B. The actress is well-known.

A. They enjoyed a three-year profit streak.

B. They enjoyed a three-year-profit streak.
Answers:B, A, A

3. Using –ly adverbs in compound adjectives: Which sentences are correct?

A. Along the river, rapidly increasing floodwaters caused evacuations.
B. Along the river, rapidly-increasing floodwaters caused evacuations.

A. My neighbor Jim is an internationally recognized author.

B. My neighbor Jim is an internationally-recognized author.

A. The bank robbers tried to hatch their ill conceived plan and failed.
B. The bank robbers tried to hatch their ill-conceived plan and failed.
Answers:A, A, B

4. Choose the correct compound adjective for each sentence.

He is fond of ______________________ Scotch.
A. good
B. 12-year-old
C. 10 year old
The weather has been ___________________ lately.
A. terribly-cold
B. terribly cold
C. too cold
Babysitting these kids is like trying to manage a _____________________.
A. three ring circus
B. three-ring-circus
C. three-ring circus
Answers: A – 12-year-old B – terribly cold C – three-ring circus

5. Fill in the blanks with the best compound adjective for the situation:
Melanie has everything she needs. She is _____________________.
A. two-faced
B. very badly behaved
C. well-cared for
Louis overcomes difficulties easily. He is _______________________.
A. short-tempered
B. level-headed
56
 C. internationally renowned
Mr. Chan likes to hear about new ideas. He is ______________________.
A. strong-minded
B. two faced
C. open-minded
Answers: A – well-cared for B – level-headed C – open-minded

6. Fill in the blanks with the best phrase for the situation:
Jesse was promoted, so he bought ________________________________.
A. himself-a brand new car
B. himself a brand-new-car
C. himself a brand-new car
The _______________________ has been going on for decades.
A. gun control debate
B. gun-control debate
C. gun-control-debate
The sound of ___________________________ always soothes my mind.
A. gently-flowing water
B. gently flowing water
C. gently-flowing-water
Answers: A – himself a brand-new car B – gun-control debate C – gently flowing water

7. From each group, choose the sentence containing the correct compound adjective:
A. Maria is old-fashioned. She can’t quite see the words on the blackboard.
B. Maria is near-sighted. She can’t quite see the words on the blackboard.
C. Maria is very shy. She can’t quite see the words on the backboard.

A. She wore an old-fashioned dress to the ball.

B. She wore a deeply-rooted dress to the ball.
C. She wore a seasonal dress to the ball.

A. He works for a Texas-based pharmaceutical company.

B. He works for a rapidly increasing pharmaceutical company.
C. He works for an American-style pharmaceutical company.
Answers:B – near-sighted A – old-fashioned C – Texas-based

8. Creating compound adjectives: From each group, choose the sentence pair that makes
the most sense.
A. I don’t like glue that dries slowly. = This is a quick-drying glue.
B. Did you know that some plants eat meat? = Did you know that there are meat-eating
plants?
C. Professor Brown has a very narrow mind. = Professor Brown’s mind is very narrow.

A. The price of the car was high. = It was a high-priced car.

B. The meal tasted good. = This was a tasteful-meal.
C. He likes to weigh in on political issues. = He is loud-mouthed and boring.

57
 A. The tapeworm measured 35 inches. = The tape-worm measured 35-inches.
B. The duck has flat feet. = That’s a flat-footed duck.
C. Why not try some carrot juice? = Have some carrot-juice.
Answers:B – meat-eating plants A – high-priced car B – flat-footed duck

9. Compound adjectives containing numbers: From each group, choose the sentence
containing the correct compound adjective.
A. The earthworms were at least three inches long.
B. He ate a 12-inch sandwich for lunch.
C. The sumo champion weighed 210-kilograms.

A. He drives a one-ton truck.

B. Our house has three-bedrooms and two-bathrooms.
C. There are nine-carrots in each bottle of juice.

A. My new chainsaw cost three-hundred dollars.

B. I got a 300-dollar chainsaw for two hundred dollars.
C. The best chainsaws cost more than three-hundred-dollars.
Answers:B – 12-inch sandwich A – one-ton truck B – 300-dollar chainsaw

10. Use the underlined phrase to make a compound adjective.

A. He suggested an innovative plan to save money.
B. Her brother had a sharp mind.
C. My cat died suddenly when it was ten years old.
Answers:
A. He suggested an innovative money-saving plan.
B. Her brother was sharp-minded.
C. My ten-year-old cat died suddenly.

58
DENOMINAL ADJECTIVES
What are denominal adjectives?
Denominal adjectives (sometimes called denominal adjectives) are adjectives derived from
nouns. For example:
 A mathematical puzzle. (a puzzle based on mathematics)
 A biological experiment. (an experiment in biology)
 A wooden boat. (a boat made of wood)

Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns. They commonly describe something in
terms of nationality, religious affiliation, or culture. Like proper nouns, proper adjectives
have their first letter capitalized. For example:
 I married a Russian woman.
 The Jewish community in NY is very large.

Adjectives of this type should be carefully distinguished from adjectives denoting

nationalities (nominal adjectives). For example:
 Denominal Adjective: The French people are noted for their wines.
 Nominal Adjective: The French are noted for their wines.
or:
 Denominal Adjective: The poor people are more vulnerable.
 Nominal Adjective: The poor are getting poorer.

Examples of denominal adjectives

 A mathematical puzzle.
 A biological experiment.
 A wooden boat.
 I married an American woman.
 The Jewish community in NY is very big.
 Mary has a collection of expensive Russian dolls.
 In the winter you must wear heavy woolen clothes.
 The polar bear is listed as threatened.

59
 DEGREE OF COMPARISON
DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES AND THEIR USE
There are three degrees of adjectives.
1. Positive Adjective 2. Comparative Adjective 3. Superlative Adjective
Some Examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Big Bigger Biggest
Great Greater Greatest
Short Shorter Shortest
Old Older Oldest
Large Larger Largest
Happy Happier Happiest
Lucky Luckier Luckiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Horrible More horrible Most horrible
Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Little Less Least
Many More Most

USE OF COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one thing in comparison to
another thing (one thing). It makes comparison between two things (only two things not
more than two).
Word “than” is mostly used after comparative adjective but sometimes other words “to”
may be used after comparative adjective. See the following examples.

Examples.
She is taller than Mary.
A cup is smaller than a glass.
He is junior to me.
Chinese is more difficult than English.
Paris is more beautiful than New York.

USE OF SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVE.

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one thing in comparison to
other things (many things). It makes comparison among things more than two. Superlative
is the highest degree of a thing in comparison to other things. A superlative adjective means
that a object is surpassing all others (things in comparison) in quality or characteristic. For
example, John is the most intelligent student in his class. It means John is surpassing all
other students in his class and no other student in his class is as intelligent as John.

60
Article “the” is used before superlative degree. “In” or “of” etc is used after the superlative
and modifying noun in sentence.
Examples.
Bills Gate is the richest person in world.
Brunel is the most beautiful hotel in England.
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in world.
She is the tallest girl in class.
Our generation is the most modern.
His house is the biggest in the street.
The winter is the coldest time of year.

61
THE COMPARATIVE AND THE SUPERLATIVE

COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES
Comparative adjectives are used to compare differences between the two objects they
modify (larger, smaller, faster, higher). They are used in sentences where two nouns are
compared, in this pattern:
Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object).
The second item of comparison can be omitted if it is clear from the context (final example
below).
Examples
My house is larger than hers.
This box is smaller than the one I lost.
Your dog runs faster than Jim's dog.
The rock flew higher than the roof.
Jim and Jack are both my friends, but I like Jack better. ("than Jim" is understood)

SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a
quality (the tallest, the smallest, the fastest, the highest). They are used in sentences where
a subject is compared to a group of objects.
Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object).
The group that is being compared with can be omitted if it is clear from the context (final
example below).
Examples
My house is the largest one in our neighborhood.
This is the smallest box I've ever seen.
Your dog ran the fastest of any dog in the race.
We all threw our rocks at the same time. My rock flew the highest. ("of all the rocks" is
understood)
Forming regular comparatives and superlatives
Forming comparatives and superlatives is easy. The form depends on the number of
syllables in the original adjective.

One syllable adjectives

Add -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative. If the adjective has a consonant +
single vowel + consonant spelling, the final consonant must be doubled before adding the
ending.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
tall taller tallest
fat fatter fattest
big bigger biggest
sad sadder saddest

Two syllables
Adjectives with two syllables can form the comparative either by adding -er or by
preceeding the adjective with more. These adjectives form the superlative either by adding -
62
est or by preceeding the adjective with most. In many cases, both forms are used, although
one usage will be more common than the other. If you are not sure whether a two-syllable
adjective can take a comparative or superlative ending, play it safe and use more and most
instead. For adjectives ending in y, change the y to an i before adding the ending.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
happy happier happiest
simple simpler simplest
busy busier busiest
tilted more tilted most tilted
tangled more tangled most tangled

Three or more syllables

Adjectives with three or more syllables form the comparative by putting more in front of the
adjective, and the superlative by putting most in front.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
important more important most important
expensive more expensive most expensive

Irregular comparatives and superlatives

These very common adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative
forms.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
much more most
far further / farther furthest / farthest

Examples
Today is the worst day I've had in a long time.
You play tennis better than I do.
This is the least expensive sweater in the store.
This sweater is less expensive than that one.
I ran pretty far yesterday, but I ran even farther today.

63
COMPARING ATTRIBUTES
When comparing the attributes of two things, we use a standard set of constructions.
When attributes are equal
Comparing equal attributes is simple. To compare the attributes of two things that are
equal, we use the pattern:
as + adjective describing the attribute + as
Examples
Tom is as tall as his brother.
I am as hungry as you are.
Sally is as nice as Jane.
When attributes are not equal
When the two attributes are not equal, there are three constructions with equivalent
meanings.
Either use the pattern:
not as + adjective describing the attribute + as
Or use the pattern:
less + adjective describing the attribute + than : This construction is more frequent with
some adjectives than with others.
Or use the pattern:
comparative adjective + than : This construction may require changing the order of the
phrase or using the opposing adjective.
Examples
Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest.
Mont Blanc is less high than Mount Everest.
Mont Blanc is lower than Mount Everest.
Mount Everest is higher than Mont Blanc.
Norway is not as sunny as Thailand.
Norway is less sunny than Thailand.
Thailand is sunnier than Norway.
Norway is cloudier than Thailand.

ADJECTIVES COMPARING EQUAL QUANTITIES

To compare two things that are equal, we use the pattern:
as + adjective indicating quantity + (noun) + as
The quantity adjective you use depends if the noun in the comparison is countable or
uncountable.

Countable nouns
Use as many and as few with countable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted when
it is understood from the context, as in the last example below.
Examples
They have as many children as we do.
We have as many customers as they do.
Tom has as few books as Jane.
There are as few houses in his village as in mine.
You know as many people as I do.
I have visited the States as many times as he has.
64
I have three brothers. That's as many as you have. ("brothers" is understood)

Uncountable nouns
Use as much or as little with uncountable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted
when it is understood from the context, as in the last example below.
Examples
John eats as much food as Peter.
Jim has as little patience as Sam.
You've heard as much news as I have.
He's had as much success as his brother has.
They've got as little water as we have.
I'm not hungry. I've had as much as I want. ("food" is understood)

ADJECTIVES COMPARING UNEQUAL QUANTITIES

To compare two things that are unequal, we use the pattern:
adjective indicating quantity + (noun) + than
The quantity adjective you use depends if the noun in the comparison is countable or
uncountable.

Countable nouns
Use more and fewer with countable nouns. Note that the noun may be ommitted when it is
understood from the context, as in the last example below.
Examples
They have more children than we do.
We have more customers than they do.
Tom has fewer books than Jane.
There are fewer houses in his village than in mine.
You know more people than I do.
I have visited the States more times than he has.
I have three brothers. That's more than you have. ("brothers" is understood)

Uncountable nouns
Use more or less with uncountable nouns. Note that the noun may be omitted when it is
understood from the context, as in the last example below.
Examples
John eats more food than Peter.
Jim has less patience than Sam.
You've heard more news than I have.
He's had more success than his brother has.
They've got less water than we have.
I'm not hungry at all. I've had more than I want. ("food" is understood)

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 ADJECTIVE ORDER
An adjective is a word that describes something (a noun) or someone (a person).

Adjectives sometimes appear after the verb To Be

He is short.
She is tall.
Adjectives sometimes appear before a noun.
Red car
Old hat

BUT… Sometimes you want to use more than one adjective to describe something (or
someone).
What happens if a hat is both old AND ugly?
Do we say… an ugly old hat OR an old ugly hat?
An ugly old hat is correct because a certain order for adjectives is expected
(Note, you may hear the other version old ugly hat, though it doesn't sound natural)
So what is the correct order of adjectives when we put them before a noun or the thing they
describe?

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES
Before the adjectives you will normally have the Determiner.
Determiner: The determiner tells us if the noun is singular or plural, definite or indefinite
a, an, the, my, your, four, those, some etc
And then we have the adjectives that refer to…
Opinion: Explains what we think about something. This is usually our opinion, attitude or
observations. These adjectives almost always come before all other adjectives.
beautiful, boring, stupid, delicious, useful, lovely, comfortable
Size: Tells us how big or small something is.
big, small, tall, huge, tiny
Shape / Weight / Length: Tells about the shape of something or how long or short it is. It
can also refer to the weight of someone or something.
round, square, circular, skinny, fat, heavy, straight, long, short,
Condition: Tells us the general condition or state of something
broken, cold, hot, wet, hungry, rich, easy, difficult, dirty
Age: Tells us how old someone or something is.
old, young, new, ancient, antique
Colour: The colour or approximate colour of something.
green, white, blue, reddish, purple
Pattern: The pattern or design of something.
striped, spotted, checked, flowery
Origin: Tells us where something is from.
American, British, Italian, eastern, Australian, Chilean
Material: What is the thing made of or constructed of?
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gold, wooden, silk, paper, synthetic, cotton, woollen
Purpose/Qualifier/Use: What is it for? These adjectives often end in –ing.
sleeping (bag), gardening (gloves), shopping (bag), wedding (dress)
If you look at the examples above, you can ask… what are the gloves used for? (gardening)
What is the bag used for? (shopping)
And after these we adjectives we have the…
Noun: The person or thing that is being described

Examples of the order of adjectives before a noun

Something to have in mind is that it does not sound natural using three or more adjectives
in the same sentence and it is very rare to hear four adjectives together before a noun.
 A big fat dog.
 An interesting old Indian rug.
 A striped silk shirt
 Some comfortable black sleeping bags
 Four small round wooden tables
 Those funny little old men

The other example:

It was made of a 1strange, 6green, 8metallic material.
It’s a 4long, 8narrow, 10plastic brush.
Panettone is a 4round, 7Italian, 9bread-like Christmas cake.
Here are some invented examples of longer adjective phrases. A noun phrase which
included all these types would be extremely rare.
She was a 1beautiful, 2tall, 3thin, 5young, 6black-haired, 7Scottish woman.
What an 1amazing, 2little, 5old, 7Chinese cup and saucer!

ADJECTIVES JOINED BY AND

When more than one adjective occurs after a verb such as be (a linking verb), the second
last adjective is normally connected to the last adjective by and:
Home was always a warm, welcoming place. Now it is sad, dark and cold.
And is less common when more than one adjective comes before the noun (e.g. a warm,
welcoming place). However, we can use and when there are two or more adjectives of the
same type, or when the adjectives refer to different parts of the same thing:
It was a blue and green cotton shirt.

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68
 ADJECTIVES ENDING IN ED AND ING

There are many adjectives that we have in English that end in -ED or -ING.
Yes, that's correct, they are not only endings that we use for verbs!
 An adjective that ends in -ING is used to describe: the characteristic of a person, a
thing or a situation.
 An adjective that ends in -ED is used to describe: a feeling (or how a person feels) or
an emotion. It is used to describe a temporary thing. Since only people (and some
animals) have feelings, -ed adjectives cannot be used to describe an object or
situation.

COMPARE THE DIFFERENCE:

 My girlfriend is bored. - (My girlfriend feels bored)
 My girlfriend is boring. - (My girlfriend is a boring person)

You can use these adjectives to describe people or situations but be careful that you are
using the correct adjective. For example, there is a big difference in meaning between:
 I am confused. - (I don't understand something)
 I am confusing. - (I will cause you to be confused)

Note that the sentences below are to highlight the difference between the two types of
adjectives. They are NOT common to do or say because they sound repetitive.
 I was shocked by how shocking the accident was last night.
 They were frightened by the frightening roller-coaster ride!
 I am annoyed by how annoying that person in front of us is.
 Sally was confused by the confusing street signs in the city.

Example sentences of adjectives ending in -ED and -ING

 This grammar lesson is boring. I am bored reading all about these grammar rules.
 I am tired right now. My flight was tiring (because it was a twelve-hour flight).
 Public toilets are usually disgusting. I am disgusted by the smell in some of them.
 Your speech was very inspiring. I am now inspired to do wonderful things with my
life.

-ED AND –ING ADJECTIVES

Adjectives that end ‘-ed’ (e.g. ‘bored’, ‘interested’) and adjectives that end ‘-ing’ (e.g.
‘boring’, ‘interesting’) are often confused.

-ed adjectives
Adjectives that end ‘-ed’ describe emotions – they tell us how people feel about something.
I was very bored in the maths lesson. I almost fell asleep.
He was surprised to see Helen. She’d told him she was going to Australia.
Feeling tired and depressed, he went to bed.

-ing adjectives

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Adjectives that end ‘-ing’ describe the thing that causes the emotion – a boring lesson
makes you feel bored.
Have you seen that film? It’s absolutely terrifying.
I could listen to him for hours. He’s one of the most interesting people I’ve ever met.
I can’t eat this! It’s disgusting! What is it?
Remember that people can be boring but only if they make other people feel bored.
He talks about the weather for hours. He’s so boring.
NOT I was very boring at the party so I went home.

EXAMPLE OF -ED / -ING ADJECTIVES

Many English adjectives of emotion/feeling are formed from the -ed / -ing forms of verbs:

POSITIVE
verb -ed -ing noun
You ____ me! I'm _____! How _____! What _____!
amaze amazed amazing amazement
amuse amused amusing amusement
astound astounded astounding astonishment
bewitch bewitched bewitching bewitchment
captivate captivated captivating a captivation
challenge challenged challenging a challenge
charm charmed charming charm
comfort comforted comforting comfort
concern concerned concerning concern
convince convinced convincing conviction
encourage encouraged encouraging encouragement
enchant enchanted enchanting enchantment
energize energized energizing energy
entertain entertained entertaining entertainment
enthrall enthralled enthralling enthrallment
excite excited exciting excitement
exhaust exhausted exhausting exhaustion
fascinate fascinated fascinating fascination
flatter flattered flattering flattery
fulfill fulfilled fulfilling fulfillment
gratify gratified gratifying gratification
gratify gratified gratifying gratification
humiliate humiliated humiliating humiliation
interest interested interesting interest
intrigue intrigued intriguing intrigue
move moved moving
please pleased pleasing (pleasant) a pleasure
relax relaxed relaxing relaxation
relieve relieved relieving a relief
satisfy satisfied satisfying satisfaction

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soothe soothed soothing
surprise surprised surprising a surprise
tempt tempted tempting temptation
touch touched touching
thrill thrilled thrilling a thrill
titilate titilated titilating titilation

NEGATIVE
verb -ed -ing noun
You ____ me! I'm _____! How _____! What _____!
aggravate aggravated aggravating aggravation
alarm alarmed alarming alarm
annoy annoyed annoying annoyance
bewilder bewildered bewildering bewilderment
bore bored boring boredom
confound confounded confounding
confuse confused confusing confusion
depress depressed depressing depression
devastate devastated devastating devastation
disappoint disappointed disappointing disappointment
discourage discouraged discouraging discouragement
disgust disgusted disgusting disgust
dishearten disheartened disheartening disheartenment
dismay dismayed dismaying dismay
displease displeased displeasing displeasure
distress distressed distressing distress
disturb disturbed disturbing disturbance
embarrass embarrassed embarrassing embarrassment
exasperate exasperated exasperating exasperation
fatigue fatigued fatiguing fatigue
frighten frightened frightening fright
frustrate frustrated frustrating frustration
horrify horrified horrifying horror
insult insulted insulting an insult
irritate irritated irritating irritation
mortify mortified mortifying mortification
mystify mystified mystifying mystification
overwhelm overwhelmed overwhelming overwhelmingness
perplex perplexed perplexing perplexity
perturb perturbed perturbing perturbation
puzzle puzzled puzzling puzzlement
shock shocked shocking a shock
sicken sickened sickening sickness
terrify terrified terrifying terror
threaten threatened threatening a threat
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tire tired tiring tiredness
trouble troubled troubling trouble
unnerve unnerved unnerving
unsettle unsettled unsettling unsettledness
upset upset upsetting
vex vexed (vext) vexing vexation

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 DETERMINER
English language has two articles, “the and a/an”. An article is used for a noun. An article
like an adjective modifies a noun. An article is used before a noun or an adjective modifying
a noun.
For example, a book, the book, a cup, the cup, an umbrella, the umbrella
The article “the” is called definite article and the article “a/an” is called indefinite article.

TYPES OF ARTICLES
There are two articles in English language.
1. Indefinite article: a/an
2. Definite article: the

 DEFINITE ARTICLE: (THE)

The definite article "the" is used for a definite, specific or particular noun.
Example. He bought the shirt.
The article “the” before the noun “shirt” in above sentence means that the shirt, he bought,
is a specific or particular shirt and not any shirt.

 INDEFINITE ARTICLE: (A/AN)

The definite article “a/an” is used for indefinite, non-specific or non-particular (common)
noun.
Example. He bought a shirt.
The article “a” before shirt in above sentence means that the shirt he bought is any shirt
and not a specific shirt.

RULES FOR USING INDEFINITE ARTICLE (A/AN)

The article form “a” is used before a word (singular) beginning with a consonant, or a vowel
with a consonant sound.
e.g. a book, a cat, a camera, a university, a European
The article form “an” is used before a word (singular) beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or
consonant with vowel sound (or beginning with mute h ).
e.g. an apple, an elephant, an umbrella, an hour,
1. Before a singular noun which is countable
e.g. He bought a book
She is eating an apple.
2. Before a singular noun which refers to a class of things.
e.g. An orange is rich in vitamins.
3. 3. Before a name of a profession
e.g. She wants to be a doctor
He is an engineer.
4. For certain expressions of quantity
e.g. a lot of, a few, a couple, a dozen
5. For certain numbers.

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 e.g. a hundred, a thousand, a million
6. Before a singular, countable noun in exclamation.
e.g. What a beautiful flower!
What a nice shirt!
7. Article a/an is not used before uncountable nouns
e.g. water, milk, sand etc

RULES FOR USING DEFINITE ARTICLE (THE)

The article “the” can be used both before a singular and plural noun according to the
following grammatical rules. e.g. the book, the books
1. Before the place, object or group of object which is unique or considered to be
unique and geographical region and points on globe.
a. e.g. the earth, the moon, the sky, the stars, the north pole, the equator
2. For a noun which becomes definite or particular because it is already mentioned
and is being mentioned a second time.
e.g. The teacher helped a student and the student became happy.
3. For a noun made specific or definite in a clause or a phrase.
e.g. The old lady, The girl with blue eyes, The boy that I saw, The nice red shirt
4. Before superlatives, and first, second,.. etc, and only
e.g. The best day, The only method, the second month,
5. Before a phrase composed of a proper and common noun
e.g. The New York city, The river Nile, The library of Congress
6. Before the names of organizations
e.g. The Association of Chartered Accountants, The World Health Organization
7. Before names of scientific principles, theories, laws etc. e.g. the Pythagorean
theorem, the laws of Newton, The Fahrenheit Scale. But no article will be used
for these names if written in forms like, Newton’s Law, Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressures, Hook’s Law of Elasticity
8. Article “the” is not used for names of universities if written in forms like Oxford
University, Yale University, Columbia University. But article “the” is used if names of
university are written in forms like The University of Oxford, The University of Yale,
The University of Toronto.
9. Article “the” is not used for names of countries of places. e.g. New York, America,
Mexico, Japan, London. Butarticle “the” is used for a name, if it expresses a group
of place, states, or land. e.g. The United States, The Philippines, The Netherlands

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 THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
The word "the" is one of the most common words in English. It is our only definite article. Nouns in
English are preceded by the definite article when the speaker believes that the listener already
knows what he is referring to. The speaker may believe this for many different reasons, some of
which are listed below.

GENERAL RULES WHEN TO USE "THE"

 Use the to refer to something which has already been mentioned.
On Monday, an unarmed man stole $1,000 from the bank. The thief hasn't been caught yet.
I was walking past Benny's Bakery when I decided to go into the bakery to get some bread.
There's a position available in my team. The job will involve some international travel.

 Use the when you assume there is just one of something in that place, even if it has not been
mentioned before.
We went on a walk in the forest yesterday.
Where is the bathroom?
Turn left and go to number 45. Our house is across from the Italian restaurant.
My father enjoyed the book you gave him.

 Use the in sentences or clauses where you define or identify a particular person or object.
The man who wrote this book is famous.
I scratched the red car parked outside.
I live in the small house with a blue door.
He is the doctor I came to see.

 Use the to refer to people or objects that are unique.

The sun rose at 6:17 this morning.
You can go anywhere in the world.
Clouds drifted across the sky.
The president will be speaking on TV tonight.
The CEO of Total is coming to our meeting.

 Use the before superlatives and ordinal numbers.

This is the highest building in New York.
She read the last chapter of her new book first.
You are the tallest person in our class.
This is the third time I have called you today.

 Use the with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people.

The French enjoy cheese.
The elderly require special attention.
She has given a lot of money to the poor.

 Use the with decades.

He was born in the seventies.
This is a painting from the 1820's.
 Use the with clauses introduced by only
This is the only day we've had sunshine all week.
You are the only person he will listen to.
The only tea I like is black tea.

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PROPER NOUNS
 Use the with names of geographical areas, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands, canals,
and oceans.
They are travelling in the Arctic.
Our ship crossed the Atlantic in 7 days.
I will go on a cruise down the Nile.
Hiking across the Rocky Mountains would be difficult.

 Use the with countries that have plural names

I have never been to the Netherlands.
Do you know anyone who lives in the Philippines?

 Use the with countries that include the words "republic", "kingdom", or "states" in their
names.
She is visiting the United States.
James is from the Republic of Ireland.

 Use the with newspaper names.

I read it in the Guardian.
She works for the New York Times.

 Use the with the names of famous buildings, works of art, museums, or monuments.
Have you been to the Vietnam Memorial?
We went to the Louvre and saw the Mona Lisa.
I would like to visit the Eiffel Tower.
I saw King Lear at the Globe.

 Use the with the names of hotels & restaurants, unless these are named after a person.
They are staying at the Hilton on 6th street.
We ate at the Golden Lion.

 Use the with the names of families, but not with the names of individuals.
We're having dinner with the Smiths tonight.
The Browns are going to the play with us.

WHEN NOT TO USE "THE"

 Do not use the with names of countries (except for the special cases above).
Germany is an important economic power.
He's just returned from Zimbabwe.
 Do not use the with the names of languages.
French is spoken in Tahiti.
English uses many words of Latin origin.
Indonesian is a relatively new language.

 Do not use the with the names of meals.

Lunch is my favorite meal.
I like to eat breakfast early.

 Do not use the with people's names.

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John is coming over later.
Mary Carpenter is my boss.

 Do not use the with titles when combined with names.

Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth's son.
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.

 Do not use the after the 's possessive case

His brother's car was stolen.
Peter's house is over there.

 Do not use the with professions

Engineering is a well-paid career.
He'll probably study medicine.

 Do not use the with names of shops

I'll get the card at Smith's.
Can you go to Boots for me?

 Do not use the with years

1948 was a wonderful year.
He was born in 1995.

 Do not use the with uncountable nouns

Rice is an important food in Asia.
Milk is often added to tea in England.
War is destructive.

 Do not use the with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands
Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in Alaska.
She lives near Lake Windermere.
Have you visited Long Island?

 Do not use the with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports
Victoria Station is in the centre of London.
Can you direct me to Bond Street?
She lives in Florence.
They're flying into Heathrow.

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 INDEFINITE ARTICLES
In English, the two indefinite articles are a and an. Like other articles, indefinite articles are
invariable. You use one or the other, depending on the first letter of the word following the
article, for pronunciation reasons. Use a when the next word starts with a consonant, or
before words starting in u and eu when they sound like you. Use an when the next word
starts with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u) or with a mute h.
Examples
 a boy
 an apple
 a car
 a helicopter
 an elephant
 a big elephant
 an itchy sweater
 an ugly duck
 a european
 a university
 a unit
 an hour
 an honor

78
The indefinite article is used to refer to something for the first time or to refer to a
particular member of a group or class. Some use cases and examples are given below.
 Use a to refer to something for the first time. Examples
Would you like a drink?
I've finally got a good job.
An elephant and a mouse fell in love.
Naming members of a group

 Use a with names of jobs.

Examples
John is a doctor.
Mary is training to be an engineer.
He wants to be a dancer.

 Use a with nationalities and religions in the singular.

Examples
John is an Englishman.
Kate is a Catholic.

 Use a with the names of days of the week when not referring to any particular day.
Examples
I was born on a Thursday.
Could I come over on a Saturday sometime?

 Use a to refer to an example of something.

Examples
The mouse had a tiny nose .
The elephant had a long trunk .
It was a very strange car .

 Use a with singular nouns after the words 'what' and 'such'.
Examples
What a shame !
She's such a beautiful girl .
What a lovely day !
 Use a meaning 'one', referring to a single object or person, or a single unit of
measure. In these sentences using "one" instead of the indefinite article is
grammatically correct. It will add emphasis to the number, and contrast with other
numbers. Examples
I'd like an orange and two lemons please.
I'd like one orange and two lemons please.
The burglar took a diamond necklace and some valuable paintings.
I can think of a hundred reasons not to come.
I need a kilogram of sugar.
I need one kilogram of sugar.
You can't run a mile in 5 minutes!

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 VERB
Verb is a word which shows action or state of something. A verb is one of the main parts of
a sentence or question in English. In fact, you can’t have a sentence or a question without a
verb! That’s how important these “action” parts of speech are.
The verb signals an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. Whether mental, physical, or
mechanical, verbs always express activity.
Examples. Write, run, eat, drink, catch, clean, speak, laugh, weep, are some verbs
He is writing a letter.
In the above example, the verb “write” tells us about the action (writing) of the subject (he).
A verb has its subject in sentence and verb tells us what its subject does, did or will do.

Verbs describe action or state. Most verbs describe action, such verbs are called “dynamic
verb”, for example write, eat, run, speak. Some verbs describe state of something, such
verbs are called “stative verb” and are not usually used in continuous tense for example be,
impress, please, surprise, belong to, consist of, resemble, seem
Examples.
He works in a factory(action)
I boughta computer. (action)
John seems happy. (state)
He resembles his brother (state)

Some verbs can be used as dynamic verb as well as stative verb. Example.
She looks very beautiful. (look as stative verb)
She looked at black board. (look as dynamic verb)

TYPE OF VERB
 PHYSICAL VERB
Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If you can create a
motion with your body or use a tool to complete an action, the word you use to describe it
is most likely a physical verb.
The physical verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
Let’s run to the corner and back.
I hear the train coming.
Call me when you’re finished with class.

 MENTAL VERBS
Mental verbs have meanings that are related to concepts such as discovering,
understanding, thinking, or planning. In general, a mental verb refers to a cognitive state.
The mental verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
I know the answer.
She recognized me from across the room.
Do you believe everything people tell you?
States of Being Verbs – Definition and Examples

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Also known as linking verbs, state of being verbs describe conditions or situations that exist.
State of being verbs are inactive since no action is being performed. These verbs are usually
complemented by adjectives.

 STATES OF BEING VERB

The state of being verbs in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
I am a student.
We are circus performers.
Please is quiet.

STATIVE VERBS
Stative verbs are verbs that express a state rather than an action. They usually relate to
thoughts, emotions, relationships, senses, states of being and measurements. These verbs
are not usually used with ing in progressive (continuous) tenses even though they may take
on time expressions such as now and at the moment. We use the simple tenses for them.
 Paul feels rotten today. He has a bad cold.
 Do you recognize him? He is a famous rock star.
 Our client appreciated all the work we did for him.

 Incorrect: I’m smelling your wife’s wonderful spaghetti sauce.

 Correct: I smell your wife’s wonderful spaghetti sauce.
However, there are some verbs that look like they should be stative, but may appear in the
ing form. These verbs differ in meaning to the stative verbs. Examples:
 SEE : I see Michael, but he can’t see me. I’m too far away. (I see him with my eyes.)
James is seeing Marsha. They’ve been together for a month. (He’s dating her.)
 HEAR : I hear music coming from the Smith’s apartment. Someone must be home
now. (To experience sound)
I’m hearing voices. (I’m imagining it)
 HAVE : Jeremy has a Mercedes. (He owns it.)
Sara is having lunch with her editor. (She’s eating lunch)

LIST OF STATIVE VERBS

Adore; agree; appear (seem); appreciate; be (exist); believe; belong to; concern; consist of;
contain; cost; deny; depend on; deserve; detest; disagree; dislike; doubt; equal; feel; hate
have (possession); hear; imagine; include; involve; know; lack; like; loathe; look (seem); love;
matter; mean; measure; mind; need; owe; own; possess; promise; realize; recognize;
remember; resemble; satisfy; see; seem; smell; sound; suppose; surprise; taste; think
(opinion); understand; want; weigh; wish

STATIVE VERB EXERCISES

1. Complete each sentence using the stative verb from the parenthesis:
2. Do you _________ the answer? (depend on, know, include)
3. Jim _________ dessert every day. (has, eats, possesses)
4. I _________ good about the race’s outcome. (am, were, feel)
5. She _________ her mother. (imagines, resembles, walks with)
6. Do you _________ they will win? (think, involve, promise)
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 7. They really _________ everything you did for them. (include, appreciate, dislike)
8. I think the teacher was _________ with my speech. (involved, measured, satisfied)
9. Can you _________ the coffee brewing? (feel, smell, dislike)
10. I still _________ a lot of money on my student loans. (deserve, owe, involve)
11. You _________ more shoes than anyone else I know! (dislike, suppose, have)

Answers: 1 – know, 2 – has, 3 – feel, 4 – resembles, 5 – think, 6 – appreciate, 7 – satisfied, 8

– smell, 9 – owe, 10 – have

ACTION VERBS
Action Verbs are verbs that express action. Ex: run, walk, do, drive.
I’ll do my homework when I get home.
Most action verbs are defined as transitive or intransitive. This means that some are used
with a direct object (the person or thing that receives the action of the subject) and others
don’t need a direct object. Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive depending on
their meaning.
Transitive Verb – Joe will send the price quote as soon as he can.
Intransitive Verb – Many of the students are not well. They coughed throughout the lesson.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

TRANSITIVE VERBS
Transitive verbs always receive a direct object:
Richard annoys his boss so much that he’ll never get a promotion.
(His boss is the direct object of annoys and a promotion is the direct object of get)
Jenna brings Mrs. Smith lunch every day.
(Mrs. Smith is the direct object of brings. Jenna is the subject.

Here’s a list of some common transitive verbs that must be followed by a direct object:
Bring; send; owe; contain; buy; show; take; tell; verify; check; get; wash; finalize; annoy; lay;
lend; offer; edit; make; phone

INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Intransitive verbs do not need a direct object in order to complete their meaning. Many are
followed by an adjective, adverb, preposition or verb complement (gerund or infinitive).
Here is a list of common intransitive verbs:
Come; explode; laugh; sit; rise; excel; respond; run; cough; swim; emigrate; smile; act; cry;
immigrate; lie; arrive; continue; die; go
If Cathy continues to be late for work, the boss will fire her.
(Continues is followed by an infinitive (to be), with no direct object.)
The bomb exploded in the city center.
(Exploded is followed by a preposition of place with no direct object.)

Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive depending on their meanings.
Examples
Jamie set the documents down on the CEO’s desk.

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(Transitive: The documents are the direct object to the verb: set.)
The sun set low over the Pacific Ocean.
Intransitive: Low is an adverb. Set doesn’t need a direct object.)
Ms. Tyson manages the accounting department.
(Transitive: The accounting department is the direct object to the verb: manage.)
John has had difficulty managing since his wife’s death.
(Intransitive: Since is a preposition of time. Managing doesn’t need a direct object)

Note: Transitive and intransitive verbs can appear in any tense.

Here is a list of several verbs that can be both transitive and intransitive depending on their
meanings:
Example: set; leave; give; study; sit; grow; smell; dance; sing; write; teach; burn; eat; ; paint;
drive; manage; stop; climb; run; check; cost; go; pay; improve

EXERCISES – TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Decide whether the following verbs are transitive, intransitive or both:
1. The workmen have been painting for hours.
2. When they call from the charity, Mrs. Alpert always gives generously.
3. Before you send the proposal, make sure you edit it carefully.
4. That perfume smells nice.
5. My new car cost me a small fortune.
6. Jim owed his landlord $450.
7. Pete emigrated from Australia in 1998.
8. The customer was tired of waiting, so he got up and left.
9. Are you sure you want to paint the ceiling too?
10. Please take the documents over to Mrs. Samuels’ office.

Answers:
1. Intransitive; 2) intransitive ; 3) transitive; 4) intransitive; 5) transitive; 6) transitive; 7)
intransitive; 8) intransitive; 9) transitive; 10) transitive

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 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
TRANSITIVE VERB
A verb which needs to have object in sentence is called transitive verb.
Transitive verbs should have an object in sentence because without subject it does not
covey complete meaning.
Example.
He bought ______.

There should be some object in this sentence for verb “buy”. Without an object the verb
“bought” does not give complete meaning. To make it more meaningful we use some object
for verb “bought” i.e book or computer or car.

He bought a book.
or
He bought a computer.
or
He bought a computer.

More examples:
John is eating a mango.
He has completedhis work.
I caught a bird in bushes.
She wrote a story.

Intransitive sentence.
A verb which does not need to have object in sentence is called intransitive.
Intransitive verb can give complete meaning with an object in sentence for it.
Example.
He slept.
She is laughing.
It has rained.
He is running.
They arrived.

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FORMS OF VERB ACCORDING TO TENSE OR TIME OF ACTION
Verb has three forms according to tense.
Base form 2. Past Simple 4. Past participle

For example, go—went—gone. “Go” is base form, “went” is past simple form, and “gone” is
past participle form. These three form may also be named as 1st form, 2nd form and 3rd
form of verb, which are denoted by V1, V2 and V3 respectively. “ing” is added to base form
verb to make present participle which can be used with auxiliary verb “to be” in continuous
tense, for example, go—going, eat—eating, laugh—laughing.

FORMATION OF PAST SIMPLE AND PAST PARTICIPLE

On the basis formation of past simple and past participle, verb is divided into
•Regular verbs
•Irregular verbs

REGULAR VERBS
Some verbs form their past simple and past participle form by adding “-ed” to their base
form, such verbs are called regular verbs, for example laugh—laughed—laughed, look—
looked—looked.
Some examples
Base form or Past participle or Present
Verb Past simple or V2
V1 V3 participle
To advise advise advised advised Advising
To allow allow allowed allowed Allowing
To enjoy enjoy enjoyed enjoyed Enjoying
To rain rain rained rained Raining
To smile smile smiled smiled Smiling

IRREGULAR VERBS
Some verbs form their past simple and participle in different ways for example, buy—
bought—bought, eat—ate—eaten, such verbs are called irregular verbs.

Past participle Present

Verb Base form or V1 Past simple or V2
or V3 participle
To know know knew known Knowing
To go go went gone Going
To drink drink drank drunk Drinking
To hold hold held held Holding
To write wriite wrote written Writing

Some verbs remain same in past simple and past participle.

Base form or Past participle Present

Verb Past simple or V2
V1 or V3 participle
To cut cut cut cut Cutting
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To shut shut shut shut Shutting
To spread spread spread spread Spreading
To put put put put Putting
To read read read read reading

MAIN VERBS AND AUXILIARY OR HELPING VERBS

A sentence can have both main verb and helping verb (auxiliary verb).
Main verb: A verb which has major meaning in terms of action are called main verb, i.e.
write, buy, eat etc.
Helping verb: A verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of sentence,
according a specific tense, is called helping verb or auxiliary verb, i.e. is, am, have, was, had,
is, will etc.

MAIN VERBS AND HELPING VERBS (AUXILLIARY)

A sentence can have both main verb and helping verb (auxiliary verb).
Main verb: A verb which has major meaning in terms of action are called main verb, i.e.
write, buy, eat etc.

Helping verb: A verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of sentence
(according to a specific tense) and give us information about the time of action expressed by
main verb, is called helping verb or auxiliary verb, i.e. is, am, have, was, had, is, will etc.

Main verb has real meaning and tells more about action while helping verb has no (or little)
meaning if it is alone but it adds time information about action if used with main verb to
specify the tense or time of the main verb. The examples below will help in better
understanding.

She is eating an apple. (“eat” is main verb while “is” is helping verb)
She was eating an apple. (“eat” is main verb while “was” is helping verb)

The main verbs in these sentences “eat” convey the information about the action which is
done on an apple, while the helping verbs in these sentences "is, and was" tells us the about
the time of action by referring to specific tense. In first sentence with helping verb "is"
action (eating an apple) is being done right now in the present time while in the second
sentence with hepling verb "was" action (eating an apple) was being done in past.

It means the MAIN VERB CONVEYS the meaning of action with a little information about its
time, but the HELPING VERB (also called auxilliary Verb) tell us more about the time of
action. Helping verbs and main verbs together make a structure of sentence of a specific
tense (action and its time)

USE OF HELPING VERBS

There are three primary helping verbs, be, do, and have, which are majorly used in tenses.

Be (am, is, are). Forms of “be” are used for continuous tenses.
Example. She is laughing. (Present Continuous tense)
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Have (have, has, had). Forms of “have” are used in perfect tense.

Example:
He has completed his work. (Present prefect tense)
He had bought a car. (Past perfect tense)
Do(do, does, did). Forms of “do” are used in indefinite(simple) tenses i.e. present simple
tense or past simple tense.
Example:
They do not play chess. (Present simple tense)
I did not see him. (Past simple)

MODAL VERBS (MODAL AUXILIARIES)

Modal verbs are used to express ideas such as ability, possibility, intention or necessity.
Examples.
Can, could (ability)
May might (possibility)
Will, shall, would (intention)
Should (necessity)
Must (necessity)
Ought to

Modal verbs can be used before main verb as helping verbs.

Examples
I can play violin.
It may rain today.
You must learn the test-taking strategies.
I will call you.

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88
 ADVERB
An adverb is a word that is used to change or qualify the meaning of an adjective, a verb, a
clause, another adverb, or any other type of word or phrase with the exception of
determiners and adjectives that directly modify nouns.
Traditionally considered to be a single part of speech, adverbs perform a wide variety of
functions, which makes it difficult to treat them as a single, unified category. Adverbs
normally carry out these functions by answering questions such as:
 When? She always arrives early.
 How? He drives carefully.
 Where? They go everywhere together.
 In what way? She eats slowly.
 To what extent? It is terribly hot.
This is called adverbial function and may be accomplished by adverbial clauses and adverbial
phrases as well as by adverbs that stand alone.

RULE FOR ADVERB

There are many rules for using adverbs, and these rules often depend upon which type of
adverb you are using. Remember these basics, and using adverbs to make sentences more
meaningful will be easier for you.
 Adverbs can always be used to modify verbs.
Notice that the second of these two sentences is much more interesting simply because
it contains an adverb:
The dog ran. (You can picture a dog running, but you don’t really know much more
about the scene.)
The dog ran excitedly. (You can picture a dog running, wagging its tail, panting happily,
and looking glad to see its owner. You can paint a much more interesting picture in your
head when you know how or why the dog is running.)
 Adverbs are often formed by adding the letters “-ly” to adjectives.
This makes is very easy to identify adverbs in sentences. There are many exceptions to
this rule; everywhere, nowhere, and upstairs are a few examples.
 An adverb can be used to modify an adjective and intensify the meaning it conveys.
For example:
He plays tennis well. (He knows how to play tennis and sometimes he wins.)
He plays tennis extremely well. (He knows how to play tennis so well that he wins often.)
As you read the following adverb examples, you’ll notice how these useful words modify
other words and phrases by providing information about the place, time, manner, certainty,
frequency, or other circumstances of activity denoted by the verbs or verb phrases in the
sentences.

EXAMPLES OF ADVERBS
As you read each of the following adverb examples, note that the adverbs have been
italicized for easy identification. Consider how replacing the existing adverbs with different
ones would change the meaning of each sentence.
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She was walking rapidly.
The kids love playing together in the sandbox.
Please come inside now.
His jokes are always very funny.
You don’t really care, do you?

Adverb is a word which modifies (gives more information about) a verb or adjective or other
adverb.For example:
He replied.
He replied quickly.
The word “quickly” is an adverb which gives more information about verb “reply” in the
above example. The adverb “quickly” in above example tells us about the verb “reply” that
the reply was given quickly or with no time delay.
Similarly an adverb may also modify adjective or other adverb or other part of speech
except the noun.

FUNCTION OF ADVERB
EXAMPLES (ADVERBS MODIFYING VERBS)
He was driving carelessly.
John can speak French fluently.
They live happily.
Marry is laughing loudly.
He goes to school daily.
We sometimes get confused.
He met me yesterday.
Guests will come here.

EXAMPLES (ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVES)

Note: The bold words (in following examples) are adverbs and the underlined words are
adjectives.
It is a very difficult problem.
He is seriously ill.
This book is really nice.
The story of “crazy man” was truly funny.
You are too weak to walk.

EXAMPLES (ADVERBS MODIFYING OTHER ADVERBS)

Note: The bold word (in following examples) is an adverb and underlined word is the other
adverb.
John drives very slowly.
He was talking too much angrily.
He ran fast enough to catch the bus.
They live very happily.

FORMATION OF ADVERB
Most of adverbs are formed by adding “-ly” to adjectives. For example, happily, easily,
quickly, angrily, correctly, fluently, proudly, loudly, rapidly, immediately etc
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A few adverbs exists without “-ly”. For example, fast, slow, deep, far, hard, high, wrong,
right, low, well, tight, straight, there, here, close, late, very, too, not

Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Time Adverbs of Frequency

Happily Here Now Sometimes
Sadly There Then Often
Easily Near Yesterday Usually
Rudely Somewhere Today Seldom
Loudly Outside Tomorrow Frequently
Fluently Inside Late Daily
Rapidly Ahead Early Generally
Angrily High Again Occasionally
Greedily Top Tonight Again and again
Wildly Bottom Soon Never

TYPES/KINDS OF ADVERB
Adverb modifies verb by giving us the following information.
 How the action occurs
 Where the action occurs
 How many times action occur
 At which time the action occurs
 Intensity of action
Adverbs are categorized on the basis of it information it gives, into the following categories.
Adverbs of manner
Adverb of place
Adverb of time
Adverb of frequency

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 TYPES OF ADVERB

ADVERBS OF MANNER
Adverbs of manner describe how something happens. For example, it is possible to walk or
run at different speeds. The words used to describe walking or running at different speeds
(quickly or slowly for example) are excellent examples of adverbs of manner. They help the
reader gain greater insight into the way a written scene is playing out. Comparing the
following sentences will help you to understand how these adverbs change the overall
meaning of the sentences they’re found in.
 The boys ran. (There is no adverb of manner in this sentence, so we can only imagine
how fast the boys are running.)
 The boys ran quickly. (The adverb of manner is quickly. It tells us that the boys are in
a hurry.)
 The boys were tired, so they ran more slowly than before. (The adverb of manner is
slowly.
It tells us that the boys are running, but they aren’t covering as much ground as they were
before.)

There are a few rules to remember regarding adverbs of manner:

 When using these adverbs, be careful not to place them between the object and the
verb. They often fit best after the sentence’s object or main verb.
 If there is a preposition before the object, the adverb of manner may be placed
either before the preposition or after the sentence’s object.
 Add emphasis by placing an adverb of manner before both the verb and object, and
when these adverbs are placed at the beginning of a sentence, they catch the
reader’s attention.
As you read the following examples of adverbs of manner, you will notice how the same
adverb can lend different meanings to sentences containing nearly the exact same set of
words.

Examples of Adverbs of Manner

The adverb of manner in each example has been italicized for easy identification.
 He quickly agreed to go to the store for milk. (His agreement was quick)
 He agreed to go to the store for milk quickly. (He would go to the store quickly)

 She quietly asked me to leave the room. (Her request was quiet)
 She asked me to leave the room quietly. (I am not going to make noise when I leave)

 The doctor woke the gently sleeping patient. (The patient was sleeping gently)
 The doctor gently woke the sleeping patient. (The doctor was gentle while waking
the patient)

These adverbs tell us that in which manner the action occurs or how the action occurs or
occurred or will occur. Examples.
She speaks loudly.
He was driving slowly.
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You replied correctly.
He runs fast.
They solved the problem easily.
Listen to me carefully.

ADVERBS OF MANNER LIST

The following list of adverbs of manner contains 125 single-word adverbs of manner; this is
just a sample, as adverbs of manner actually form the largest of all groups of adverbs.

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ADVERB OF PLACE
Adverbs that change or qualify the meaning of a sentence by telling us where things happen
are defined as adverbs of place. Some instructors refer to these words or phrases as spatial
adverbs. No matter what they are called, these adverbs always answer one important
question: Where?

These simple rules for adverbs of place will help you to use them the right way:
 An adverb of place always talks about the location where the action of the verb is
being carried out.
 Adverbs of place are normally placed after a sentence’s object or main verb.
 Adverbs of place can be directional. For example: Up, down, around, away, north,
southeast
 Adverbs of place can refer to distances. For example: Nearby, far away, miles apart
 An adverb of place can indicate an object’s position in relation to another object.
For example: Below, between, above, behind, through, around and so forth.
 Many adverbs of place indicate movement in a particular direction and end in the
letters “-ward or -wards”. For example: Toward, forward, backward, homeward,
westward, eastwards onwards

Examples of Adverbs of Place

Each sentence contains an example of an adverb of place; the examples are italicized for
easy identification. As you read these examples, you will notice that some of the adverbs of
place contain more than one word.
 Put the cake there.
 After a long day at work, we headed homewards.
 Please bring that book here.
 My grandfather’s house is nearby.

Adverb of place tells us about the place of action or where action occurs/occurred/will
occur. e.g. here, there, near, somewhere, outside, ahead, on the top, at some place.
Examples.
He will come here.
The children are playing outside.
He was standing near the wall.
They were flying kites on the top of hill.
He lives somewhere in New York.
She went upstairs.

ADVERBS OF PLACE LIST

As you read through the examples this adverbs of place list contains, think about how they
denote location or movement. With some consideration, you are likely to come up with
some additional terms on your own.
Abroad; Across; Ahead; Back; Backwards; Beyond; Down; Downwards; Eastwards;
Everywhere; Here; In; Indoors; Inside; Outside; Overseas; There; West; Yonder

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ADVERB OF TIME
An adverb of time is just what you might expect it to be – a word that describes when, for
how long, or how often a certain action happened. You will notice that many adverbs of
time are the same as adverbs of frequency. There is quite a bit of overlap between these
two types of adverbs – so much so that some instructors choose to mention one or the
other but not both.

These simple rules for adverbs of time will help you to use them the right way:
 Adverbs of time often work best when placed at the end of sentences.
For example: Robin Hood swindled the Sheriff of Nottingham yesterday.
I’m sick of living in chaos, so I’m going to clean my house tomorrow.
 You can change the position of an adverb of time to lend emphasis to a certain
aspect of a sentence. For example:
Later Robin Hood stole the king’s crown. (The time is the most important element
here.)
Robin Hood later stole the king’s crown. (This is a formal way to use the adverb later.
Notice how the statement sounds like it belongs in a police report.)
Robin Hood stole the king’s crown later. (This is a neutral, standard way to use the
adverb later.)
 Adverbs of time describing for how long an action occurred usually work best at the
end of a sentence. For example:
She stayed at her grandmother’s house all day.
My father was up with heartburn for hours.
 Adverbs of time that express an exact number of times the action happens usually
work best at the end of a sentence. For example:
 The newspaper arrives daily.
 They go out to dinner weekly.
 Our family goes on an outing monthly.
 When using more than one adverb of time in a sentence, use them in the following
order:
1. How long
2. How often
3. When
For example: She volunteered at the hospital (1) for three days (2) every month (3) last
year.

EXAMPLES OF ADVERBS OF TIME

Each sentence contains an example of an adverb of time; the examples are italicized for
easy identification.
 Are you coming to work tomorrow?
 I’d like to go to the movies later.
 Jim was so sick he spent four weeks in the hospital.

These adverbs tell us about the time of action. e.g. now, then, soon, tomorrow, yesterday,
today, tonight, again, early, yesterday.
Examples.

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I will buy a computer tomorrow.
The guest came yesterday.
Do it now.
She is still waiting for her brother.
He got up early in the morning.

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ADVERB OF FREQUENCY
Adverbs that change or qualify the meaning of a sentence by telling us how often or how
frequently something happens are defined as adverbs of frequency.
An adverb of frequency is exactly what it sounds like – an adverb of time. Adverbs of
frequency always describe how often something occurs, either in definite or indefinite
terms. An adverb that describes definite frequency is one such as weekly, daily, or yearly. An
adverb describing indefinite frequency doesn’t specify an exact time frame; examples are
sometimes, often, and rarely.

Adverbs of Frequency Rules

These simple rules for adverbs of frequency will help you to use them correctly:
 Always use adverbs of frequency to discuss how often something happens.
 Adverbs of frequency are often used to indicate routine or repeated activities, so
they are often used with the present simple tense.
 If a sentence has only one verb, place the adverb of frequency in the middle of the
sentence so that it is positioned after the subject but before the verb. For example:
Tom never flies. He always takes the bus.
 When a sentence contains more than one verb, place the adverb of frequency
before the main verb. For example: They have often visited Europe.
 When using an adverb of frequency in the negative or in forming a question, place it
before the main verb. For example: Do you usually get up so late?
Examples of Adverbs of Frequency
Each sentence contains an example of an adverb of frequency; the examples are italicized
for easy identification.
 The incubator turns each egg hourly.
 We take a vacation at least once annually.
 I usually shop for groceries on Saturday mornings.
 He is often late for work.
 We seldom see John.
 My dentist told me I should floss twice daily.

Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times the action occurs or occurred or will occur.
e.g. daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, frequently, always, ever, generally, rarely,
monthly, yearly. Examples.
He goes to school daily.
She never smokes.
He is always late for class.
They always come in time.
Barking dogs seldom bite.
The employees are paid monthly.
The employees are paid every month.

We use some adverbs to describe how frequently we do an activity.

These are called adverbs of frequency and include:
Frequency Adverb of Frequency Example Sentence
100% always I always go to bed before 11pm.

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90% usually I usually have cereal for breakfast.
80% normally / generally I normally go to the gym.
70% often* / frequently I often surf the internet.
50% sometimes I sometimes forget my wife's birthday.
30% occasionally I occasionally eat junk food.
10% seldom I seldom read the newspaper.
5% hardly ever / rarely I hardly ever drink alcohol.
0% never I never swim in the sea.
* Some people pronounce the 'T' in often but many others do not.

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ADVERB OF DEGREE
An adverb of degree is used to discuss the degree or intensity of an adjective, an action, or
another adverb. There are so many adverbs of degree that it’s impossible to list them all in
one short guide. Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity of something. Adverbs of
degree are usually placed before the adjective, adverb, or verb that they modify, although
there are some exceptions. The words "too", "enough", "very", and "extremely" are
examples of adverbs of degree.

ADVERB OF DEGREE MODIFYING EXAMPLE

extremely adjective The water was extremely cold.
quite adjective The movie is quite interesting.
just verb He was just leaving.
almost verb She has almost finished.
very adverb She is running very fast.
too adverb You are walking too slowly.
enough adverb You are running fast enough.

For other example: Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely,
very, extremely.

Adverbs of degree are usually placed:

 before the adjective or adverb they are modifying:
e.g. The water was extremely cold.
 before the main verb:
e.g. He was just leaving. She has almost finished.

EXAMPLES:
 She doesn't quite know what she'll do after university.
 They are completely exhausted from the trip.
 I am too tired to go out tonight.
 He hardly noticed what she was saying.

ENOUGH, VERY, TOO

 Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after adjectives and
adverbs.
Is your coffee hot enough? (adjective)
He didn't work hard enough. (adverb)
 It also goes before nouns, and means 'as much as is necessary'. In this case it is not
an adverb, but a 'determiner'.
We have enough bread.
They don't have enough food.
 Too as an adverb meaning 'more than is necessary or useful' goes before adjectives
and adverbs, e.g.
This coffee is too hot. (adjective)
He works too hard. (adverb)
 Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by 'for someone/something'.
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The dress was big enough for me.
She's not experienced enough for this job.
The coffee was too hot for me.
The dress was too small for her.
 We can also use 'to + infinitive' after enough and too with adjectives/adverb.
The coffee was too hot to drink.
He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.
She's not old enough to get married.
You're too young to have grandchildren!
 Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.
The girl was very beautiful. (adjective)
He worked very quickly. (adverb)
 If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can use a word of
opposite meaning, or not very.Examples
The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beautiful
He worked slowly OR He didn't work very quickly.

BE CAREFUL! There is a big difference between too and very.

Very expresses a fact:
He speaks very quickly.

Too suggests there is a problem:

He speaks too quickly (for me to understand).

OTHER ADVERBS LIKE VERY

These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are listed in order of strength,
from positive to negative:
extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather, not especially, not
particularly.

Note: rather can be positive or negative, depending on the adjective or adverb that follows:
Positive: The teacher was rather nice.
Negative: The film was rather disappointing.
Note on inversion with negative adverbs
Normally the subject goes before the verb:
SUBJECT VERB
I left
She goes

However, some negative adverbs can cause an inversion - the order is reversed and the verb
goes before the subject
Examples
 I have never seen such courage. Never have I seen such courage.
 She rarely left the house. Rarely did she leave the house.

Negative inversion is used in writing, not in speaking.

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Other adverbs and adverbial expressions that can be used like this:
seldom, scarcely, hardly, not only .....
but also, no sooner .....
than, not until, under no circumstances.

USAGE OF "ENOUGH"
Enough can be used as both an adverb and as a determiner.
 ENOUGH AS AN ADVERB
Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after the adjective or adverb
that it is modifying, and not before it as other adverbs do. It can be used both in positive
and negative sentences. Examples
Is your coffee hot enough?
his box isn't big enough.
He didn't work hard enough.
I got here early enough.

Enough is often followed by "to" + the infinitive.

He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.
Is your coffee hot enough to drink?
She's not old enough to get married.
I got here early enough to sign up.

Enough can also be followed by "for someone" or "for something".

The dress was big enough for me.
She's not experienced enough for this job.
Is the coffee hot enough for you?
He didn't work hard enough for a promotion.

 ENOUGH AS A DETERMINER
Enough as a determiner meaning 'as much/many as necessary' goes before the noun it
modifies. It is used with countable nouns in the plural and with uncountable nouns.
We have enough bread.
You have enough children.
They don't have enough food.
I don't have enough apples.

USAGE OF "TOO"
"Too" is always an adverb, but it has two distinct meanings, each with its own usage
patterns.
Too meaning "also"
Too as an adverb meaning "also" goes at the end of the phrase it modifies.
I would like to go swimming too, if you will let me come.
Can I go to the zoo too?
Is this gift for me too?
I'm not going to clean your room too!

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 Too meaning "excessively"
Too as an adverb meaning "excessively" goes before the adjective or adverb it modifies. It
can be used in both affirmative and negative sentences.
This coffee is too hot.
He works too hard.
Isn't she too young?
I am not too short!

Too is often followed by "to" + the infinitive.

The coffee was too hot to drink.
You're too young to have grandchildren!
I am not too tired to go out tonight.
Don't you work too hard to have any free time?

Too can also be followed by "for someone" or "for something".

Examples
The coffee was too hot for me.
The dress was too small for her.
He's not too old for this job.
Sally's not too slow for our team.

USAGE OF "VERY"
Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.
The girl was very beautiful.
The house is very expensive.
He worked very quickly.
She runs very fast.

If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can add "not" to the verb,
we can use an adjective or adverb of opposite meaning, or we can use "not very" with the
original adjective or adverb. The meanings of the phrases are not identical. Usually the
phrase using "not very" is less direct, and thus more polite, than the other phrases.

Examples
Original phrase Opposite meaning Opposite meaning Opposite meaning with
with "not" with "not very" an opposite word
The girl was The girl was not The girl was not very The girl was ugly.
beautiful. beautiful. beautiful.
He worked He did not work He did not work very He worked slowly.
quickly. quickly. quickly.

Difference in meaning between "very" and "too"

There is a big difference in meaning between "too" and "very". "Very" expresses a fact while
"too" suggests there is a problem. Examples
He speaks very quickly.
He speaks too quickly for me to understand.

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It is very hot outside.
It is too hot outside to go for a walk.

Other adverbs used like "very"

Some common adverbs are used in the same way as "very" to heighten the degree of
adjectives and adverbs.

Expressing very strong Expressing strong feelings Expressing somewhat

feelings doubtful feelings
extremely, terribly, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, fairly, not
amazingly, wonderfully, uncommonly, unusually, especially, not particularly
insanely remarkably, quite
The movie was amazingly The movie was particularly The movie was fairly
interesting. interesting. interesting.
She sang wonderfully well. She sang unusually well. She sang pretty well.
The lecture was terribly The lecture was quite boring. The lecture was rather
boring. boring.

INVERSION WITH NEGATIVE ADVERBS

Normally the subject goes before the verb, however, some negative adverbs can cause an
inversion when placed at the beginning of the clause. The order is reversed and the verb
goes before the subject. This inversion is only used in writing, not in speaking.

Adverb Normal word order Inversion

Never I have never seen such courage. Never have I seen such courage.
Rarely She rarely left the house. Rarely did she leave the house.
Not She did not only the cooking but the Not only did she do the cooking, but the
only cleaning as well. cleaning as well.
Scarcely I scarcely closed the door before he Scarcely did I close the door before he
started talking. started talking.
Seldom We seldom cross the river after Seldom do we cross the river sunset.
sunset.

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 FUNCTION OF ADVERB

 Adverb modifies other verbs(verbs are in bold/adverbs are in italics)

The thief acts stupidly. (answers the question:how?)
The thief never shoots, because he has no gun.(answers the question: when?)
The thief robs locally. (answers the question:where?)

 Adverb modifies other adjectives (adjectives are in bold/adverbs are in italics)

The thief is extremely stupid.
This very dumb thief is now in jail.

 Adverb modifies other adverbs (adverbs in italics)

The thief walks incredibly clumsily.
The thief acts really stupidly.

 Adverbs also have other functions. You may see them modify a prepositional
phrase:
The thief was arrested just outside the apartment.
You may find an adverb modifying an entire sentence:
Certainly,the thief chose the wrong profession.

Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, nouns, other adverbs and whole phrases or
sentences:
EXAMPLE FUNCTION
Sit quietly! modifying a verb (sit)
Claire was rather quiet. modifying an adjective (quiet)
That week seemed to go by modifying another adverb (slowly)
incredibly slowly.
It takes quite a lot of courage to modifying a noun phrase (a lot of courage)
jump from a plane.
I’m going for a run later so I don’t modifying the whole clause (I’m going for a run)
want to eat anything now.
Personally, I don’t like the plans. modifying the whole sentence (I don’t like the plans).
It gives the speaker’s attitude. We often use commas
with the adverb when it modifies the whole sentence.

COMMON ERRORS WITH ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES

People often mistakenly use adjectives when they should use an adverb and vice versa. For example,
a sentence that reads:
 He behaved very bad on the field trip.
Is incorrect, because bad is modifying or describing behaved, which is a verb. It should read
 He behaved very badly.
On the other hand, if you said:
 His behavior is bad.
That would be correct, because in this case, the word bad is an adjective describing the noun
behavior.

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GOOD AND WELL
Confusing adverbs and adjectives is a common error with the words good and well.
 Good is an adjective that should modify nouns (the good boy).
 Well is an adverb that modifies a verb (he listens well), or even an adjective (the well
educated boy).
To practice, identify the adverb in each of the following sentences.
 Jim will miss the many wonderful people at work.
 Joe walked slowly and steadily up the hill.
 Becky ate quickly and then felt sick.
 Joe is very late.
 Clark wanted to be the great big house.
Answers:
 Jim will miss the many wonderful people at work. Many is the adverb, which modifies the
adjective wonderful, which modifies the noun people.
 Joe walked slowly and steadily up the hill. Slowly and steadily are both adverbs here,
describing the way Joe walked.
 Becky ate quickly and then felt sick. Quickly is the adverb here, modifying the verb ate.
 Joe is very late. Very is an adverb modifying late which is an adjective modifying Joe.
 Clark wanted to be the great big house. Great is an adverb modifying big which is an
adjective modifying house.
Now that you know what an adverb is, you will be able to avoid making adjective/adverb mistakes,
and you’ll be able to properly describe all of your actions from here on out. Now, go and happily
brag to your friends all about your new knowledge.

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 THE POSITION OF THE ADVERB IN A SENTENCE
An adverb of frequency goes before a main verb (except with To Be).
Subject + adverb + main verb
I always remember to do my homework.
He normally gets good marks in exams.

An adverb of frequency goes after the verb To Be.

Subject + to be + adverb
They are never pleased to see me.
She isn't usually bad tempered.

When we use an auxiliary verb (have, will, must, might, could, would, can, etc.), the adverb
is placed between the auxiliary and the main verb. This is also true for to be.
Subject + auxiliary + adverb + main verb
She can sometimes beat me in a race.
I would hardly ever be unkind to someone.
They might never see each other again.
They could occasionally be heard laughing.

We can also use the following adverbs at the start of a sentence:

Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally
Occasionally, I like to eat Thai food.
BUT we cannot use the following at the beginning of a sentence:
Always, seldom, rarely, hardly, ever, never.

We use hardly ever and never with positive, not negative verbs:
She hardly ever comes to my parties.
They never say 'thank you'.
We use ever in questions and negative statements:
Have you ever been to New Zealand?
I haven't ever been to Switzerland. (The same as 'I have never been Switzerland').
We can also use the following expressions when we want to be more specific about the
frequency:
- every day - once a month - twice a year - four times a day - every other week

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 English Grammar Rules for ADVERB
Adverbs -LY
Adverbs are normally formed by adding -LY to the end of an adjective.
E.g. Quick - Quickly
For adjectives that end in -l or -e, we simply add -ly:
special + ly = specially
terminal + ly = terminally
literal + ly = literally
nice + ly = nicely
polite + ly = politely
There are of course some exceptions:
true truly
whole wholly
due duly
full fully

ADVERBS ENDING IN -Y
For adjectives that end in -y, we remove the -y and add -ily:
crazy crazily
happy happily

ADVERBS ENDING IN -LE

For adjectives that end in a consonant + le we remove the -e and add -y:
terrible terribly
horrible horribly
noble nobly
idle idly

ADVERBS ENDING IN -IC

If the adjective ends in -ic, we add -ally:
ironic ironically
enthusiastic enthusiastically
realistic realistically
Except: public - publicly

IRREGULAR ADVERBS
Some adverbs are irregular:
Adjective Adverb Example
fast fast The man drives very fast (quickly).
good well You speak English very well.

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Adverbs answer any of the following questions about verbs:
how? when? where? why?

The following examples illustrate adverbs modifying verbs:

How did he lift the barbell?

Easily is an adverb.

When will we use it?

Tomorrow functions as an adverb.

Where did she hide the key?

Nearby is an adverb.

Adverbs are the most moveable of all parts of speech; therefore, it is sometimes difficult to
identify an adverb on the basis of its position in a sentence.

For example, the adverb slowly will fit into three places in the sentence
He climbed the ladder:

Most adverbs end in -ly. In fact, most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives:

Like adjectives of more than one syllable, adverbs usually become comparative and superlative by using
more and most.

Flat adverbs

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Adjectives that do not change form (add -ly) to become adverbs are called "flat adverbs."
Typical flat adverbs are early, late, hard, fast, long, high, low, deep, near.
To determine whether these words are functioning as adjectives or adverbs, one must
determine
1) what the word is describing (noun or verb)
2) what question the word is answering
The following examples illustrate the distinction.

Early as adjective:

Early describes the noun train and answers the question "which one?"

Early as adverb:

Early describes the verb arrived and answers the question "when?"

Hard as adjective:

Hard describes the noun pass and answers the question "what kind?"

Hard as adverb:

Hard describes the verb threw and answers the question "how?"

ADVERB EXERCISE
1. The young student gladly followed the instructions of his teacher.
2. The lifeguard noticed that the little girl was almost in the water.
3. The ugly portrait had been frantically painted by a frantic student.
4. The very pale plant wasn't getting sunlight.
5. The basketball player rather easily scored the first three points of the game.
6. Ideally, the tourists will all make the choice to see Big Ben.
7. The teacher fulfilled her assignment admirably.
8. The young child hardly ever does what he is told.
9. Would you rather go to Scotland or to Ireland?
10. He fulfilled his assignment instinctively.
11. His younger sister sat at the hockey game, behind the glass, just off center ice.
12. The homely, little puppy quickly ate his doggy biscuit.
13. Although he failed his calculus test, he had really hoped for a better score.
14. The war hero is a never forgotten figure in the nation's history.
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15. The younger of the two brothers patiently waited for the arrival of the bus.
16. Now, here's the rest of the story.
17. Rather few men qualified for acceptance, based on their poor eyesight.
18. The dancer always gets good marks in competition.
19. Choosing not to pay the high tuition of Harvard University, the student elected to study
locally.
20. Adverbs are often misunderstood, while easily learned with minimal effort.

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 PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a
sentence. Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in
front of nouns. In some cases, you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs.

There are two very important rules to remember when using prepositions. Because they are
somewhat vague, learning about prepositions and using them correctly in sentences takes
practice. Because 1:1 translation is often impossible when dealing with propositions, even
the most advanced English students have some difficulty at first.
The first rule is that certain propositions must be used to make the relationships
between words in a sentence clear. Most prepositions are interchangeable but only to a
certain extent.
The second rule for using prepositions is that these words must be followed by nouns.

There are more than 100 prepositions in the English language. In addition, there are endless
possibilities for creating prepositional phrases. In the following sections, you will find
examples of prepositions, types of prepositions, a comprehensive list of prepositions, and
some helpful preposition exercises.
As you read the examples and study the list, remember that prepositions usually convey
concepts such as comparison, direction, place, purpose, source possession, and time.

EXAMPLES OF PREPOSITIONS
In the following sentences, examples of prepositions have been italicized. As you read,
consider how using different prepositions or even different types of prepositions in place of
the examples might change the relationship between the rest of the words in the sentence.
I prefer to read in the library.
He climbed up the ladder to get into the attic.
Please sign your name on the dotted line after you read the contract.
Go down the stairs and through the door.
He swam across the pool.
Take your brother with you.

Preposition is a word that shows relation between noun or pronoun and the other words in
sentence. e.g. in, on, at, to, with, under, above, into, by, of etc
Preposition is always used before a noun or pronoun and shows the relation of the noun or
pronoun to the other words in sentence. The following examples will help in better
understanding. Example.

SUBJECT + VERB PREPOSITION NOUN

The cat was sleeping on table
He lives in Paris
She looked at Stranger.
He will come in January.
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Wedding ceremony will be held on 20th December.
I was waiting for you
Someone is knocking at The door.
She came by bus.

Prepositions show many relations (for different nouns) in sentence. On the basis of relation
they show, preposition may be divided into following categories.
Preposition for time e.g. in, on, at, etc.
Preposition for place e.g. in, on, at, etc
Preposition for direction e.g. to, towards, into, through etc.
Preposition for agent e.g. by
Preposition for device, instrument or machines. e.g. on, by, with, etc.
Prepositions used after verbs to make prepositional verb (look at, look after, laugh at)

TYPES OF PREPOSITION
The types of preposition are as follows:
1. Preposition for Time
2. Preposition for Place
3. Preposition for Direction
4. Preposition for Agent
5. Preposition for Instrument
6. Prepositional Phrase

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 TYPES OF PREPOSITION

PREPOSITIONS FOR TIME

A preposition of time is a preposition that allows you to discuss a specific time period such
as a date on the calendar, one of the days of the week, or the actual time something takes
place. Prepositions of time are the same words as prepositions of place, however they are
used in a different way. You can easily distinguish these prepositions, as they always discuss
times rather than places.
 At – This preposition of time is used to discuss clock times, holidays and festivals,
and other very specific time frames including exceptions, such as “at night.”
 In – This preposition of time is used to discuss months, seasons, years, centuries,
general times of day, and longer periods of time such as “in the past.”
 On – This preposition of time is used to discuss certain days of the week or portions
of days of the week, specific dates, and special days such as “on New Year’s Day.”
Prepositions of time allow you to tell your readers when things are taking place. They are
vital parts of speech to use in stories, as well as when writing simple communications,
reports, and other items.

Examples of Prepositions of Time

There may only be three prepositions of time, but the ways in which you can use them are
almost endless. In the following examples, the prepositions of time have been italicized for
ease of identification.
 My birthday falls in January.
 Birds often migrate in spring and autumn.
 My great-grandmother was born in 1906.
 Breakfast is a meal which is generally eaten in the morning.
 My parents grew up in the 1960s.
 My vacation ends on Monday.
 We’re going bowling on Friday night.
 My brother John was born on September 3rd.
 We always have a huge celebration on New Year’s Eve.
 Meet me at 7:30.
 The town is always well-decorated at Christmastime.
 Now that my grandfather is older, he no longer drives at night.

Prepositions used for time of different natures are in, on at etc.

Preposition Time Nature
In 1. Month or Year.
e.g. in January, in 1985
2. Particular time of day or month or year
e.g. in morning, in evening, in first week of January, in summer, in winter
3. Century or specific time in past etc
e.g. in 21st century, in stone age, in past, in future, in present
On 1. Day
e.g. on Monday
2. Date

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 e.g. on 5th of March, March 5
3. Particular day
e.g. on Independence Day, on my birthday,
At 1. Time of clock
e.g. at 5 O’clock, at 7:30 PM
2. Short and precise time
e.g. at noon, at sunset, at lunch time, at bed time, at the moment, at the
same time

Examples: He was born in 1945.

She will go to New York on 25th of March.
The concert will begin at 7 O’clock.
He gets up early in the morning.
We enjoyed a lot in the summer.
The president will deliver speech to public on Independence Day.
She received a lot gifts on her birthday.
Where were you at the lunchtime?
I will call you at 12 A.M

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PREPOSITION FOR PLACE
A preposition of place is a preposition which is used to refer to a place where something or
someone is located. There are only three prepositions of place, however they can be used to
discuss an almost endless number of places.
At – A preposition of place which is used to discuss a certain point
In – A preposition of place which is used to discuss an enclosed space
On – A preposition of time which is used to discuss a surface

Prepositions of place allow you to be very specific when talking about where action takes
place in stories or when discussing important details for communication purposes.
Prepositions “in, on or at” are usually used for different places.
“In” is usually used for place which have some boundary (boundary may physical or virtual).
“On” is used for surface
“At” is used for specific place.

PREPOSITION PLACE NATURE

In Place having some boundary (physical or virtual boundary)
Examples. In hall; In school; In a building; In a box
In a car
In library
In garden
In America
In room
In cupboard
On Surface of something.
Examples.
On a table
On blackboard
On a page
On the wall
On the roof
On a map
At Specific Place.
Examples.
At the entrance
At the bottom of glass
At front of the chair
At bus stop
At the edge of roof

Examples:
She lives in New York.
Students study in library.
The wedding ceremony will be held in the hall.
There are some books on the table.
The teacher wrote a sentence on blackboard.
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He was flying kite on the roof.
Her parents were waiting for her at the entrance of school
There was a huge gathering at bus stop.
His house is at the end of street.

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PREPOSITION FOR DIRECTION (TO, TOWARD, THROUGH, INTO)
Prepositions like to, towards, through, into are used to describe the direction. Following
examples will help in better understanding.
Examples.
She went to the library.
He jumped into the river.
He ran away when he felt that someone was coming toward him.

Some examples are to, on, onto, in, and into.

It’s time to go to class.
Put on your gloves and shoes.
Make sure your books are in your backpack.
Push your way onto the crowded subway platform.
During the journey, get your mind into learning mode.

Using Onto and Into

These are old prepositions which are still in common usage. They are both used with verbs
that imply some sort of movement or progress.
The plane landed onto the runway.
To land is not a verb which necessarily requires movement; it’s referring to the moment
when the plane actually stops on the runway.
The plane landed on the runway.
The plane glided onto the runway.
Gliding most certainly implies motion, so we can use onto with it.
The caterpillar changed in a butterfly.
The caterpillar changed into a butterfly.

Into can usually be replaced by in.

Put the book in the box.
Put the book into the box.

It’s a little more difficult to replace onto with on; it sounds awkward.
We quickly moved the conversation onto a new subject.
We quickly moved the conversation on a new subject.

In English, it can be a little confusing to decide when to use in and when to use on.
I’m in the car; I’ll be home in a minute.
It’s logical to be in a car.
I’m on the bus; I’ll be home in a minute.
I’m on the train; I’ll be home in a minute.
I’m on the plane; I’ll be home in a few hours.
It’s not so logical to be on a bus or a train or a plane, yet that’s the way we say it. While you
are on the plane, i.e. inside the plane, there is also a logo on the plane, and two wings on the
plane, though they’re not inside with you. When in doubt, look up the proper term in a
dictionary.

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PREPOSITION FOR AGENT (INSTRUMENT)
Preposition for agent is used for a thing which is cause of another thing in the sentence.
Such prepositions are by, with etc. Following examples will help in better understanding. A
preposition for agent or instrument is used for a thing which is cause of another thing in the
sentence. Different prepositions are used by different devices, instruments or machines.
By with without
Examples.
This book is written by Shakespeare.
The work was completed by him.
The room was decorated by her.wordwew
The tub is filled with water.

Examples of some prepositions of Agent or Instrument:

-The Odyssey was written by Homer.
-The project was completed by him
-The room is being decorated by her.
-He was hit by a ball.
-This poem was written by Walt Whitman.
-That man opened the door with the key.
-You can’t play soccer without a ball.
-I can write better with my own pen.
-I'm going to England next week with my girlfriend.

OTHER EXAMPLE
1. The project was completed by Jacob.
2. The Odyssey was written by Homer.
3. The room is being decorated by Dora.
4. I can write better with my own pen.
5. I opened my closet with a key.
6. I'm going to Paris next week with my girlfriend.
7. This poem was written by Walt Whitman.
8. She is writing with her blue pen.
9. That man opened the door with the key.
10. He was hit by a bat.
11. You can’t play soccer without a ball.
12. This poem was written by Milton.
13. I travelled by myself.
14. She trembled with fear.
15. She was hit by a car.
16. Won't you come with me?
17. Ten years have gone by.
18. She screamed with terror.
19. Ken must be home by now.
20. He is by no means bright.
21. She graduated with honors.
22. She comes by bus daily.
23. He opened the lock with key.
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PREPOSITIONS OF PURPOSE: “TO” & “FOR”
We use prepositions of purpose to describe goals and feelings rather than things.
I am happy to see you.
She wants to learn English.
I am sorry for your loss.

How do we use prepositions of purpose?

To
Many verbs in the English language are followed by “to.”
INTEREST willing, refuse
DESIRE want, like, prefer, object
INTENTION plan, intend, prepare
OBLIGATION have, need
The construction: Subject + verb + “to” + verb phrase
Juliana is willing to work more hours.
Chenay plans to travel to France.
We have to go to bed now.

For
Some adjectives and verbs are followed by “for.”
FEELINGS happy, sad, sorry, excited
PURPOSE FOR ACTION look, pay, wait, cook
DESCRIPTION famous, popular

The construction: Subject + “to be” + adjective + “for” + phrase

We are excited for your show!
They aren’t sorry for what they did.
The construction: Subject + verb + “for” + noun/ noun phrase
I waited for you for five hours!
We looked for you at the mall.

ACTIVITY
I. Fill in the blanks with the correct preposition of purpose
We are so sad ______ see you go.
I want _____ thank you for everything.
I always cook ______ my wife so she doesn’t have to do it when she gets home.
We’ve prepared _______ this all our lives.
She has ______ wake up at 6am.

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ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY
Adverbs of certainty express how certain we feel about an action or event. Adverbs of
certainty go before the main verb unless the main verb is 'to be', in which case the adverb of
certainty goes after. certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely
Examples
He definitely left the house this morning.
He surely won't forget.
He is probably in the park.
He is certainly a smart man.

If there is an auxiliary verb, the adverb of certainty goes between the auxiliary and
the main verb. Examples
He has certainly forgotten the meeting.
He will probably remember tomorrow.
He is definitely running late.

Sometimes these adverbs of certainty can be placed at the beginning of the

sentence. Examples
Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a great politician.
Certainly, I will be there.
Probably, he has forgotten the meeting.

When the adverb of certainty surely is placed at the beginning of the sentence, it
means the speaker thinks something is true, but is looking for confirmation.
Examples
Surely you've got a bicycle.
Surely you're not going to wear that to the party.

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PREPOSITIONAL VERB
A prepositional phrase is a combination of a verb and a preposition. It is just a verb
followed by a preposition.

Prepositional Phrase = Verb + Preposition

Some verbs need particular prepositions to be used after them in sentences having a direct
object. Such a verb with its required preposition is called a prepositional phrase.
For example
He knocks at the door.

In above sentence “knock at” is prepositional phrase which contains a verb “knock” and a
preposition “at”. Without the use of correct preposition after a prepositional verb in a
sentence, the sentence is considered to be grammatically wrong. For example if we say, “he
knocks the door”, it is wrong because it lacks the required preposition “at”. So the correct
sentence is “he knocks at the door”.

Prepositional Verbs are transitive and they have a direct object in sentence. Some of the
frequently used preposition verb are, laugh at, knock at, listen to, look at, look for, look
after, wait for, agree to, agree with, talk about, talked to

Examples.
She is listening to music.
She looked at the blackboard.
We believe in God.
They were waiting for the teacher.
Do you agree with me?
Do you agree to my proposal?
Someone is knocking at the door.
You should not rely on her.

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 CONJUNCTION
Conjunctions are an integral part of the English language. If used properly, they can improve
almost any type of writing. From business writing to academic writing, conjunctions help
create better sentences. However, using them incorrectly or not using them at all results in
choppy and incoherent writing. This article will explain what conjunctions are and how to
use them properly.
Conjunctions explained
A conjunction is a part of speech that functions as a connector between two sentences,
clauses, phrases, or words. We often use conjunctions in speech without realizing it. In
writing, they can be effectively used in lieu of starting a new sentence. The proper use of
conjunctions allows for more natural flow and rhythm in your writing. The improper use of
conjunctions often results in writing that sounds choppy and disjointed.
Look at the following three sentences, for example: "I went to the store. They didn't have
apples. They also didn't have hot sauce." While technically not incorrect, these sentences
would sound much better as one sentence joined together by conjunctions. "I went to the
store, but they had neither apples nor hot sauce."
The previous sentence used two different types of conjunctions: coordinating and
correlative. Many people aren't even aware there are two types, but in an editor's world,
there are major differences between the two.
Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, clauses or sentences. e.g. and, but, or,
nor, for, yet, so, although, because, since, unless, when, while, where are some conjunctions.

Examples.
She tried but did not succeed.
He does not go to school because he is ill.
John and Marry went to the cinema.
He thought for a moment and kicked the ball.
I waited for him but he didn’t come.
You will be ill unless you quit smoking.
We didn’t go to the market because it was raining outside.

Single word Conjunction: Conjunction having one word

e.g. and, but, yet, because etc.
Compound Conjunction: Conjunction having two or more words
e.g. as long as, as far as, as well as, in order that, even if, so that etc

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 TYPES OF CONJUNCTION
There are three types of conjunctions:
 Coordinating Conjunction
 Subordinate Conjunction
 Correlative Conjunction

1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTION
Coordinating conjunction (called coordinators) joins words, phrases (which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure) or independent clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions are short words i.e. and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.
Coordination conjunction joins two equal parts of a sentence,
Word + word
Phrase + phrase
Clause + clause
Independent clause + independent clause.

Examples.
Word + word: She likes tea and coffee.
Phrase + phrase: He may be in the room or on the roof.
Clauses + clause: What you eat and what you drink affect your health.
Independent clause + independent clause: The cat jumped over the mouse and the
mouse ran away.
In the following examples, coordinating conjunctions join two words of same importance.

She likes pizza and cake. (pizza and cake)

I bought a table and a chair. (table and chair)
He may come by bus or car. (bus or car)

In the following examples, conjunction joins two independent clauses. Independent clause
is a clause which can stand alone as a sentence and have complete thought on its own.
I called him but he didn’t pick up the phone.
I advised him to quit smoking, but he didn’t act upon my advice.
He became ill, so he thought he should go to a doctor.
He shouted for help, but no body helped her.
He wants to become a doctor, so he is studying Biology.

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. A
comma is used with conjunction if the clauses are long or not well balanced.
If both clauses have same subjects, the subject of 2nd clause may not be written again. See
the following examples:
She worked hard and succeeded.
The player stopped and kicked the ball.
He became ill but didn’t go to doctor.
Marry opened the book and started to study.

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2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION
Subordinating conjunctions (called subordinators) join subordinate clause (dependent
clause) to main clause.
e.g. although, because, if, before, how, once, since, till, until, when, where, whether, while,
after, no matter how, provided that, as soon as, even if,
MAIN CLAUSE + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE

Subordinate clause is combination of words (subject and verb) which cannot stand alone as
a complete sentence. Subordinate clause is also called dependent clause because it is
dependent on main clause. Subordinate clause usually starts with relative pronoun (which,
who, that, whom etc). Subordinate clause gives more information in relation to main clause
to complete the thought.
Subordinating conjunction joins subordinate clause to main clause. Subordinating
conjunction always come before the subordinate clause, no matter the subordinate clause is
before main clause or after the main clause.

Examples.
He does not go to school because he is ill.
I will call you after I reach my home.
I bought some cookies while I was coming from my office.
They played football although it was raining.
Although it was raining, they played foot ball.
As far as I know, this exam is very difficult.
I have gone to every concert since I have lived in New York.
You can get high grades in exam provided that you work hard for it.

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3. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION
These are paired conjunctions which join words, phrases or clauses which have reciprocal or
complementary relationship.
The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are as follows
Either … or
Neither … nor
Whether … or
Both … and
Not only … but also

Examples:
Neither John nor Marry passed the exam.
Give me either a cup or a glass.
Both red and yellow are attractive colours.
I like neither tea nor coffee.
He will be either in the room or in the hall.
John can speak not only English but also French.

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CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB
Conjunctive adverbs are parts of speech that are used to connect one clause to another.
They are also used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships.
Like other adverbs, conjunctive adverbs may be moved around in the sentence or clause in
which they appear. This is just one of the things you’ll need to remember; additional rules
for using conjunctive adverbs follow:
1. Always use a period or semicolon before the conjunctive adverb when separating
two independent clauses. Conjunctive adverbs are not strong enough to join
independent clauses without supporting punctuation.
2. Use a comma if a conjunction such as and, but, or, or so appears between the
conjunctive adverb and the first clause.
3. Use a comma behind conjunctive adverbs when they appear at the beginning of a
sentence’s second clause. The only exception to this rule is that no comma is
necessary if the adverb is a single syllable.
4. If a conjunctive adverb appears in the middle of a clause, it should be enclosed in
commas most of the time. This is not an absolute rule and does not normally apply
to short clauses.

EXAMPLES OF CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

The conjunctive adverbs in the following examples are in bold for easy identification.
 Jeremy kept talking in class; therefore, he got in trouble.
 She went into the store; however, she didn’t find anything she wanted to buy.
 I like you a lot; in fact, I think we should be best friends.
 Your dog got into my yard; in addition, he dug up my petunias.
 You’re my friend; nonetheless, I feel like you’re taking advantage of me.
 My car payments are high; on the other hand, I really enjoy driving such a nice
vehicle.

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 CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating Correlative Conjunctions Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctions

Interjections Uses of "that"

Conjunction Practice
Relative Pronouns & Adjectives (yes, they belong here, too!)

Subordinating Conjunctions Back to Exercises

A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses. Conjunctions come in three
broad types: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating
conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions join single words or groups of words, but they
must always join similar elements: subject + subject, verb phrase + verb phrase, sentence +
sentence, etc. Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of the same kind but
with one difference: correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. Subordinating
conjunctions connect subordinate clauses to a main clause. These conjunctions are adverbs
used as conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions and correlative conjunctions are listed below. Since there is a
large group of subordinating conjunctions, only a few of the more common ones are listed.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

F A N B O Y S

for and nor but or yet so

To help remember the coordinating conjunctions, think of the word FANBOYS. Remember,
when using a conjunction to join two sentences, use a comma before the conjunction.
Notice that then and now are not coordinating conjunctions, so their functions in a
sentence---and any punctuation rules that may apply to them---is different.

CONJUNCTION SENTENCE SAMPLE JOINING

Linda was finally going to buy a new car, for she had
for sentence + sentence
won the lottery.

and Christopher sings and dances superbly. verb + verb

nor I didn't run, nor did I walk to the fire. I drove. sentence + sentence

Jon intended to go to the ball game, but his wife

but sentence + sentence
made him go to the opera instead.

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 direct object + direct
or Do you prefer blondes or brunettes?
object

Matthew wanted to stay home, yet he couldn't

yet sentence + sentence
resist going out.

Laura stubbed her toe, so she was limping for two

so sentence + sentence
days.

Commas and coordinating conjunctions:

1. Use a comma before the conjunctive when it is joining two independent clauses. An
independent (main) clause is one that can stand alone as a complete sentence.
 Marty had thought he had a date with Sarah, but Sarah went to the movies with
Jesse, instead. (Two independent clauses, each able to stand alone as a sentence.)
2. A comma is used before and in a series. Some people do not use that last comma (but CC
does), and it is becoming more acceptable to leave it out. Whichever you choose, be
consistent.
 I bought apples, oranges, and bananas.
3. A comma is used with but when expressing contrast:
 She thought she loved him, but she really didn't.
In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is),
coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma.

AND: ITS USES AND FUNCTIONS.

1. To show that one idea comes after another (chronological order):
Tony drove to the golf course and played nine holes before lunch. (He drove first, played
second.)
2. To show an opinion or comment about the first clause:
Mildred is eighty-seven and is very fragile now.
3. To show some surprise or a degree of amazement (yet is often used here; and may also
be used):
Andrew is handsome and is still single!
4. To show that one idea is the result of another:
Vicky saw the storm coming and ran to the basement.
5. To show that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (the first clause is
often an imperative): Stop pouting, and I'll give you some ice cream.
6. To show that one idea contrasts with another. But is often used; and is also used:
Mark is brave, and Alan is humorous.
Hortense exercises but is still clumsy.
7. To join or add words or similar ideas together.
They sang and danced the night away.

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ITS USES AND FUNCTIONS.
1. To show in a positive way what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way
(on the contrary is also used):
Mr. Lee seemed to waste time, but he completed all the work.
2. To take the place of with the exception of:
No one but Bert remembered to bring a notebook to class. (Everyone forgot to bring a
notebook, with the exception of Bert.)
3. To show join contrasting ideas:
Amanda never gets tough, but she still commands a lot of respect.

NOTE: Even though it is not formal usage to begin a sentence with and or but, writers have
been doing exactly that for centuries. A sentence beginning with and or but can help a
narrative flow smoothly, and can draw attention to the sentence. If you want to use one of
these words to start a sentence, first ask yourself: (1) Does the sentence not work as well
without using and or but at the beginning? (2) Is the sentence logically connected (in
thought) to the one before it? If both answers are "yes", go ahead and use it.

OR: ITS USES AND FUNCTIONS

1. To indicate a negative condition:
We didn't know if we should risk driving through the deep water, or get out and swim.
2. To further elaborate on the first clause:
English Mistakes Welcome is the best room on Paltalk, or so the regulars say.
3. To show choice or possibility:
You can eat dinner early, or you can wait until midnight to eat.
4. To show a negative alternative without using an imperative (also see uses of and):
Clyde must like to chat or he keep fighting with his bad connection to stay on- line.
5. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives:
We can take turns talking on the microphone, or we can just sit and look at each other.
6. To suggest a restatement or correction of the first part of the sentence:
Iowa is the best place in the world to live, or at least Annie tries to tell us that.

NOR: ITS USES AND FUNCTIONS.

Nor is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions, and is usually used together with
neither (Neither Bill nor Judd are interested in going sailing this Sunday.) Nor can also be
used alone:

Nor can be used with other negative expressions:

Gloria did not start the riot, nor did Lilly.
Neither Wilfred nor Stuart kept the promises they made.
YET: Its uses and functions.
Yet has two functions: 1) as an adverb 2) as a coordinating conjunction. It has several
meanings:
in addition (Yet another fine mess you got me in!)
even (yet less interesting. . .)
still (She is a beginner, yet.)
eventually (CC may yet get unpacked.)

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at this time (He's not here yet.)

As a coordinating conjunction, its meaning is similar to nevertheless or but.

Jackson sings beautifully, yet he prefers to listen to others.
Everyone complains about politics, yet no one does anything about it.
Anna sews much better than the tailor on First St., yet she's afraid to charge for her services.
You can combine yet with but or and in a sentence.
The tornado chaser was scared but yet calm as he drove closer to the center of the storm.

FOR: ITS USES AND FUNCTIONS

For is usually a preposition, but it can be used as a coordinating conjunction too. It sounds
very formal and stiff, so isn't used that much. The use of for strongly indicates a certain
order of events or thoughts, so be careful how you use it. A more informal choice instead of
using the word for would be because or since. The function of for is to introduce the reason
for the preceding clause:
 Nicole believed the best of everyone, for she was a truly good person.
 Everyone took a break and got a drink, for it had been a grueling class session.

SO: ITS USES AND FUNCTIONS

So is a little more confusing than the other conjunctions. Sometimes it can connect two
independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't.
Correct: Max is a bit shy, so he doesn't speak on the microphone very much.
So can also be as a weaker version of therefore. (That is, it can show that a second idea is
the result of the first idea. In that case, a comma before so is fine.)
Correct: "So, my proud beauty, I have you in my power," leered the evil villain.
In the previous example, so was put at the beginning of the sentence to show a transition or
summing up of a narrative. When it is used this way, a comma should follow so.
Incorrect: Sebastian is going to the wrestling match alone, so Abe and Libby are going too.
When so means as well or in addition, it is better to use a semicolon (;) between the
independent clauses, or use a period after the word alone and start a new sentence,
omitting the word so.

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 CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They join similar elements. When joining
singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is
singular or plural. Below are all the correlative conjunctions.

Conjunction Sentence Sample Joining

both. . .and Both red and white wines are good for cooking. subject + subject

either. . .or You can have either chicken or fish. noun + noun

neither. . .nor Neither Lionel nor Herbert can tap dance. subject + subject

Not only did Martin lose his wallet, but he also

not only. . .but also sentence + sentence
lost his keys.

Whether to stay or to go is a decision only you can

whether. . .or verb + verb
make.

Not a day goes by that I don't remember the fresh

not. . .but sentence + sentence
air, but I don't wish I were still in the mountains.

Just as. . .so too Just as you sow, so too shall you reap. sentence + sentence

Correlative conjunctions are sort of like tag-team conjunctions. They come in pairs, and you
have to use both of them in different places in a sentence to make them work. They get
their name from the fact that they work together (co-) and relate one sentence element to
another. Correlative conjunctions include pairs like “both/and,” “whether/or,” “either/or,”
“neither/nor,” “not/but” and “not only/but also.”

 I want either the cheesecake or the frozen hot chocolate.

 I’ll have both the cheesecake and the frozen hot chocolate.
 I didn’t know whether you’d want the cheesecake or the frozen hot chocolate, so I
got you both.
 Oh, you want neither the cheesecake nor the frozen hot chocolate? No problem.
 I’ll eat them both - not only the cheesecake but also the frozen hot chocolate.
 I see you’re in the mood not for dessert but appetizers. I’ll help you with those too.
 Here are some more pairs of correlative conjunctions:
 as/as - Bowling isn’t as fun as skeet shooting.
 such/that - Such was the nature of their relationship that they never would have
made it even if they’d wanted to.
 scarcely/when - I had scarcely walked in the door when I got the call and had to run
right back out again.
 as many/as - There are as many curtains as there are windows.
 no sooner/than - I’d no sooner lie to you than strangle a puppy.
 rather/than - She’d rather play the drums than sing.

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 SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
While coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great to use to join two things of equal
importance, subordinating conjunctions can show that one idea is more important than
another. The idea in the main clause is more important, while the idea in the subordinate
clause (made subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important.

The subordinate clause supplies a time, reason, condition, etc. for the main clause. It
modifies the independent clause in some way, or acts as a part of speech in relation to the
independent clause.

Subordinating conjunctions are placed at the front of the subordinate clause. This clause can
come either before or after the main clause. Subordinators are usually a single word, but
there are also a number of multi-word subordinators that function like single subordinating
conjunctions. Subordinators make the clause depend on the rest of the sentence in order to
make sense. You should put a comma at the end of an adverbial phrase when it precedes
the main clause.**

** NOTE: Usually, no comma is needed before a subordinating conjunction if the dependent

clause follows the independent clause. (Pay attention to the order of the clauses.)

Some subordinating conjunctions such as after, before, since are also prepositions, but when
they are used to introduce a clause, they make that clause subordinate to the independent
clause in the sentence. Below are the most common subordinating conjunctions. Some can
indicate more than one idea.

Indicates Indicates Indicates Indicates Indicates Indicates

Time Place Manner Reason Condition Concession

after where as if because if although

before wherever as though since unless though

even
since how so that until
though

when why in case (that) while

whenever in order that provided that whereas

while now that assuming that rather than

until as even if

as so only if; if only

once whether or not

as long as that

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EXAMPLE CONJUNCTIVE SHOWS:

Make hay while the sun shines. time

Because Barbie is from the South, she has a drawl. reason

If Taylor moves to New Zealand, he will have a better job. condition

Santa keeps a list, so you better be good! reason

Wherever he goes, she will follow. place

Vanessa never liked chocolate, although it smelled delicious. concession

Unless the taxes are lowered, there will be trouble. condition

Gertie wants to be an acrobat, as if her mother would let her! manner

He walked into the room as though he owned the place. manner

USING SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

In English, there are lots of subordinating conjunctions, but the most common ones, along
with a few examples of how subordinating conjunctions are used, are as follows:
after - “Your heart will break like mine, and you’ll want only me after you’ve gone” (Ella
Fitzgerald).
although - “Although I’ve been here before, he’s just too hard to ignore” (Amy Winehouse).
as - “As I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I take a look at my life and realize
there’s nothing left” (Coolio).
as long as - “I don’t care who you are, where you’re from or what you did as long as you
love me” (Backstreet Boys).
because - “I’m everything I am because you loved me” (Celine Dion).
before - “Just call me angel of the morning, angel. Just touch my cheek before you leave me,
baby” (Juice Newton).
even if - “Even if the sky is falling down, you’ll be my only” (Jay Sean).
if - “If you leave me now, you’ll take away the biggest part of me” (Peter Cetera/Chicago).
once - “Once you pop, you can’t stop” (Pringles commercials).
now that - “Baby, now that I’ve found you, I won’t let you go” (Tony Macaulay/John
MacLeod).
since - “I guess I’ll never be the same since I fell for you” (B.B. King).
though - “Walk on through the wind, walk on through the rain though your dreams be
tossed and blown” (Rodgers and Hammerstein).
unless - “We’re never going to survive unless we get a little crazy” (Seal).
until - “[You] don’t know what you’ve got ‘til it’s gone” (Cinderella).
when - “When I see you smile, I can face the world” (Bad English).
where - “There’s a light burning bright, showing me the way, but I know where I’ve been”
(Scott Wittman).
while - “I look at the world, and I notice it’s turning while my guitar gently weeps” (The
Beatles).

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CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
Conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result,
etc., are used to join two independent clauses (sentences). A conjunctive adverb is a word
(sometimes a phrase) that shows how such sentences, sections of a paragraph, or entire
paragraphs are related. They add a lot of emphasis, so don't be tempted to use them too
often. Be aware that some of them sound too formal for everyday conversational English.

1. A semicolon and a comma are used when a conjunctive adverb separates two main
clauses.
Natalie loved strawberries; however, they gave her a rash.
An alternative is to make two sentences: Natalie loved strawberries. They gave her a rash,
however.
NOTE: The conjunctive adverb is set off by a comma when it begins a sentence.

2. When conjunctive adverbs (transitions) are within an independent clause, they are set off
by commas.
Natalie ate strawberries, however, without a second thought.**
**NOTE: without a second thought isn't not a complete sentence, so a semicolon is not
needed. Just set off the conjunctive adverb with commas.

3. Conjunctive adverbs can be often moved around in the sentence with no loss of
meaning. This cannot be done with "true" conjunctions such as the coordinating
conjunctions.
Helena's car is making strange noises; therefore, she will take it to be serviced.
Helena's car is making strange noises, so she will therefore take it to be serviced.
Helena's car is making strange noises. She will therefore take it to be serviced.

4. When a conjunctive adverb is used as an introductory word (at the beginning of a

sentence), it needs a comma after it.
Naturally, Kyle has a cosmopolitan view on many topics.
Conjunctive Adverbs and the Relation They Indicate

To add to To compare To concede To contrast

again, also, and, also, in the same way, granted, naturally, although, and yet, at the
and then, likewise, similarly of course same time, but at the
besides, equally same time, despite that,
important, even so, even though, for
finally, first, To emphasize** To summarize all that, however, in

134
further, certainly, indeed, in fact, all in all, altogether, contrast, in spite of,
furthermore, in of course, to be sure, I as has been said, instead, nevertheless,
addition, in the hope, naturally, after all finally, in brief, in notwithstanding, on the
first place, last, in short, at least, conclusion, in other contrary, on the other
moreover, next, remarkably, in fact, words, in particular, hand, otherwise,
second, still, I think, it seems, in brief, in short, in simpler regardless, still, though,
too, in fact clearly, I suppose, terms, in summary, yet
assuredly, on the whole, that
definitely, without is, therefore, to put
doubt, for all that, it differently, to
on the whole, in any summarize
event, importantly,
certainly, naturally

To show a time sequence To conclude an To illustrate

argument

after, after a while, afterward, again, also, consequently, after all, as an

and then, as long as, at last, at length, at therefore, as a illustration, even, for
that time, before, besides, earlier, result, accordingly example, for instance, in
eventually, finally, formerly, further, conclusion, indeed, in
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, fact, in other words, in
in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, short, it is true, of course,
moreover, next, now, presently, second, namely, specifically, that
shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, is, to illustrate, thus, truly
still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too,
until, until now, when, later

**These words are also called expletives, and are closely related to conjunctive adverbs.
Expletives often show no other meaning than to emphasize the sentence to which they are
attached. Because of this, they do not really show a logical relationship like time or cause
between ideas, so they are not exactly conjunctive adverbs. They do, however, show that
the new idea is important because of what preceded it. That is why many references include
them with conjunctive adverbs.

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 INTERJECTION
Interjection can be defined as “An interjection or exclamation is a word used to express a
particular emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker (although most interjections
have clear definitions).”
Interjection is one of the parts of speech used to express a particular emotion or sentiment
(strong feeling or sudden emotion like surprise, joy, excitement, disgust, enthusiasm,
sorrow, approval, calling, attention, etc) of the speaker to the reader. Interjection words are
generally used at the beginning of a sentence. Sometimes, it is used as a single word or non-
sentence phrase and followed by the punctuation mark. Some other interjection words used
as introductory expressions such as yes, no, well, indeed, etc. A comma (for a mild
interjection) or an exclamation mark (for surprising, emotional, or deep feeling
interjections) is used after the use of an interjection word in a sentence.

LIST OF INTERJECTION
Aah, Ahh, Aww, Bingo, Eh, Eww, Wow, Hey, Well, What, Hurrah, Hmph, Oh, Oops, Ouch,
Shh, Uh oh, Whew, Yay/Yaay, Yeah, Yikes, Yippee, Uh, Hush, Hmm, Er, Um, Bravo, Hello,
Ugh, Ah, Ha ha, Well done, Alas, Fie, Hi, Yes, Ouch, Help, Happy Birthday, Good morning,
dear, Hark, oops, huh, yum, oy, etc.

For example:
Good! Now we can celebrate the party.
Oh, what's a surprise.
Hey! Get out of the building!
Yes! I can do it easily.
No! I run so long.
Well! I have a good news.

TYPES OF INTERJECTION
Interjection is divided into following types on the basis of way to express interjections in the
sentence such as greeting, joy, surprise, approval, sorrow, attention, and calling.

INTERJECTION FOR GREETING

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate the emotion of warmth to the
person meeting with such as hey, hello, hi, etc.
For example:
Hey! Nice to see you here in the party.
Hello! I am Pooja.

INTERJECTION FOR JOY

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate immediate joy and happiness on
any happy occasion occurred such as hurrah, wow, hurray, etc.
For example:
Wow! You are looking gorgeous.

136
Hurray! We successfully won this football match.

INTERJECTION FOR APPROVAL

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense of approval or
agreement for something that has happened such as well done, bravo, brilliant, etc.
For example:
Well done! You win the race.
Bravo! The first rank is yours this year.

INTERJECTION FOR ATTENTION

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to draw attention of someone such as look,
behold, listen, hush, etc.
For example:
Look! You so arrogant.
Listen! I have never copied you.
Behold! Someone strange is there.

INTERJECTION FOR SURPRISE

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense of surprise
about something that has happened such as ha, what, hey, ah, oh, eh, etc.
For example:
What! You failed.
Oh! Really you completed the task, I can't believe.
Ah! I got new job.

INTERJECTION FOR SORROW

This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the emotion of sadness about
something unfortunate has happened such as alas, ouch, ah, oh, etc.
For example:
Alas! He is no more.
Ouch! It's very paining.

http://www.teachingbanyan.com/learn-english/grammar/parts-of-speech/interjection/

Yes and No
Introductory expressions such as yes, no, indeed, and well are also classed as interjections.

Examples:
Indeed, this is not the first time the stand has collapsed.
Yes, I do intend to cover the bet.
I'm sure I don't know half the people who come to my house. Indeed, for all I hear, I
shouldn't like to. (Oscar Wilde)
Well, it's 1 a.m. Better go home and spend some quality time with the kids. (Homer
Simpson)
Phew!
Some interjections are sounds.
Examples:
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Phew! I am not trying that again.
Humph! I knew that last week.
Mmmm, my compliments to the chef.
Ah! Don't say you agree with me. When people agree with me, I always feel that I must be
wrong. (Oscar Wilde)

MILD INTERJECTION AND STRONG INTERJECTION

Mild Interjection (Punctuated with Comma)
Well - Of course - Such
Strong Interjection (Punctuated with Exclamation point)

Hurrah! Bravo! Hush!

Hello! Ugh! Ah!
Ha! ha! Oh! Well done!
Alas! Fie! Hi!
Ha! Yes! Ouch!
Help! Happy Birthday! Good morning!
Wow! Hush! Hark!

Examples:
Oh no! I forgot my password.
Shhh! Keep quiet in the library.
Oops! I have made such a silly mistake.
Wow! We are going to Switzerland next week.
Yes, I agree to what my parents say.
Well, the season has not changed a bit since last week.
Goodness Gracious! We won the match.
Really? Do you think her behavior is justified?
Oh dear! I don’t know what to do about this mess.
Congrats! You finally got your Master’s degree.

Examples of Interjections
Ahem Eww Oh dear! Whoa Heh!
Ahh Hmm Shoot! Yahoo Jeepers
Alas! Good grief! duh! Yeah Humph!
Hurrah! Jeez Bravo! Yoo-hoo Bingo
Congrats! Grrr! Oops Zing Cheers
Eh Ooh-la-la Phew Whoopee Hallelujah
Help! Wow! Ouch! Ha! ha! Bam!

RULES OF INTERJECTIONS
1. While using interjections, we must keep in mind some very simple rules. They are as
follows-

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2. We just add an interjection as an extra factor of strength to a sentence, without making
any grammatical changes. This is to ensure that the latter can stand grammatically
correct on its own, even if the added interjection is removed.
3. Interjections do not always have to be at the beginning of a sentence. They can appear
in the middle, at the end, or anyplace else where the subject wants to interject a feeling
and emotion.
4. In some cases, an interjection can be followed by a comma instead of the exclamation
mark. This usually happens when the emotion to be expressed by the interjection is
milder in nature.
5. In some cases, an interjection can be followed by a question mark instead of the
exclamation mark. This happens when the interjection is added to an interrogative
sentence which presents a question or expects a response.
6. Interjections can find their way into fictional or artistic writing, most often in the form of
dialogue

EXERCISE:
 Highlight the Interjections in the below mentioned sentences:
 Uh oh! The teacher’s caught him.
 Hey! I’m over here!”
 "Dear me! That's a surprise!"
 You liar! Get out of here right now.
 Alas! I’m lost in the wilds.
 Bah! That was a total waste of time.
 Humph, she probably cheated to make such good grades.
 Shoot! I forgot my brother’s birthday.
 Well, duh! That was a stupid thing to do!
 Jeepers, that was close.
 Yikes, the dog vomited profusely on the cat.
 Hush! The baby may wake up
 What! Has he invited you!
 Phew! I am not trying that again.
 Boo! I scared you.

Here are some examples of interjections and their definitions:

Ahem - The sound of someone clearing their throat and means “attention” or “listen”
Aah - This is used as a call for help or when someone is scared
Boo - Used to scare someone or to voice disapproval
Eh - This is used when you didn’t hear or understand what someone said
Eww - Ahows dislike or disgust
Hmm - This can mean you are thinking or hesitating
Jeez - Could mean you can’t believe something, or you are exasperated
Ooh-la-la - A slightly comical way to refer to something as fancy or special
Oops - An exclamation people use when they accidentally do something
Phew - This expresses relief or that you are glad something is over
Whoa - This can show surprise or amazement
Yahoo - Expresses joy or happiness
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Yeah - This shows a very strong affirmation or approval
Yoo-hoo - This is used to get someone’s attention and is usually used by women
Zing - This is similar to a rim shot used in comic acts and emphasizes a clever statement or
comeback

INTERJECTIONS IN A SENTENCE
Here are some interjections with an accompanying sentence:
Ahh, that feels wonderful.
Alas! I’m lost in the wilderness.
Bah! That was a total waste of time.
Bless you, I couldn’t have done it without you.
It’s time for me to go. Cheerio!
Congrats! You finally got your Master’s degree.
Crikey! Do you ever think before you speak?
Gesundheit! Are you starting to get a cold?
Good grief! Why are you wearing shorts in the winter?
Grrr! I’m going to get back at him for that.
Humph, he probably cheated to make such good grades.
Oh dear! I don’t know what to do about this mess.
Pip pip! Let’s get moving.
Shoot! I forgot my brother’s birthday.
Well, duh! That was a stupid thing to do!
Yowza! That is a beautiful ball gown.

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