11.

Composites

Lecture 17: An introduction to composite materials

Outline of lecture

1. Learning Outcomes

2. Why do we need to know?

3. Definition & classification of composite materials.

4. Performance of polymer matrix composites.

5. Structural composites.

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1. Learning outcomes
At the end of this lecture you should be able to.

• Describe what composites are and be able to give examples and applications.

• Explain how composites can be classified and be able to define what is meant by
the matrix, the reinforcement (dispersed phase) and the fibre volume fraction.

• Explain what is meant by the critical fibre length and be able determine this value.

• For continuous fibre, polymer matrix composites, be able to calculate the

composite modulus parallel to fibres and transverse to fibres, and describe
qualitatively how the tensile behaviour of a composite may be estimated from the
individual behaviour of the fibre and matrix phases.

You will be able to complete tutorial sheet 10.

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2. Why do we need to know?

Why don’t we just rely on metals, ceramics and polymers?

Because we want to find to best possible ‘material solution’

for any application.

composite survival cell

FW25

Courtesy of Brian O’Rourke,

WilliamsF1
front suspension components
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3. Definitions & classification of composites
• Definition: A composite may be defined as “a material formed by the
combination of two or more phases to achieve superior properties
than either constituent acting alone.”

• Note:
– There is usually a recognisable interface between the different phases.
– Usually significant proportions of each phase are present and the phases are combined
as individual entities, rather than forming in-situ.

• A composite consists of:

– The matrix (the continuous phase).
– The reinforcement (the dispersed phase).

• Functions:
– The matrix transfers the applied loads to, and protects, the reinforcement.
– The reinforcement may add strength, stiffness and/or toughness to the
composite.
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Classification of composite materials
• Composites may be classified according to the matrix or the form of the
reinforcement used.

• Using the classification according to the matrix, we have:

– Metal matrix composites (MMCs)
– Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
– Polymer matrix composites (PMCs)

• Using the classification according to reinforcement we have:

– Particulate reinforced composites (particles used to reinforce the matrix)
• Particles can be spherical or elongated or flakes (size scale mm or mm or nm)
– Fibre reinforced composites (fibres used to reinforce the matrix)
• Fibres can be short, intermediate or continuous.
– Structural composites (can use combination of above)
• May incorporate layers of composite, honeycomb and/or sheets of bulk material.

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Examples of particulate reinforced composites

Example: WC/Co (cemented carbide)

a cermet (ceramic-metal composite) Typical applications: cutting
tools and dies
matrix: particles:
cobalt WC
(ductile) (brittle,
Vm : hard)
10-15 vol%! 600 mm
(For 72% WC, 28% Co: E=480 GPa, UTS=2700 MPa, Hv=850 HV)

Example: Carbon particles in rubber Typical application:

automotive tyres

matrix:
rubber C
(compliant) (stiffer)
particles:
0.75 mm

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Overview of composite types

MMCs CMCs PMCs

Typical matrix Al, Al-Li alloys, Mg, SiC, SiN, Al2O3 Nylon, PP, epoxy,
materials Cu, Co, Ti, phenolic, polyester.
superalloys
Typical C, Al2O3, SiC, B, WC C, Al2O3 C, E-glass, B, Kevlar,
reinforcements UHMWPE.
Advantages cf PMCs: Higher Excellent resistance Easily processed,
modulus, toughness, to high temp and low density thus high
ductility and high corrosive specific props
temperature perf. environments
Disadvantages cf PMCs: Higher Expensive, more Poor high Temp
density, more brittle than MMCs resistance
difficult/expensive to
process
Typical applications Satellite and Jet and automotive Aircraft and car
aerospace engine components, structures, marine
structures, high T cutting tools and hulls, sporting goods.
engine components dies.

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4. Performance of PMCs
• We consider the performance of two fibre reinforced, polymer matrix composites.

• PMCs reinforced with short fibres + PMCs reinforced with continuous fibres

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 4.1 Critical fibre length
• Consider a discontinuous fibre embedded in a polymer matrix.

• The stress is transferred to the fibre via interfacial shear stresses. But will these
be sufficient to break the fibre, or will the fibre pull-out of the matrix?

• If the fibre doesn’t break, it hasn’t carried as much force as it could have done.

• We consider the forces and define a critical fibre length, xc, above which the fibre
will fracture, and below which the fibre will pull-out.
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• If the shear strength of the fibre-matrix interface is B, then for a fibre of diam D:

FS  D Bx (1)

• Integrating over the length x, from either end of the fibre to its centre:

FS  D B x (2)

• The force required to break the fibre is:

D 2
Ff   f (3)
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• The critical half fibre length, xc, at which Fs=Ff is (eqn 2 =eqn 3):

D 2
Dxc B   f
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• From which:

Df Df
xc  or l c  2 xc  (4)
4 B 2 B
• Typical values of lc :
• Carbon fibre in epoxy matrix: 0.2mm
• Glass fibre in polyester matrix: 0.5mm
• Glass fibre in polypropylene matrix: 1.8mm

• Provided the fibres are long enough, they will strengthen, stiffen and toughen the
matrix.

(Data from Composite Materials: Engineering & Science, Matthews & Rawlings, p301)
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4.2 Fibre volume fraction, Vf
• The stiffness and strength of a composite are a strong function of Vf.
– In theory, Vf can take values from 0% to 100%.
– In practice there must be some matrix between the fibres to bond them
together and the circular cross-section of the fibres leaves spaces.
– Thus the max Vf for fully aligned fibres is around 0.6 to 0.65.
– For short fibre composites, Vf is usually much lower.

If fibres are long and of constant diameter,

then the area fraction occupied by fibres is
equal to volume fraction:

i.e. Af=Vf
and if the matrix area and volume fractions
are Am and Vm respectively:

Af+Am=1 and Vf+Vm=1 (5)

Vf Af
thus: Vf   (6)
V f  Vm Af  A
m
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4.3 Composite stiffness (fibres parallel to applied stress)

total cross-  For tensile loading, fibres may
sectional be clustered together for analysis
area, A (fibres and matrix in parallel)

 

• If the fibre-matrix bonding does not yield, then the fibres and the matrix
experience the same strain (isostrain). Thus:

 f  m   (7)

• The total force is the sum of the forces in the fibres and the matrix:

 . A   f . AF   m . AM (8) AF  V f . A and AM  1  V f . A

Thus:  . A  V f . f . A  1  V f . m . A (9)

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• If the fibres and the matrix are both linearly elastic with Young’s modulus Ef and
Em respectively, then:
 f  E f . and  m  Em . (10)

• Then substituting into equation (9) gives:

 . A  V f .E f . . A  1  V f .Em . . A

• Dividing through by A and simplifying leads to:

  V f .E f  1  V f .Em .

• By definition, Ec=/ i.e.


Ec  V f .E f  1  V f .Em  (11)

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Composite modulus predicted by the rule of mixtures

Rule of mixtures:  
Ec  V f .E f  1  V f .Em

Ef
Modulus

Em

0 Fibre volume fraction, Vf 1.0

Note the Linear variation in Ec with increasing Vf

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Example:
• Calculate the composite modulus (parallel to the fibres) for a polyester
reinforced with E-glass fibres. The fibre volume fraction is 60%.

 
Ec  V f .E f  1  V f .Em Ef

Modulus
Em=E (polyester)=6.9 GPa

Ef=E (E-glass)=72.4 GPa Em

0 1.0
Vf=0.6 Fibre volume fraction, Vf

Ec= 0.6 x 72.4 GPa + (1-0.6) x 6.9 GPa

Ec= 46.2 GPa

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4.4 Composite stiffness (fibres perpendicular to applied stress)
 

Lm=l1+l3
l1
l2 Lf=l2
l3

  L=l1+l2+l3

Analysis is left as an exercise (to check your analysis see

Callister p. 591 for derivation).
This is the isostress case

Result is……
1 Vf
 
1V f  (12)
Ec E f Em

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Ec predicted by rule of mixtures

for parallel and perpendicularly aligned fibres

Ef

Fibres parallel
Modulus

to applied stress

Em Fibres perpendicular
to applied stress

0 Fibre volume fraction, Vf 1.0

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4.5 Stress-strain behaviour of composites

(a) Brittle fibre and ductile matrix (b) Predicted composite behaviour

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5 Structural composites

(b) Sandwich panels

(a) Laminates

Concorde
Westland ‘Lynx’
-rudder section
-helicopter blade
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