CARBON FIBRE COMPOSITES IN AEROSPACE

APPLICATIONS

NAME : NUR AINA AMIRAH BINTI MAT KAMARUDIN

MATRICS NO : 2019455092

CLASS : AS2401M2

LECTURER’S NAME : DR SUZANA BINTI RATIM

DATE OF SUBMISSION : 4 NOVEMBER 2019

INTRODUCTION
Carbon fibre composites have revolutionised the aviation industry since their inception into
aviation on the Boeing 737 in the mid 20th century. Demand for the lightweight material from
industry has grown significantly in recent years. The positive impact carbon fibre composite
materials have had in aviation has been significant, especially with fuel consumption and
emissions. Aviation companies such as Airbus and Boeing are at the forefront of carbon fibre
composite technology and its application into their fleet. The introduction of such relatively new
generation materials does bring its challenges, however, the opportunities of successful
integration are highly rewarding, both financially and environmentally.

The steady rise in carbon fibre composite technology and a capacity increase of the material has
resulted in a more cost efficient model for use in sectors such as aviation. From early beginnings
where only 3% of total material used for aircraft design was carbon fibre composite, to the
modern day Airbus A350 XWB that contains an impressive 53% of carbon fibre composite
material. The positive impact on sustainability that carbon fibre composite technology and its
increased use in aviation will have on society and the environment is promising.

The European Union ACARE targets for 2020 for CO2, NOx and noise reductions, the price of
oil and a global environmental attitude change are the key drivers to produce lightweight
structures, such as carbon fibre composites (Smith 2013).

From the initial discovery of high-performance carbon fibre by studying the triple point of
graphite, through technological evolution of manufacturing methods and processing, to disposal
and recyclability of the material, this paper will analyse and explore the relationship carbon fibre
composite has with aerospace and aviation, currently and into the future.

WHAT IS CARBON FIBRE

Carbon fibres used in high performance composites are a modern day, and technologically
advanced, engineering achievement. They are a light weight material that has unrivalled high
strength, stiffness and modulus, whilst being impressively fatigue and creep resistant (Kadla et
al. 2002; Huang 2009).
Carbon atoms bond together aligning parallel to the longitudinal axis, forming a carbon fibre, as
microscopic crystals. A thin strand of carbon fibre is approximately 0.005-0.010mm in diameter
and the degree of alignment of the crystals is the source of its extraordinary strength. A yarn is
formed by the twisting of thousands of carbon fibres that can then be woven into a fabric (Zoltek
2013). Carbon fibre contains a minimum of 92 wt% carbon where a graphite fibre would contain
a minimum of 99 wt% (Huang 2009; IUPAC 2003).

STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES

Graphite (graphene sheets that contain carbon atom layers) and carbon fibre share a similar
atomic structure and can be arranged in either a rhombohedral or hexagonal stacking
arrangement as shown in figure 1 (Huang 2009, p. 2371). Graphite is a three-dimensional
structure where crystalline order is observed, where graphene is considered a two-dimensional
structure (Huang 2009; IUPAC 2003).

Rhombohedral graphite is an allotrope of graphite and is considered thermodynamically

unstable. On heating rhombohedral graphite to temperatures in excess of 1600K, its structure
slowly transforms into the hexagonal modification. This particular allotrope is “best considered
an extended stacking fault of hexagonal graphite”, and is the result of hexagonal graphite shear
deformation (IUPAC 2003).

Figure 1: Graphitic crystal structure (Vectorply n.d.)

Carbon fibre layer planes can be either graphitic, turbostratic, or a hybrid structure, depending on
manufacturing processes. The interaction between sheets of graphene layers exhibit weak Van
der Waals forces, where the spacing between two layers is approximately 0.335 nm for a single
graphitic crystal (Huang 2009).

A turbostratic structure, which is the basic structure of many carbon fibres, consists of arbitrarily
stacked, parallel graphene sheets that may even be split or folded. The haphazard method of
developing a turbostratic structure may increase layer spacing as much as 0.344 nm, thus, further
decreasing the sum of the attraction forces between molecules, or the Van der Waals forces
(Huang 2009, p. 2371).

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES
Traditionally, the aerospace and aviation standard for manufacturing involved prepreg and
autoclave cure. Autoclave and prepreg is used to cure the material to ensure a high Vf (impact
velocity). Prepreg is simply the pre-impregnation of composite fibres with a resin, such as epoxy
(Gardiner 2011). Autoclave is a pressure chamber increases the temperature of boiling water a
further 20o C above the typical boiling temperature at sea level, and is used to optimise specific
strength (Lacovara 2013). With current industry demand, it will be necessary to eliminate
autoclave in order to increase production rate as the process is far too time consuming (Smith
2013).

In response to increasing supply, technological advancements have produce automated fibre

placement (AFP) and automated tape laying (ATL). Both AFP and ATL place strips of prepreg
into a mould by automation. AFP is a preferred method of manufacture over ATL for complex
designs due to its ability to lay narrow tows. The laying of tape via automation has potential to
cause a buckling due larger material profile, similar to a turbostratic structure, where the material
becomes weakened by increased layer spacing and a subsequent decrease in Van der Waals force
(Huang 2011; Smith 2013). Examples of AFP and ATL manufacture include fuselage panels on
the A350 and the B787 nose (Smith 2013).

Out-of-autoclave (OOA) processing is considered to be a more efficient and environmentally

greener approach to the manufacture of carbon fibre composites. It primarily uses vacuum-bag-
only (VBO) prepregs that provide a reduced void content (Locavara 2013). There are less
greenhouse gas emissions from OOA and reduced energy consumption (Brosius 2014).
OOA processing can significantly benefit the aerospace and aviation industry by investing in and
embracing greater cost-competitive methods. With sufficient investment, it is anticipated OAA
technology will reach technical readiness level (TRL) for commercial jet use within five to seven
years (Brosius 2014; Locovara 2013).

SUSTAINABILITY
To achieve high sustainability in the aviation industry the ability to recycle waste is critical.
Recycling airframe materials, in regards to carbon fibre composites, has a positive impact on the
natural resources required to introduce the new material, thus reducing oil and chemical use that
negatively impacts the environment. Identifying and investing in new technologies to develop
carbon fibre from a renewable energy point of view is only half of the solution to sustainability.
Using landfill, or incineration, for disposal of carbon fibre reinforce plastic (CFRP) is not an
appropriate long-term solution.

DEMAND FOR CARBON FIBRE

A market report into the rapidly growing carbon fibre industry is provided by Roberts (2011). In
the report, Roberts provides a forecast to 2020 and the estimated percentage of CFRP
consumption for the top four countries, see figure 7.

Roberts estimates the annual production of carbon fibre and CFRPs in 2020 will reach 140,000
tonnes, compared with production in 2011 of 46,000 tonnes, an increase of approximately 33%.
Figure 7: Carbon Fibre uses and global production (Roberts 2011)

Forecast sales of CFRPs are anticipated to reach $28.2 billion by 2015 and $48.7 billion by 2020.
Demand for carbon fibre materials in the defence and aerospace sector are estimated to increase
by 42% (7,696 tonnes to 18,462 tonnes) (Roberts 2011).
Huang (2009) provides a table with the global distribution of estimated carbon fibre consumption
(figure 8).

Figure 8: Industry usage (Huang 2009, p. 237)

CARBON FIBRE COMPOSITES IN COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT

Carbon fibre composites are making their way into modern day gas turbine engines. Typically,
due to the extreme temperatures of aircraft engines, carbon fibre has been reserved for aircraft
structures. Where the engine operating temperature is less than 1500 C, carbon fibre is a suitable
and appropriate material (ATSB 2008).

Due to the anisotropic nature of carbon fibres, varying the orientation of the layers simulates an
isotropic material. A quasi-isotropic stack is orientated in a specific sequence as displayed in
figure 11, maximising the capability of the high modulus material (FAA 2012).

Figure 11: Quasi-isotropic CF stack (FAA 2012)

Sandwich composites contain low-density core material covered by a face skin. A polymer
honeycomb core is one example of the low-density material used and is commonly found in
areas of aircraft where only light structural loading is present (FAA 2012; US DoD 2002)

Figure 12: Advanced composites in aircraft (Boeing 2008)

The shift to a greater percentage use of carbon fibre composite material directly translates to a
significant weight reduction of approximately 20% when compared to conventional aluminium
designs. An improvement in the fuel consumption is reported to be an impressive 20%. Research
conducted by Boeing indicates that composites are more efficient at managing tension than
compression loads, in areas such as the fuselage. Carbon fibre composite has replaced aluminium
in this section, as exhibited by the B787, resulting in significant maintenance reduction
requirements, both scheduled and non-routine (Boeing 2008).
The durability of carbon fibre composite in aviation has been tried and tested in previous models
of Boeing aircraft. The B777 replaced the traditional aluminium floor beams with carbon fibre
composite beams in more than 565 fleet aircraft. After 10 years in service, not a single floor
beam has needed replacement. Boeing also employs bonded composite repairs and overcome the
complexity of airworthiness certification of the repair process. Baker (2011, p. 337) states the
difficulty may be due to an “inability to detect non-destructively weak or non-durable adhesively
bonded structure”. Technological progress and time have clearly overcome this hurdle.

Another significant benefit to the use of carbon fibre composites for the B787 is the
unserviceability, ‘down time’, as a result of small damage to the engine cowlings. Repairing the
minor damage using a quick composite repair kit allows the aircraft to be repaired at the gate
within an hour, providing minimum passenger delay and emissions as a result of avoiding transit
to the hanger (Boeing 2008).

AIRBUS A350 XWB

When Airbus engineered the A350 XWB (extra wide body) they had a key goal in mind,
Shaping Efficiency. One of the principle objectives of this expression was to reduce fuel costs by
25%. Airbus aimed to achieve the reduction via eco-efficient design and reduction in CO2
emissions and fuel burn (FAST 2013, p. 5).
All models of the A350 XWB fleet, A350-800/900/1000, are designed with Carbon Fibre
reinforced plastic (CFRP) composite to 53% of the aircraft. The components of the aircraft
where CFRP is present include the skin panels, tail cone, wings, centre wing box and keel beam,
and the doors (figure 13).
Figure 13: CFRP Composite (FAST 2013)

Using lightweight, high modulus materials, such as CFRP, provides the ability to reduce fuel
consumption thus directly reducing emissions. Chady (2013) correctly states that the main
advantage of airlines such as Boeing and Airbus selecting carbon fibre reinforced plastic
composites is weight reduction.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Throughout the paper there exists suggestions for further development. Below are some
recommendations for consideration that may suggest an improvement to environmental impact
and sector sustainability are highly probable should they receive appropriate investment and
further academic/industry professional resources.
1. Further research into expanding the development of bio-refineries to produce lignin as the
primary precursor for CFRP materials would contribute to both the sustainability of aerospace,
aviation, and the environment. As the global attitude shifts to eco-friendly industries,
governmental initiatives and subsidisation would benefit launching the technology to the next
level.

2. Current applications for recycled carbon fibre are very limited. To ensure the longevity and
investment into recycling carbon fibre composite waste, a wider application of use is critical.
Further research and development into the current use of recyclables from carbon fibre would
prove environmentally and financially lucrative.

3. Volumetrically, the current rate of production of recycled carbon fibre waste is less than
supply. To cease old technologies of disposal, land fill and incineration, greater capacity to
process waste is required. This may be achieved by increasing current recycling plant capacity to
process waste or to replicate and multiply current technologies.

4. Implementation of structural health monitoring systems into carbon fibre composites will
provide a highly efficient means of detecting fractures, provide timely repairs, and reduce
lengthy maintenance imposts. SHM technology will also have the ability to impact the longevity
of the composite material, thus reducing natural resource impact and energy investment into
premature recycling of the material.

CONCLUSION
Society has benefited from the introduction of carbon fibre reinforced plastic composite
materials. Holistically, the ability of the aviation industry to engineer the light weight material
into its fleet thus reducing fuel consumption, emissions, noise and natural resources has been a
tremendous achievement. The reported reduction in fuel burn from both Airbus and Boeing are
significant reductions and it is only when quantitative assessments are conducted that we clearly
see how grand the impact is on the environment.

CFRP composites will continue to be of high value to the aviation industry as they provide
structural strength at a light weight that is unmatched by metallic alloys. One of the key
objectives of airlines selecting CFRP is the weight reduction advantage. As MRO schedules
mature with the new materials, greater efficiency will translate to longevity of the material.
Demand for carbon fibre is increasing, globally, and is not only contained within the aviation
sector. Such high demand gives concern for eco-friendly manufacturing and improved recycling
processes. Lignin development is currently the key to future production of carbon fibre from an
environmentally sustainable position. Greater investment and research is paramount to maximise
this technology for the future.

There are several challenges that face carbon fibre composites for the future, and opportunities.
Overall, the benefits of further integration and development of the technology far outweigh the
negatives. With the environment as one of the key benefactors of carbon fibre composite
technology, society and industry cannot afford to take a back step.