A

acid number

adhesion tension

adsorption

alkaline flooding

alkaline-surfactant-
polymer flooding

API gravity

areal displacement
efficiency

areal sweep
efficiency

ASP flooding
 asphaltene onset
concentration

asphaltene onset
pressure

asphaltene
precipitation

asphaltenes

backward multiple-
contact test

batch treatment

bimetallic corrosion

Bond number

breakthrough

brownfield
 bubble point

capillary number

cathodic protection

chemical flooding

chemical injection

chemical potential
 clay swelling

CO2 injection

Coating

coating flaw

COFCAW

coke

cold heavy oil

production with
sand

compatibility
 condensate

OJO condensing
drive

constant
composition
expansion

contact angle

coreflooding
 corrosion

corrosion control

corrosion fatigue

corrosion inhibitor

corrotion rate

cosolvent

cosurfactant
critical matrix

crosswell or
interwell
tomography

damage

detergency

dew point

dewpoint

diffusion

disbonding
 dispersion

displacement
efficiency

displacement or
flood front

drainage

dry combustion

dry forward
combustion

dynamic miscibility

electrical double
layer

electrical resistance
probe

electromagnetic
heating
 emulsion

enhanced oil
recovery

EOR

Eötvös number

equation of state

erosion corrosion
erosion-corrosion

estimated ultimate
recovery

ferrous sulfide

fingering

fire flooding

fireflooding

first-contact
miscibility

five spot

five-spot

flood or
displacement front
flooding pattern

flue gas

fluoboric acid

foam flooding

foaming agent

formation damage
or damage

formic acid
forward multiple-
contact test

fracture acidizing

galvanic anodes

gas cap drive

gas-cap drive

gravity drainage

gravity override

gravity-stable
displacement
H

HCL

heavy oil

high-pressure air
injection
 hot waterflooding

huff and puff

hydrofluoric acid

hydrogen blistering

hydrogen
embrittlement

hydrogen induced
failures

hydrogen probe

hydrophile-lipophile
balance number

hydrophilic

hydrophobic
I
 imbibition

immiscible

impressed current
anodes

improved oil
recovery

in situ combustion

induced particle
plugging

infill drilling

injection or flood
pattern
in-situ combustion

interfacial tension

interwell or croswell
tomography

inverted five spot

inverted five-spot

iron-oxidizing
bacteria

line drive

lipophilic

liquid blocking

low-salinity
waterflooding
M

micellar polymer
flooding
 micellar-polymer
flooding

micelle

microbial enhanced
oil recovery

microemulsion

mils per year

penetration

minimum miscibility
concentration

minimum miscibility
enrichment

minimum miscibility
pressure

miscible
 miscible
displacement

mixed deposits

MMC: Minimum
Miscibility
Concentration or
MME: minimum
miscibility
enrichment

MME

mobility

mobility buffer

mobility control

mobility ratio

mpy

multiple-contact
miscibility

nitrogen injection
 O

off pattern well

off-pattern well

oil bank

oil mining

oil swelling

oil wet

oil-wet

organic acid

organic deposit

paraffin control
paraffin inhibitor

partitioning

pendant-drop
tensiometer

pitting

polyacrylamide

polymer flooding

polysaccharide

precipitate
 preflush

pressure-
composition
diagram

primary production

primary recovery or
primary production

PVT
R

recovery factor

reducing agent
 reservoir drive
mechanisms

reservoir
heterogeneities

reservoir-drive
mechanisms

residual oil

retort test

reverse combustion

ringworm corrosion

rising-bubble
apparatus

S
 sandstone
petrography

SCAL

scale

scale

scale inhibitor
squeeze

scale removal

scale-inhibitor
squeeze

scraper trap

screening
secondary recovery

sensitivity

sequestering agent

slime forming
bacteria

slime-forming
bacteria

slim-tube test

sludge

soak phase

solubility
solution gasdrive

sour corrosion

spinning-drop
tensiometer

standard batch

steam

steam chamber

steam flood

steam oil ratio

steam soak
 steam trap

steam-assisted
gravity drainage

steamflood

steam-oil ratio

stimulation

stock-tank oil
initially in place
(STOIIP)
stock-tank original
oil in place
(STOOIP)

surfactant

surfactant flooding

surfactant-
alternating gas
(SAG)
ysweep efficiency
or volumetric
sweep effiency

sweet corrosion

TEOR (THERMAL
ENHANCED OIL
RECOVERY) OR
THERMAL
RECOVERY

ternary diagram

tertiary recovery

thermal recovery

thermal simulation

tie line

toe to heel air

injection (THAI)
 trapped oil or
residual oil

tubing
displacement

ultralow interfacial
tension

vapor extraction
(VAPEX)

vaporizing drive

vertical
displacement
efficiency

vertical sweep
efficiency

viscous fingering or
fingering

viscous force

viscous oil or heavy

oil
 volumetric
displacement
efficiency or
volumetric sweep
effiency

volumetric sweep
efficiency or sweep
efficiency

WAG (water
alterning gas)

water alternating
gas or water-
alternating gas

water drive or
water-drive

water flood or
waterflood or
waterflooding

water wet or water-

wet

waterflood kick

well stimulation

wet combustion
wettability

wettability change

Winsor phase
behavior

wormhole
Young-Laplace
equation
 Enhanced Oil Recovery, Enhanced Oil Recovery
A
A measure of the amount of acidic components present in a crude oil. This measurement is the mass of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in
milligrams titrated into a one-gram sample of oil—such as stock-tank oil—that is required reach a neutral pH of 7. The test is performed
under ASTM Standard D664

In a system with two immiscible fluids in contact with a solid, the difference in the two fluid-solid surface tensions. In thermodynamic
equilibrium this difference is equivalent as a result of the Young-Laplace equation to the product of the interfacial tension between the
two fluids and the cosine of the contact angle at the fluid/fluid/solid interface. As the combination of these two individual interfacial term
adhesion tension is a useful measure of the wetting character of a petroleum reservoir's pore system.

The property of some solids and liquids to attract a liquid or a gas to their surfaces. Some solids, such as activated charcoal or silica ge
are used as surfaces of adhesion to gather liquid hydrocarbons from a natural gas stream. To complete the process, the solids are
treated with steam to recover the liquid hydrocarbons.

An enhanced oil recovery technique in which an alkaline chemical such as sodium hydroxide, sodium orthosilicate or sodium
carbonate is injected during polymer flooding or waterflooding operations. The alkaline chemical reacts with certain types of oils, formin
surfactants inside the reservoir. Eventually, the surfactants reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water and trigger an increase
oil production. Alkaline flooding is not recommended for carbonate reservoirs because of the abundance of calcium: the mixture betwe
the alkaline chemical and the calcium ions can produce hydroxide precipitation that may damage the formation. Alkaline flooding is als
known as caustic flooding.

A chemical enhanced oil recovery flood that uses two sources of surfactant and a polymer. Alkaline chemicals such as sodium
carbonate react with acidic oil components in situ to create petroleum soap, which is one of the surfactants. A synthetic surfactant is
injected simultaneously with the alkali. A water-soluble polymer is also injected, both in mixture with the alkali and surfactant and as
a slug following the mixture, to increase the viscosity of the injectant, thereby improving mobility control of the flood fronts.

A specific gravity scale developed by the American Petroleum Institute (API) for measuring the relative density of various petroleum
liquids, expressed in degrees. API gravity is gradated in degrees on a hydrometer instrument and was designed so that most values
would fall between 10° and 70° API gravity. The arbitrary formula used to obtain this effect is: API gravity = (141.5/SG at 60°F) - 131.5,
where SG is the specific gravity of the fluid.

In a reservoir waterflood or other fluid injection using a well pattern, the fraction of the pattern area from which reservoir fluid is displace
by the injected phase at the time of breakthrough. Parameters such as formation dip angle and dip azimuth, presence of
fractures, mobility ratio, injection pattern and directional permeability affect areal displacement efficiency (EA).

In a reservoir waterflood or other fluid injection using a well pattern, the fraction of the pattern area from which reservoir fluid is displace
by the injected phase at the time of breakthrough. Parameters such as formation dip angle and dip azimuth, presence of
fractures, mobility ratio, injection pattern and directional permeability affect areal displacement efficiency (EA).

A chemical enhanced oil recovery flood that uses two sources of surfactant and a polymer. Alkaline chemicals such as sodium
carbonate react with acidic oil components in situ to create petroleum soap, which is one of the surfactants. A synthetic surfactant is
injected simultaneously with the alkali. A water-soluble polymer is also injected, both in mixture with the alkali and surfactant and as
a slug following the mixture, to increase the viscosity of the injectant, thereby improving mobility control of the flood fronts
The minimum concentration of solvent injected into a reservoir oil at a given test pressure and temperature that causes asphaltene
particles to precipitate from the oil.

As pressure decreases, the pressure at a given test temperature that first causes asphaltene to precipitate from a reservoir fluid.

The flocculation of asphaltene particles from reservoir fluid. The precipitation is typically measured at specific conditions of temperature
and pressure, such as at reservoir or flowline conditions.

Organic materials consisting of aromatic and naphthenic ring compounds containing nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen molecules. The
asphaltene fraction of crude is defined as the organic part of the oil that is not soluble in straight-chain solvents such as pentane or
heptane. Asphaltenes exist as a colloidal suspension stabilized by resin molecules (aromatic ring systems) in the oil. The stability of
asphaltic dispersions depends on the ratio of resin to asphaltene molecules. The determination of the quantity of resin is important in
estimating the potential damage created by asphaltenes. Asphaltene precipitates as a result of pressure drop, shear (turbulent flow),
acids, solution carbon dioxide [CO2], injected condensate, mixing of incompatible crude oils or other conditions or materials that break
the stability of the asphaltic dispersion. For example, in matrix acidizing, iron ions in solution favor the precipitation of asphaltene
deposits.
B

A laboratory test to determine the phase envelope between oil and enriched gas. The test is conducted by equilibrating an oil sample
several times with fresh samples of gas. Intermediate components are stripped from the gas by multiple contacts with the oil. The test
also indicates how many contacts are required before the oil with added intermediate components becomes miscible with the gas. The
molar ratios at each contact step are typically designed using PVT simulation software that incorporates the fluid composition from the
previous contact.

The pumping of a specific amount of treatment fluid, such as cement slurry, stimulation fluid, well completion fluid or chemical corrosion
inhibitor. In corrosion control, there are several batch-treating techniques, such as tubing displacement and standard batch treatments,
which are used to place the corrosion inhibitor in an oil or gas well.

A type of corrosion in which two different metals are placed in contact in a corrosive environment. A small electric current flows from on
piece of metal to the other, accelerating the corrosion rate of the more reactive of the two metals. Bimetallic corrosion is sometimes
found when new pipe is added to old pipelines. The old pipeline covered by oxide and rust is cathodic to the new pipe, thus acceleratin
the corrosion rate in the new pipe. Another type of bimetallic corrosion is ringworm corrosion.

A dimensionless group used in analysis of fluid flow that characterizes the ratio of gravitational forces to surface or interfacial
tension forces. It is usually denoted Nb in the oil field and Bo in chemical engineering. A value of Nb <<1 implies the flow in question is
only weakly dependent on gravitational forces, whereas Nb >>1 implies gravitational forces dominate over interfacial forces. Bond
number equation: Nb = Bo = (Δρ g b2) / σ, where
Nb = Bo = Bond number; Δρ = density difference between the two phases; g = acceleration due to gravity; b = a characteristic length
scale of the flow geometry; σ = surface or interfacial tension.
A description of reservoir conditions under which a fluid, previously isolated or separated from production, gains access to a producing
wellbore. The term is most commonly applied to water or gas breakthrough, where the water or gas injected to maintain reservoir
pressure via injection wells breaks through to one or more of the producing wells.
An oil or gas accumulation that has matured to a production plateau or even progressed to a stage of declining production. Operating
companies seek to extend the economic producing life of the field using cost-effective, low-risk
technologies. Stimulation or refracturing operations, completing additional zones, and installing artificial lift equipment are a few
technologies commonly applied in brownfields before any drilling options are attempted.
The pressure and temperature conditions at which the first bubble of gas comes out of solution in oil. At discovery,
all petroleum reservoir oils contain some natural gas in solution. Often the oil is saturated with gas when discovered, meaning that the
is holding all the gas it can at the reservoir temperature and pressure, and that it is at its bubblepoint. Occasionally, the oil will be
undersaturated. In this case, as the pressure is lowered, the pressure at which the first gas begins to evolve from the oil is defined as t
bubblepoint.
C

A dimensionless group used in analysis of fluid flow that characterizes the ratio of viscous forces to surface or interfacial tension forces
It is usually denoted NC in the oil field and Ca in chemical engineering. For a flowing liquid, if NC >>1, then viscous forces dominate ov
interfacial forces; however if NC <<1, then viscous forces are negligible compared with interfacial forces. Capillary numbers are usually
large for high-speed flows and low for low-speed flows; thus, typically for flow through pores in the reservoir NC is ~10−6, and for flow
in production tubulars NC is ~1.

A technique used to minimize the rate of corrosion of a structure. Cathodic protection does not eliminate corrosion, it transfers corrosio

A general term for injection processes that use special chemical solutions. Micellar, alkaline and soap-like substances are used to redu
surface tension between oil and water in the reservoir, whereas polymers such as polyacrylamide or polysaccharide are employed to
improve sweep efficiency. The chemical solutions are pumped through specially distributed injection wells to mobilize oil left behind afte
primary or secondary recovery. Chemical flooding is a major component of enhanced oil recovery processes and can be subdivided int
micellar-polymer flooding and alkaline flooding. The general procedure of a chemical flooding includes a preflush (low-salinity water), a
chemical solution (micellar or alkaline), a mobility buffer and, finally, a driving fluid (water), which displaces the chemicals and the
resulting oil bank to production wells. The preflush and the mobility buffer are optional fluids.

A general term for injection processes that use special chemical solutions to improve oil recovery, remove formation damage, clean
blocked perforations or formation layers, reduce or inhibit corrosion, upgrade crude oil, or address crude oil flow-assurance issues.
Injection can be administered continuously, in batches, in injection wells, or at times in production wells.

The change in the Gibbs free energy (G) of a system when an infinitesimally small amount of a component is added under constant pre
A type of damage in which formation permeability is reduced because of the alteration of clay equilibrium. Clay swelling occurs when
water-base filtrates from drilling, completion, workover or stimulation fluids enter the formation. Clay swelling can be caused by ion
exchange or changes in salinity. However, only clays that are directly contacted by the fluid moving in the rock will react; these
include authigenic clays, some detrital clays on the pore boundaries and unprotected clay cement. The nature of the reaction depends
on the structure of the clays and their chemical state at the moment of contact. The most common swelling clays are smectite and
smectite mixtures that create an almost impermeable barrier for fluid flow when they are located in the larger pores of a reservoir rock.
some cases, brines such as potassium chloride [KCl] are used in completion or workover operations to avoid clay swelling.
An enhanced oil recovery method in which carbon dioxide (CO 2) is injected into a reservoir to increase production by reducing
oil viscosity and providing miscible or partially miscible displacement of the oil.

Any thin material, liquid or powder, which, applied over a structure, forms a continuous film to protect against corrosion. Corrosion
coatings should possess flexibility, resistance against impact and moisture, good adhesion and cohesion, and chemical resistance to th
exposure conditions (such as temperature, hydrogen sulfide). Organic coatings such as polyethylenes (plastic) are normally used for
external protection of pipelines while asphalt and coal tar enamels are used to protect buried pipes or undersides of oilfield tanks.
Inorganic coating such as zinc-silicate is used to protect drilling and production platforms above the splash zone and nickel phosphate
coating is used to protect packer body parts.

A void in the pipe coating. Coating flaws are detected by either mechanical or visual inspections and must be repaired to avoid
significant corrosion problems. A coating flaw is also called a holiday.

Abbreviation for a combination of forward combustion and waterflooding, also called wet combustion or in situ steam generation.
COFCAW is an in situ combustion technique in which water is injected simultaneously or alternately with air into a formation. Wet
combustion actually refers to wet forward combustion and was developed to use the great amount of heat that would otherwise be lost
the formation. The injected water recovers the heat from behind the burning front and transfers it to the oil bank ahead. Because of this
additional energy, the oil displacement is more efficient and requires less air. In spite of these advantages, a wet combustion process
cannot avoid liquid-blocking problems and use of wet combustion is limited by the oil viscosity.

An insoluble organic deposit that has low hydrogen content. Coke, also known as pyrobitumen, is formed by thermal cracking and
distillation during in-situ combustion.

A non-thermal primary process for producing heavy oil, also called CHOPS. In this method, continuous production of sand improves
the recovery of heavy oil from the reservoir. There is both a theoretical basis and physical evidence that, in many cases, wormholes are
formed in the unconsolidated sand reservoir, thereby increasing oil productivity. In most cases, an artificial lift system is used to lift the
with sand.

In matrix stimulation, a characteristic of rock that indicates formation permeability is not reduced when treating fluids and their additives
contact the formation minerals or fluids inside the reservoir. Compatibility is especially important in sandstone treatments, in which
potentially damaging reactions may occur. The treatment fluid should remove existing damage without creating additional damage, suc
as precipitates or emulsions, through interactions with the formation rock or fluids.
A low-density, high-API gravity liquid hydrocarbon phase that generally occurs in association with natural gas. Its presence as a liquid
phase depends on temperature and pressure conditions in the reservoir allowing condensation of liquid from vapor. The production of
condensate reservoirs can be complicated because of the pressure sensitivity of some condensates: During production, there is a risk
the condensate changing from gas to liquid if the reservoir pressure drops below the dew point during production. Reservoir pressure
can be maintained by fluid injection if gas production is preferable to liquid production. Gas produced in association with condensate is
called wet gas. The API gravity of condensate is typically 50 degrees to 120 degrees.

A gasflood process in which an injection gas enriched with components of intermediate molecular weight, for example butane, is injecte
into a reservoir to achieve multiple-contact miscibility. Upon contact with the oil, intermediate molecular-weight hydrocarbons transfer
from the injected gas phase into the oil phase, a process in which those components are said to condense into the oil. Formation of
miscibility may require several contacts between fresh enriched gas and the oil containing condensed components. If the reservoir oil
becomes sufficiently enriched with these components that miscibility results between the injection gas and the enriched oil, then the
enriched gas and oil have multiple-contact miscibility. A backward multiple-contact test is a laboratory evaluation of a condensing drive
process. In the field, both forward- and backward-contact processes can occur during a given gasflood.

A laboratory test usually performed as part of a routine PVT analysis that measures the change in volume of a reservoir fluid as a
function of pressure. This change is determined by measuring the total volume of a sample of reservoir fluid at various pressures abov
and below the saturation pressure. The pressure-dependent volumes are normalized to the volume of the sample at the saturation
pressure.

The angle of intersection of the interface between two fluids at a solid surface. The angle is measured from the solid surface through th
aqueous phase, or in an oil and gas test through the oil phase. The contact angle displays hysteresis based on direction of motion of th
interface. Surface roughness affects the equilibrium contact angle, so measurements are typically made on smooth, flat surfaces. A
contact-angle test uses carefully captured and preserved samples of reservoir oil to determine the wetting preference. A droplet of
the crude oil is suspended between two parallel plates of quartz or calcite inside a simulated formation water bath at reservoir
temperature and sometimes at reservoir pressure. By periodically displacing one of the plates sideways, a contact angle is determined
the side of the droplet where water is forcing the oil from the solid. A small angle indicates water-wetting preference, while a large angle
indicates oil-wetting. Angles near 90 degrees are intermediate-wetting. Different minerals display different wetting preferences, althoug
most are more likely to be water-wet.

A laboratory test in which a fluid or combination of fluids is injected into a sample of rock. Objectives include measurement
of permeability, relative permeability, saturation change, formation damage caused by the fluid injection, or interactions between the flu
and the rock. The core material often comes from an oil reservoir, but some tests use outcrop rock. The fluid in place at the start of the
test is typically either a simulated formation brine, oil (either crude oil or refined oil), or a combination of brine and oil. Injected fluids ma
include crude oil, simulated reservoir brine, refined fluids, drilling mud filtrate, acids, foam or other chemicals used in the oil field.
Depending on the purpose of the test, conditions may be either ambient temperature and low confining pressure or high temperature
and pressure of a subject reservoir. Pressures and flow rates at both ends of the core are measured, and the core can also be
investigated using other measurements such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) during the test. A coreflood is typically used to
determine the optimum development option for an oil reservoir and often helps evaluate the effect of injecting fluids specially designed
improve or enhance oil recovery.
The loss of metal due to chemical or electrochemical reactions, which could eventually destroy a structure. Corrosion can occur
anywhere in the production system, either at bottomhole or in surface lines and equipment. The corrosion rate will vary with time
depending on the particular conditions of the oil field, such as the amount of water produced, secondary recovery operations
and pressure variations.

The measures used to prevent or considerably reduce the effects of corrosion. Corrosion can occur anywhere in the production system
either at bottomhole or in surface lines and equipment. Some practices for corrosion control involve: cathodic protection,
chemical inhibition, chemical control (removal of dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and oxygen), oxygen
scavenging, pH adjustment, deposition control (for example, scales) and coatings. One of the most difficult environments for corrosion
control is high bottomhole temperatures, such as 400 to 500 oF [200 to 260oC]. The corrosion rate will vary with time depending on the
particular conditions of the oil field, such as the amount of water produced, secondary recovery operations and pressure variations.
Therefore, corrosion control is a continuous process in oil and gas production operations.

A type of corrosion in which the metal components of a structure fail due to cyclic stresses applied in a corrosive environment, such
as salt water. Consequently, a break in the metal will occur at stresses considerably lower than the tensile strength of the material.
Corrosion fatigue is the main cause of sucker-rod and drillstring failures.

In matrix treatments, a chemical added to acid that adsorbs on the pipe surface to form a protective film. This decreases the destructiv
reaction of acid with metals. The inhibitor does not completely stop the corrosion reaction, but it eliminates more than 99% of the meta
losses that would occur if the inhibitor were not present. The inhibitor has little or no effect on the reaction rate of acid
with limestone, dolomite or acid-soluble minerals. Specific corrosion inhibitors are environmentally compatible, effective in hydrogen
sulfide [H2S] environments, effective on high chrome steel, and effective on special steel alloys, such as coiled tubing. These inhibitors
may be used at temperatures approaching 500 oF [260oC].

The weight loss of a corrosion coupon after exposure to a corrosive environment, expressed as mils (thousandths of an inch) per year
penetration. Corrosion rate is calculated assuming uniform corrosion over the entire surface of the coupon. mpy = (weight loss in gram
* (22,300)/(Adt) mpy = corrosion rate (mils per year penetration) A = area of coupon (sq. in.) d = metal density of coupon (g/cm 3) t = tim
of exposure in corrosive environment (days). It is important to note that the calculated values using this formula are not representative
cases of severe pitting. Therefore, a complete report, including a visual inspection, is required to determine either the type of attack or
the appropriate corrosion control program. Corrosion rate is also known as corrosion ratio

A chemical used in small quantities to improve the effectiveness of a primary solvent in a chemical process.

A chemical added to a process to enhance the effectiveness of a surfactant. In the oil industry, cosurfactants are often used to increase
the oil-solubilizing capacity of microemulsion surfactant systems. An example of such a cosurfactant is a long-chain alcohol. Pure
surfactants often organize well at a liquid/liquid boundary, which leads to relatively stiff interfaces or even liquid-crystal phases. To
achieve ultralow interfacial tension for enhanced oil recovery applications, a cosurfactant is added to disturb this organization at the
liquid/liquid interface. Cosurfactants can also be used to fine-tune the formulation phase behavior, for example, by expanding the
temperature or salinity range of microemulsion formation.
A near-wellbore area where injected fluids such as acids can restore original permeability. Most of the reservoir pressure drop
during production occurs in this near-wellbore part of the reservoir.

A technique for measuring a signal that is broadcast from a transmitter or source located in one well, to a receiver array placed in a
neighboring well. This technique is used to create a display of formation properties such as acoustic
velocity and attenuation, seismic reflectivity, or electromagnetic resistivity in the area between wells. The reservoir-scale data acquired
with this technique can be used to bridge the gap between wellbore measurements and surface measurements.
D

Natural or induced production impairments that can develop in the reservoir, the near-wellbore area, the perforations, the gravel-
pack completion or the production pipelines, such as the tubing. Natural damage occurs as produced reservoir fluids move through the
reservoir, while induced damage is the result of external operations and fluids in the well, such as drilling, well
completion, workover operations or stimulation treatments. Some induced damage triggers natural damage mechanisms. Natural
damage includes phenomena such as fines migration, clay swelling, scale formation, organic deposition, including paraffins
or asphaltenes, and mixed organic and inorganic deposition. Induced damage includes plugging caused by foreign particles in the
injected fluid, wettability changes, emulsions, precipitates or sludges caused by acid reactions, bacterial activity and water blocks.
Wellbore cleanup or matrix stimulation treatments are two different operations that can remove natural or induced damage. Selecting th
proper operation depends on the location and nature of the damage.

The ability of a chemical agent to remove a contaminant from a solid surface. For example, in enhanced oil recovery, a surfactant can
used to remove an oil phase from a mineral surface. At least two mechanisms can occur: a) The surfactant adsorbs on the contaminate
surface and presents its hydrophilic group to the contacting liquid. Thus, the surface behaves hydrophilically and repels macroscopic o
drops. b) The surfactant adsorbs to the contaminant. It is energetically more favorable for the combination of surfactant and contamina
to be in solution than to be attached to the surface so the contaminant is solubilized, exposing the mineral surface.

The pressure at which the first condensate liquid comes out of solution in a gas condensate. Many gas condensate reservoirs are
saturated at initial conditions, meaning that the dewpoint is equal to the initial reservoir pressure. Condensate dissolution is called
retrograde condensation because this is counter to the behavior of pure substances, which vaporize when the pressure drops below
thesaturation pressure under isothermal (constant temperature) conditions.

The pressure at which the first condensate liquid comes out of solution in a gas condensate. Many gas condensate reservoirs are
saturated at initial conditions, meaning that the dewpoint is equal to the initial reservoir pressure. Condensate dissolution is called
retrograde condensation because this is counter to the behavior of pure substances, which vaporize when the pressure drops below
the saturation pressure under isothermal (constant temperature) conditions.

The process by which particles move over time within a material due to their kinetic motion. The term is most commonly used in
pulsed neutron capture logging and in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging. In a pulsed neutron capture log, the term refers to
the spread of neutrons away from the neutron generator. In NMR logging, diffusion refers to the movement of gas, oil or water molecul
within the pore space.

A common coating problem in which the protective coating detaches from the pipeline.
Spatial separation of components within a fluid. This separation is often driven by diffusion, mixing or differential flow. In an
oil field components might be separated because of heterogeneity of permeability, or simply because of different paths taken by the flu
through the pore structure. Hydrodynamic dispersion includes both of these mechanical effects and molecular diffusion. The componen
of an enhanced oil recovery formulation can also be dispersed within a porous rock via differential adsorption properties
(chromatographic effects).

The fraction of oil that has been recovered from a zone swept by a waterflood or other displacement process. Displacement efficiency
equation: E = (Voi − Vor) / Voi, where Voi = volume of oil at start of flood ; Vor = volume of oil remaining after flood.

The interface between an injectant and the fluid it is displacing.

The process of forcing a nonwetting phase into a porous rock. Oil migrates into most reservoirs as the non-wetting phase, so initial
charging of the reservoir is a drainage process.
An in situ combustion technique in which only air or oxygen-enriched air mixtures are injected into a formation. A drawback related to d
combustion is the highly corrosive and noxious combustion products that are produced.

A type of in situ combustion in which the burning front moves in the same direction as the injected air. As air is continuously supplied at
the injection well, the fire ignited at this location moves toward the production wells. During forward combustion, the temperature behin
the burning front is high, indicating a great amount of heat stored in the formation matrix. The injected gas heats on contact with the
matrix and recovers only a small amount of the heat, with considerable losses to the surrounding formations. Another drawback of dry
forward combustion is the presence of a highly viscous oil zone surrounding the production well. The fluid in this zone remains at the
original reservoir temperature and its forward displacement by the heated oil is normally difficult.
A dynamic fluid-mixing process in which an injected gas exchanges components with in situ oil until the phases achieve a state of
miscibility within the mixing zone of the flood front. In a vaporizing drive, light and intermediate components from the oil phase enter the
gas phase. By contrast, in a condensing drive, intermediate components from the gas phase enter the oil phase. The process may be
combination of vaporizing and condensing drives.
E

With reference to formation evaluation, the layer between a clay particle and the formation water that has a particular distribution of ion
Clays have an excess negative charge on their surface. When in contact with formation water, this charge attracts an excess of positiv
cations, normally Na+ together with their molecules of hydration water, into a region near the interface. The layer next to the clay surfac
the Stern layer, has no anions, and is always present. Outside the Stern layer is the Gouy layer, through which the ion concentration
gradually approaches that of free brine. The thickness of this layer increases as brine salinity decreases.
An instrument used in a corrosion testing to determine metal loss. The probe directly measures the increase in resistance of a metal as
its cross-sectional area is reduced by corrosion. At suitable times, once the readings are obtained, these numbers are converted into
corrosion rates (mpy). An electrical resistance probe is also called an electrical coupon.

A process to increase thermal energy in a reservoir using electromagnetic means. The two types of electromagnetic heating are
conductive and radio frequency (RF). In conductive heating, a current passes from one electrode through the formation to a second
electrode. Electrical resistance of the reservoir brine generates thermal energy, heating the reservoir. In RF heating, transmitters in the
wellbore generate electromagnetic waves with frequencies in the microwave range that are directed into the formation. The waves
interact with water molecules, generating heat in much the same way a microwave oven does. Since both methods rely on water to
transfer thermal energy to the reservoir, higher water saturation increases the efficiency of the heat transfer.
A type of damage in which there is a combination of two or more immiscible fluids, including gas, that will not separate into individual
components. Emulsions can form when fluid filtrates or injected fluids and reservoir fluids (for example oil or brine) mix, or when
the pH of the producing fluid changes, such as after an acidizing treatment. Acidizing might change the pH from 6 or 7 to less than 4.
Emulsions are normally found in gravel packs and perforations, or inside the formation. Most emulsions break easily when the source o
the mixing energy is removed. However, some natural and artificial stabilizing agents, such as surfactants and small particle solids, kee
fluids emulsified. Natural surfactants, created by bacteria or during the oil generation process, can be found in many waters and crude
oils, while artificial surfactants are part of many drilling, completion or stimulation fluids. Among the most common solids that stabilize
emulsions are iron sulfide, paraffin, sand, silt, clay, asphalt, scale and corrosion products. Emulsions are typically treated using mutual
solvents.

An oil recovery enhancement method using sophisticated techniques that alter the original properties of oil. Once ranked as a third sta
of oil recovery that was carried out after secondary recovery, the techniques employed during enhanced oil recovery can actually be
initiated at any time during the productive life of an oil reservoir. Its purpose is not only to restore formation pressure, but also to improv
oil displacement or fluid flow in the reservoir. The three major types of enhanced oil recovery operations are chemical flooding
(alkaline flooding or micellar-polymer flooding), miscible displacement (carbon dioxide [CO 2] injection or hydrocarbon injection), and
thermal recovery (steamflood or in-situ combustion). The optimal application of each type depends on reservoir temperature, pressure,
depth, net pay, permeability, residual oil and water saturations, porosity and fluid properties such as oil API gravity and viscosity.
Enhanced oil recovery is also known as improved oil recovery or tertiary recovery and it is abbreviated as EOR.

Abbreviation for enhanced oil recovery, an oil recovery enhancement method using sophisticated techniques that alter the original
properties of oil. Once ranked as a third stage of oil recovery that was carried out after secondary recovery, the techniques employed
during enhanced oil recovery can actually be initiated at any time during the productive life of an oil reservoir. Its purpose is not only to
restore formation pressure, but also to improve oil displacement or fluid flow in the reservoir. The three major types of enhanced oil
recovery operations are chemical flooding (alkaline flooding or micellar-polymer flooding), miscible displacement (carbon dioxide [CO 2]
injection or hydrocarbon injection), and thermal recovery (steamflood or in-situ combustion). The optimal application of each type
depends on reservoir temperature, pressure, depth, net pay, permeability, residual oil and water saturations, porosity and fluid propertie
such as oil API gravity and viscosity. Enhanced oil recovery is also known as improved oil recovery or tertiary recovery.

A dimensionless group used in analysis of fluid flow that characterizes the ratio of gravitational forces to surface or interfacial
tension forces. The Eötvös number is denoted Eo and is equivalent to the Bond number (Nb = Bo). The Eötvös or Bond number is give
by Eo = Nb = Bo = (Δρ g b2) / σ, Where: Eo = Eötvös number; Nb = Bo = Bond number; Δρ = density difference between the two
phases; g = acceleration due to gravity; b = a characteristic length scale of the flow geometry; σ = surface or interfacial tension.

An equation that specifies fluid density as a function of pressure and temperature. A large body of scientific literature describes these
functions for all kinds of hydrocarbons, and also for complex mixes of various hydrocarbons with other hydrocarbons and with other
fluids. Once the components of a reservoir fluid are determined, the known hydrocarbon properties become a valuable tool in making
further calculations of well-test results and predictions of future well and reservoir behavior.

A type of corrosion produced when easily removed scales (such as iron carbonate) that were initially protecting the metals in the pipe a
eroded and the underlying metals are corroded. Erosion-corrosion is a common cause of failure in oilfield equipment. The attack is
normally localized at changes of pipe sections, bends or elbows where there is high velocity or turbulent flow.
A type of corrosion produced when easily removed scales (such as iron carbonate) that were initially protecting the metals in the pipe a
eroded and the underlying metals are corroded. Erosion-corrosion is a common cause of failure in oilfield equipment. The attack is
normally localized at changes of pipe sections, bends or elbows where there is high velocity or turbulent flow.
The amount of oil and gas expected to be economically recovered from a reservoir or field by the end of its producing life. Estimated
ultimate recovery can be referenced to a well, a field, or a basin.

A corrosion by-product [FeS2] formed when hydrogen sulfide [H2S] contacts the iron [Fe] present in steel. Ferrous sulfide is a black
crystalline material at bottomhole conditions. However, when it contacts air at surface, it will be converted into iron oxide, which is a red
brown compound. Ferrous sulfide is also called iron sulfide.
A condition whereby the interface of two fluids, such as oil and water, bypasses sections of reservoir as it moves along, creating an
uneven, or fingered, profile. Fingering is a relatively common condition in reservoirs with water-injection wells. The result of fingering is
an inefficient sweeping action that can bypass significant volumes of recoverable oil and, in severe cases, an early breakthrough of
water into adjacent production wellbores.

A method of thermal recovery in which a flame front is generated in the reservoir by igniting a fire at the sandface of an injection well.
Continuous injection of air or other gas mixture with high oxygen content will maintain the flame front. As the fire burns, it moves throug
the reservoir toward production wells. Heat from the fire reduces oil viscosity and helps vaporize reservoir water to steam. The steam,
hot water, combustion gas and a bank of distilled solvent all act to drive oil in front of the fire toward production wells.

A method of thermal recovery in which a flame front is generated in the reservoir by igniting a fire at the sandface of an injection well.
Continuous injection of air or other gas mixture with high oxygen content will maintain the flame front. As the fire burns, it moves throug
the reservoir toward production wells. Heat from the fire reduces oil viscosity and helps vaporize reservoir water to steam. The steam,
hot water, combustion gas and a bank of distilled solvent all act to drive oil in front of the fire toward production wells.

A condition of two fluids that are miscible that is, they form a single phase when mixed in any proportion when first brought
into contact at a given pressure and temperature. In reservoir gasflooding, the injected gas composition, oil composition, temperature
and the injection pressure determine the condition of first-contact miscibility. In contrast, fluids that develop miscibility after exchanging
components have multiple-contact miscibility.

An injection pattern in which four input or injection wells are located at the corners of a square and the production well sits in the cente
The injection fluid, which is normally water, steam or gas, is injected simultaneously through the four injection wells to displace the oil
toward the central production well.

An injection pattern in which four input or injection wells are located at the corners of a square and the production well sits in the cente
The injection fluid, which is normally water, steam or gas, is injected simultaneously through the four injection wells to displace the oil
toward the central production well.

The interface between an injectant and the fluid it is displacing.

Also known as injection pattern, the particular arrangement of production and injection wells. The injection pattern for an
individual field or part of a field is based on the location of existing wells, reservoir size and shape, cost of new wells and
the recovery increase associated with various injection patterns. The flood pattern can be altered during the life of a field to change the
direction of flow in a reservoir with the intent of contacting unswept oil. It is common to reduce the pattern size by infill drilling, which
improves oil recovery by increasing reservoir continuity between injectors and producers. Common injection patterns are direct line driv
staggered line drive, two-spot, three-spot, four-spot, five-spot, seven-spot and nine-spot. Normally, the two-spot and three-spot pattern
are used for pilot testing purposes. The patterns are called normal or regular when they include only one production well per pattern.
Patterns are described as inverted when they include only one injection well per pattern.
A gas generated by burning hydrocarbons with air; it is sometimes used as an enhanced oil recovery (EOR) injectant. The composition
consists mainly of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor and excess oxygen with some impurities, such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides and sulfur oxides. Generally, more carbon dioxide in the flue gas results in a better recovery factor for EOR. By contrast, using
more nitrogen results in a lower recovery factor for EOR. However, high concentration of impurities, such as oxygen, nitrous oxides an
carbon monoxide, can cause corrosion in production tubulars and surface equipment.

An acid mixture that generates more hydrofluoric [HF] acid as the HF is consumed. In the field, fluoboric acid [HBF 4] is easily prepared
by mixing boric acid [H3BO3], ammonium bifluoride [NH3F.HF] and hydrochloric acid. Fluoboric acid was developed to counteract the
shortcomings associated with mud-acid treatments. It is a retarded fluid that can penetrate deep into the reservoir before spending,
especially at high temperatures, and does not contain high HF at any given time. Thus, it is less reactive than mud acid, but its total
dissolving power is comparable: HBF4 + H3O --> HBF3OH + HF. The limited amount of HF at any given time decreases the probability o
forming precipitates of fluosilicates, fluoaluminates or silica. Fluoboric acid provides permanent stabilization of clays and fines through
reactions related to borate and fluoborate ions. For example, borosilicates coat and bind undissolved clays and fines, preventing furthe
mobility of these particles that might plug the formation and impair production. Mud acid does not provide this coating feature. Fluobori
acid also eliminates water sensitivity and is especially recommended in formations containing potassium minerals. Fluoboric acid can b
used as a preflush, an overflush or as a main stage in a sandstone matrix acidizing. As a main fluid, a fluoboric acid treatment requires
preflush (weak HCl acid or brine) and should not be overflushed to obtain the maximum stabilization effect in the critical matrix area.
Fluoboric acid treatments are the only acid formulations that require long shut-in times because of their long reaction times.

An enhanced oil recovery process in which foam is injected into a reservoir to improve the sweep efficiency of a driving fluid. Foam can
be generated either in the reservoir pore space or at the surface before injection. Foam flooding mitigates sweep inhomogeneities such
as those caused by layers with higher permeability than the surrounding formations, or those caused by gravity override.

An additive used in preparation of foam used as a drilling fluid. Drilling foam is water containing air or gas bubbles, much like shaving f

Natural or induced production impairments that can develop in the reservoir, the near-wellbore area or the perforations. Natural damag
occurs as produced reservoir fluids move through the reservoir, while induced damage is the result of external operations and fluids in
the well, such as drilling, well completion, workover operations or stimulation treatments. Some induced damage triggers natural dama
mechanisms. Natural damage includes phenomena such as fines migration, clay swelling, scale formation, organic deposition, includin
paraffins or asphaltenes, and mixed organic and inorganic deposition. Induced damage includes plugging caused by foreign particles i
the injected fluid, wettability changes, emulsions, precipitates or sludges caused by acid reactions, bacterial activity and water blocks.
Wellbore cleanup or matrix stimulation treatments are two different operations that can remove natural or induced damage. Selecting th
proper operation depends on the location and nature of the damage.

An organic acid [HCOOH] used in oil- and gas-well stimulation treatments. Formic acid has an advantage over HCl in that formic acid i
easier to inhibit against pipe corrosion at temperatures as high as 400°F [204°C]. Formic acid is intermediate in strength between
hydrochloric acid [HCl] and acetic acid. Additionally, formic acid corrodes steel more uniformly than does HCl and causes less pitting.
A laboratory test to determine the phase envelope between lean gas and oil by equilibrating a gas sample several times with fresh
samples of oil. In a forward-contact test, light and intermediate components are stripped from the oil by multiple contacts with the gas.
The test also indicates how many contacts are required before the gas with added components becomes miscible with the oil. The mol
ratios at each contact step are typically designed using PVT simulation software that incorporates the fluid composition at each contac

A well-stimulation operation in which acid, usually hydrochloric [HCl], is injected into a carbonate formation at a pressure above the
formation-fracturing pressure. Flowing acid tends to etch the fracture faces in a nonuniform pattern, forming conductive channels that
remain open without a propping agent after the fracture closes. The length of the etched fracture limits the effectiveness of an acid-
fracture treatment. The fracture length depends on acid leakoff and acid spending. If acid fluid-loss characteristics are poor, excessive
leakoff will terminate fracture extension. Similarly, if the acid spends too rapidly, the etched portion of the fracture will be too short. The
major problem in fracture acidizing is the development of wormholes in the fracture face; these wormholes increase the reactive surfac
area and cause excessive leakoff and rapid spending of the acid. To some extent, this problem can be overcome by using inert fluid-lo
additives to bridge wormholes or by using viscosified acids. Fracture acidizing is also called acid fracturing or acid-fracture treatment.

Materials used to provide cathodic protection. Galvanic anodes are made of metals such as zinc, magnesium or aluminum, which
corrode more easily than the structure, thus developing enough electric current flow through the electrolyte (such as soils or water).
Galvanic anodes, also called sacrificial anodes, are commonly used when the current required for cathodic protection is small.

A type of reservoir-drive mechanism in which the energy for the transport and production of reservoir fluids is provided by the expansio
of gas either in the gas cap or inside the oil phase.

A type of reservoir-drive mechanism in which the energy for the transport and production of reservoir fluids is provided by the expansio
of gas either in the gas cap or inside the oil phase.

The least common primary recovery mechanism in which the force of gravity pushes hydrocarbons out of the reservoir, into the wellbor
and up to surface. Gravity force is always present in the reservoir, but its effect is greater in thick gas-condensate reservoirs and in
shallow, highly permeable, steeply dipping reservoirs

A phenomenon of multiphase flow in a reservoir in which a less dense fluid flows preferentially on the top of a reservoir unit and a more
dense fluid flows at the bottom. For example, in a steamflood, steam flows on the top and condensed liquid flows at the bottom of the
zone. Gravity override causes sweep inhomogeneities that can be mitigated through foam flooding.

A frontal advance in which gravity and viscous forces are in equilibrium, resulting in a stable, highly efficient frontal advance.
H

The chemical formula for the compound hydrogen chloride. A solution of hydrogen chloride [HCl] in water is hydrochloric acid
Crude oil with high viscosity (typically above 10 cp), and high specific gravity. The API classifies heavy oil as crudes with a gravity belo
22.3° API. In addition to high viscosity and high specific gravity, heavy oils typically have low hydrogen-to-carbon ratios, high asphalten
sulfur, nitrogen, and heavy-metal content, as well as higher acid numbers.

An enhanced oil recovery process utilizing compressed air that is injected into a reservoir. Oxygen in the gas reacts exothermically with
some of the oil, producing highly mobile flue gas. The flue gas advances ahead of the reaction front and achieves an
efficient displacement of the in situ oil. Scientists believe that the high displacement efficiency of high-pressure air injection is due to a
combination of processes that include immiscible gas displacement, improved miscibility caused by the presence of CO2 in the flue ga
reduction in interfacial tension, oil swelling and reservoir repressurization. The process is typically used for deep, tight, relatively light-o
reservoirs where water injectivity is low.
A method of thermal recovery in which hot water is injected into a reservoir through specially distributed injection wells. Hot waterfloodi
reduces the viscosity of the crude oil, allowing it to move more easily toward production wells. Hot waterflooding, also known as hot
water injection, is typically less effective than a steam-injection process because water has lower heat content than steam. Nevertheles
it is preferable under certain conditions such as formation sensitivity to fresh water.
Slang term for a cyclic process in which a well is injected with a recovery enhancement fluid and, after a soak period, the well is put ba
on production. Examples are cyclic steam injection and cyclic CO2 injection.

A poisonous liquid acid composed of hydrogen and fluorine. Hydrofluoric acid [HF] is used primarily because it is the only common,
inexpensive mineral acid that can dissolve siliceous minerals. HF is typically mixed with hydrochloric acid [HCl] or organic acid to keep
the pH low when it spends, thereby preventing detrimental precipitates. These mixtures, also called mud acids, are considered the mai
fluid in a sandstone acid treatment because they remove formation damage. Hydrofluoric acid should not be used in sandstone
formations with high carbonate content because of the high risk of calcium fluoride precipitation [CaF 2].

A type of hydrogen-induced failure produced when hydrogen atoms enter low-strength steels that have macroscopic defects, such as
laminations. The defects in the steel (void spaces) provide places for hydrogen atoms to combine, forming gaseous molecular hydroge
[H2] that can build enough pressure to produce blistering. Hydrogen blistering is a problem mainly in sour environments. Frequently, it
does not cause a brittle failure, but it can produce rupture or leakages.

The process whereby hydrogen causes steel components to become less resistant to breakage and generally much weaker in tensile
strength. While embrittlement has many causes, in the oil field it is usually the result of exposure to gaseous or liquid hydrogen
sulfide [H2S]. On a molecular level, hydrogen ions work their way between the grain boundaries of the steel, where hydrogen ions
recombine into molecular hydrogen [H2], taking up more space and weakening the bonds between the grains. The formation of molecu
hydrogen can cause sudden metal failure due to cracking when the metal is subjected to tensile stress. This type of hydrogen-induced
failure is produced when hydrogen atoms enter high strength steels. The failures due to hydrogen embrittlement normally have a perio
where no damage is observed, which is called incubation, followed by a sudden catastrophic failure. Hydrogen embrittlement is also
called acid brittleness.
A type of corrosion produced when a metal absorbs hydrogen atoms. This phenomenon can cause undesirable effects such as
blistering, cracking, methane formation above 400 oF [204oC] and hydrogen embrittlement.

A corrosion test instrument mainly used in sour systems (for example, hydrogen sulfide or other sulfide rich environments) to determine
qualitatively or semiquantitatively the corrosion of a structure. A hydrogen probe is also called a hydrogen patch probe.

A number on the scale of one to 40 according to the HLB system, introduced by Griffin (1949 and 1954). The HLB system is a semi-
empirical method to predict what type of surfactant properties a molecular structure will provide. The HLB system is based on the
concept that some molecules have hydrophilic groups, other molecules have lipophilic groups, and some have both. Weight percentag
of each type of group on a molecule or in a mixture predicts what behavior the molecular structure will exhibit. Water-in-oil emulsifiers
have a low HLB numbers, typically around 4. Solubilizing agents have high HLB numbers. Oil-in-water emulsifiers have intermediate to
high HLB numbers.

Pertaining to an attraction for water by the surface of a material or a molecule. Clays and most other natural minerals used in drilling
fluids, such as barite and hematite, are hydrophilic. They are spontaneously wet by water. To render them oleophilic, they can be treate
with an oil-wetting chemical.
Pertaining to a repulsion of water by the surface of a material or a molecule.
I
The process of absorbing a wetting phase into a porous rock. Imbibition is important in a waterdrive reservoir because it can advance o
hinder water movement, affecting areal sweep. Spontaneous imbibition refers to the process of absorption with no pressure driving the
phase into the rock. It is possible for the same rock to imbibe both water and oil, with water imbibing at low in situ water saturation,
displacing excess oil from the surface of the rock grains, and oil imbibing at low in-situ oil saturation, displacing excess water. An
imbibition test is a comparison of the imbibition potential of water and oil into a rock. The wettability of the rock is determined by which
phase imbibes more.

Pertaining to a condition in which two fluids are incapable of forming molecularly distributed mixtures or attaining homogeneity at that s
Materials to provide cathodic protection. Impressed current anodes are relatively inert to corrosion and require an external
power source to generate the electric current that will bring cathodic protection to the structure. Impressed current systems are used
mainly when the current required for cathodic protection is large.

A method for recovering additional oil beyond fluid expansion, rock compressibility, gravitational drainage, pressure decline and
natural waterdrive or gasdrive. This term is used in both a restricted sense and a more general sense. In its restricted sense, it is a
process, such as waterflooding or gasflooding, that adds energy to a reservoir to stimulate oil production and increase recovery factor.
its more general sense, it is any activity that increases oil production and increases the recovery factor. This sense can also include, fo
example, enhanced oil recovery methods, infill drilling, hydraulic fracturing, and drilling horizontal and multilateral wells.

A method of thermal recovery in which fire is generated inside the reservoir by injecting a gas containing oxygen, such as air. A special
heater in the well ignites the oil in the reservoir and starts a fire. The heat generated by burning the heavy hydrocarbons in place
produces hydrocarbon cracking, vaporization of light hydrocarbons and reservoir water in addition to the deposition of heavier
hydrocarbons known as coke. As the fire moves, the burning front pushes ahead a mixture of hot combustion gases, steam and hot
water, which in turn reduces oil viscosity and displaces oil toward production wells. Additionally, the light hydrocarbons and the steam
move ahead of the burning front, condensing into liquids, which adds the advantages of miscible displacement and hot waterflooding. I
situ combustion is also known as fire flooding or fireflood.

A type of damage in which foreign particles injected during normal well operations, such as drilling, completion, workover, stimulation o
enhanced recovery, block the near-wellbore formation, reducing well productivity. Potentially damaging particles in drilling fluids include
clays, cuttings, weighting agents and fluid-loss control materials. In workover and stimulation fluids, suspended solids include bacteria
and polymer residues. Foreign plugging particles can also be introduced as a result of poor water-handling practices. These foreign
particles include debris from tanks and tubing.

The addition of wells in a field that decreases average well spacing. This practice both accelerates expected recovery and
increases estimated ultimate recovery in heterogeneous reservoirs by improving the continuity between injectors and producers. As we
spacing is decreased, the shifting well patterns alter the formation-fluid flow paths and increase sweep to areas where
greater hydrocarbon saturations exist.

The particular arrangement of production and injection wells. The injection pattern for an individual field or part of a field is based on th
location of existing wells, reservoir size and shape, cost of new wells and the recovery increase associated with various injection
patterns. The flood pattern can be altered during the life of a field to change the direction of flow in a reservoir with the intent of
contacting unswept oil. It is common to reduce the pattern size by infill drilling, which improves oil recovery by increasing reservoir
continuity between injectors and producers. Common injection patterns are direct line drive, staggered line drive, two-spot, three-spot,
four-spot, five-spot, seven-spot and nine-spot. Normally, the two-spot and three-spot patterns are used for pilot testing purposes. The
patterns are called normal or regular when they include only one production well per pattern. Patterns are described as inverted when
they include only one injection well per pattern.
A method of thermal recovery in which fire is generated inside the reservoir by injecting a gas containing oxygen, such as air. A special
heater in the well ignites the oil in the reservoir and starts a fire. The heat generated by burning the heavy hydrocarbons in place
produces hydrocarbon cracking, vaporization of light hydrocarbons and reservoir water in addition to the deposition of heavier
hydrocarbons known as coke. As the fire moves, the burning front pushes ahead a mixture of hot combustion gases, steam and hot
water, which in turn reduces oil viscosity and displaces oil toward production wells. Additionally, the light hydrocarbons and the steam
move ahead of the burning front, condensing into liquids, which adds the advantages of miscible displacement and hot waterflooding. I
situ combustion is also known as fire flooding or fireflood.

A property of the interface between two immiscible phases. When the phases are both liquid, it is termed interfacial tension; when one
the phases is air, it is termed surface tension. Interfacial tension is the Gibbs free energy per unit area of interface at fixed temperature
and pressure. Interfacial tension occurs because a molecule near an interface has different molecular interactions than an equivalent
molecule within the bulk fluid. Surfactant molecules preferentially position themselves at the interface and thereby lower the interfacial
tension.

A technique for measuring a signal that is broadcast from a transmitter or source located in one well, to a receiver array placed in a
neighboring well. This technique is used to create a display of formation properties such as acoustic
velocity and attenuation, seismic reflectivity, or electromagnetic resistivity in the area between wells. The reservoir-scale data acquired
with this technique can be used to bridge the gap between wellbore measurements and surface measurements.

An injection pattern in which four production wells are located at the corners of a square and the injector well sits in the center.

An injection pattern in which four production wells are located at the corners of a square and the injector well sits in the center.

Aerobic bacteria that convert iron from the ferrous [Fe +2] to the ferric [Fe+3] state and produce ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3], which is a high
insoluble by-product that will damage the formation. Iron-oxidizing bacteria also produce some corrosion, but they are considered
harmful mainly because they cover sulfate-reducing bacteria colonies and protect them from attack with bactericides.
L
An injection pattern in which the injection wells are located in a straight line parallel to the production wells. In a line drive pattern, the
injected fluid, which is normally water, steam or gas, creates a nearly linear frontal movement. A line drive pattern is also called direct li
drive.
Pertaining to an attraction for oil by a surface of a material or a molecule. This term is applied to the oil-wetting behavior of treatment
chemicals for oil muds. Lipophilic oil-mud additives are required because most minerals drilled and additives such as barite are natural
hydrophilic and must be rendered lipophilic.
A phenomenon encountered during dry forward combustion in which an oil zone around the production well cannot be pushed forward
by the heated oil. The fluid located in this zone is still at the original reservoir temperature. Therefore, the fluid is still highly viscous and
normally not mobile.

An enhanced oil recovery method that uses water with a low concentration of dissolved salts as a flooding medium. The sources of low
M

An enhanced oil recovery technique in which a micelle solution is pumped into a reservoir through specially distributed injection wells.
The chemical solution reduces the interfacial and capillary forces between oil and water and triggers an increase in oil production. The
procedure of a micellar-polymer flooding includes a preflush (low-salinity water), a chemical solution (micellar or alkaline),
a mobility buffer and, finally, a driving fluid (water), which displaces the chemicals and the resulting oil bank to production wells.
An enhanced oil recovery technique in which a micelle solution is pumped into a reservoir through specially distributed injection wells.
The chemical solution reduces the interfacial and capillary forces between oil and water and triggers an increase in oil production. The
procedure of a micellar-polymer flooding includes a preflush (low-salinity water), a chemical solution (micellar or alkaline), a mobility
buffer and, finally, a driving fluid (water), which displaces the chemicals and the resulting oil bank to production wells.

An ordered aggregate of surfactant molecules formed when the surfactant concentration in a solution reaches a critical point, thus
lowering the free energy of the system. Within an aqueous phase, the molecules in a micelle organize such that
the hydrophilic head group is the outermost part of the micelle and the hydrophobic tail group is inside the micellar surface. Within an o
phase a reverse, or inverse, micelle can form: The surfactant molecules then organize such that the hydrophobic tail group is outermos
and the hydrophilic head group is inside the surface. A micelle can solubilize oil in water; a reverse micelle can solubilize water in oil.

An enhanced recovery process in which microorganisms are used in a reservoir to improve oil recovery. The microorganism can either
be injected into the reservoir, or the population of an existing microorganism in the reservoir can be enhanced by injection of nutrients
preferred by that microorganism. The microorganisms improve oil recovery by various means: (1) by releasing gases and increasing
the pressure of the reservoir; (2) by breaking the heavier molecules into smaller chain components, resulting in the reduction
of viscosity of oil; and 3) by producing natural surfactants that can improve oil flow by altering the interfacial properties of the system
comprising the crude oil, brine and rock.

A thermodynamically stable emulsion consisting of a mixture of oil, water and surfactant. In contrast to a simple emulsion formed unde
shear, a microemulsion is a minimum energy state. It does not require an input of energy into the system to form; instead, it forms
spontaneously. Depending on the structure of the surfactant and the presence or absence of cosurfactant, an oil-in-water system
(Winsor Type I), a water-in-oil system (Winsor Type II) or a bicontinuous system (Winsor Type III) may form. Various structures of
micelles and reverse micelles are possible, ranging from spherical through cylindrical to lamellar. A typical microemulsion will have
micelle diameters in the range of 3 to 20 nm.

A unit of measurement for the corrosion rate of a coupon, abbreviated as mpy. A mil is one thousandth of an inch.

At constant temperature and pressure, the minimum quantity of additional components, such as intermediate-chain gases or CO2, that
must be added to an injection gas to reach first-contact miscibility with a reservoir fluid at a given temperature and pressure. At minimu
miscibility concentration conditions, the interfacial tension is zero and no interface exists between the fluids.

Another term for minimum miscibility concentration, the minimum quantity of additional components, such as intermediate-chain gases
CO2, that must be added to an injection gas to reach first-contact miscibility with a reservoir fluid at a given temperature and pressure.
minimum miscibility concentration conditions, the interfacial tension is zero and no interface exists between the fluids.

At constant temperature and composition, the lowest pressure at which first- or multiple-contact miscibility (dynamic miscibility) can be
achieved. At minimum miscibility pressure, the interfacial tension is zero and no interface exists between the fluids.

Pertaining to a condition in which two or more fluids can mix in all proportions and form a single homogeneous phase.
A general term for injection processes that introduce miscible gases into the reservoir. A miscible displacement process maintains
reservoir pressure and improves oil displacement because the interfacial tension between oil and water is reduced. The effect of gas
injection is similar to that of a solution gasdrive. Miscible displacement is a major branch of enhanced oil recovery processes. Injected
gases include liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), such as propane, methane under high pressure, methane enriched with light
hydrocarbons, nitrogen under high pressure, and carbon dioxide [CO 2] under suitable reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure
The fluid most commonly used for miscible displacement is carbon dioxide because it reduces the oil viscosity and is less expensive
than liquefied petroleum gas. Miscible displacement is also called miscible gasdrive, miscible drive or miscible flood.
A blend of organic and inorganic compounds such as scales, silts or clays. Migrating fines that become oil-wet often become targets fo
organic deposits, thereby creating a mixed deposit. Mixed deposits are considered a type of damage. Treating this type of deposit
requires a dual-solvent system composed of an aromatic hydrocarbon and an acid.

Minimum miscibility enrichment or minimum miscibility concentration, the minimum quantity of additional components, such as
intermediate-chain gases or CO2, that must be added to an injection gas to reach first-contact miscibility with a reservoir fluid at a give
temperature and pressure. At minimum miscibility concentration conditions, the interfacial tension is zero and no interface exists betwe
the fluids.
Minimum miscibility enrichment or minimum miscibility concentration, the minimum quantity of additional components, such as
intermediate-chain gases or CO2, that must be added to an injection gas to reach first-contact miscibility with a reservoir fluid at a give
temperature and pressure. At minimum miscibility concentration conditions, the interfacial tension is zero and no interface exists betwe
the fluids.
The ratio of effective permeability to phase viscosity. The overall mobility is a sum of the individual phase viscosities. Well productivity i
directly proportional to the product of the mobility and the layer thickness product.

In chemical flooding, a fluid stage, normally water thickened with a polymer, pumped between the micellar or alkaline chemical solution
and the final water injection. Mobility buffers are prepared with polyacrylamides or polysaccharides and are frequently employed
in micellar-polymer flooding operations because they improve sweep efficiency, which increases oil production. The high viscosity of th
mobility buffer aids in the displacement of chemicals into the reservoir and also minimizes the channeling of the final water injection int
the chemical solution or into the resulting oil bank.

A condition in oil recovery processes whereby the mobility of the injectant is lower than that of the oil or preceding chemical slug, leadin
to a stable displacement by the injectant. Commonly the injectant is water containing a soluble polymer that increases its viscosity.
Micellar-polymer floods incorporate a mobility buffer to maximize the sweep efficiency of the injected chemical and associated oil bank

The mobility of an injectant divided by that of the fluid it is displacing, such as oil. The mobility of the oil is defined ahead of
the displacement front while that of the injectant is defined behind the displacement front, so the respective effective permeability value
are evaluated at different saturations.
Abbreviation for mils (thousandths of an inch) per year penetration, a unit of measurement for the corrosion rate of a coupon.
A dynamic fluid-mixing process in which an injected gas exchanges components with in situ oil until the phases achieve a state of
miscibility within the mixing zone of the flood front. In a vaporizing drive, light and intermediate components from the oil phase enter the
gas phase. By contrast, in a condensing drive, intermediate components from the gas phase enter the oil phase. The process may be
combination of vaporizing and condensing drives.
N
A process whereby nitrogen gas is injected into an oil reservoir to increase the oil recovery factor. Below the minimum
miscibility pressure (MMP), this is an immiscible process in which recovery is increased by oil swelling, viscosity reduction and limited
crude-oil vaporization. Above the MMP, nitrogen injection is a miscible vaporizing drive. Miscibility of nitrogen can be achieved only with
light oils that are at high pressures; therefore, the miscible method is suitable only in deep reservoirs.
 O

A production or injection well that has a lateral or diagonal displacement with respect to the other wells in an injection pattern. The
existence of an off-pattern well affects oil recovery and water/oil ratio.

A production or injection well that has a lateral or diagonal displacement with respect to the other wells in an injection pattern. The
existence of an off-pattern well affects oil recovery and water/oil ratio.
The portion of a reservoir where the oil saturation is increased because of the application of an improved oil recovery method.
A strip-mining process involving the removal and subsequent processing of tar sand from shallow reservoirs containing heavy, viscous
oil. The oil is mostly bitumen and does not flow at reservoir conditions. For strip mining to be economic, the reservoir must be shallow
and have high oil saturation. Strip mining is energy intensive, both in mining the tar sand and in its subsequent processing. Large
amounts of waste material, called gangue, are produced. Companies are usually required to landscape the area when mining is
completed.
An expansion in oil volume that can occur when a solvent contacts a reservoir fluid. The swelling is due to the complete or partial
dissolution of the solvent molecules into the reservoir fluid. The amount of swelling is dependent on the pressure, temperature,
composition and physical properties of the solvent and the reservoir fluid. Reservoir oil swelling can result in improved oil recovery by
mobilizing residual oil trapped in inaccessible pore spaces.

Pertaining to the preference of a solid to be in contact with an oil phase rather than a water or gas phase. Oil-wet rocks preferentially
imbibe oil. Generally, polar compounds or asphaltenes deposited from the crude oil onto mineral surfaces cause the oil-wet condition.
Similar compounds in oil-base mud also can cause a previously water-wet rock to become partially or totally oil-wet.

Pertaining to the preference of a solid to be in contact with an oil phase rather than a water or gas phase. Oil-wet rocks preferentially
imbibe oil. Generally, polar compounds or asphaltenes deposited from the crude oil onto mineral surfaces cause the oil-wet condition.
Similar compounds in oil-base mud also can cause a previously water-wet rock to become partially or totally oil-wet

A type of organic fluid, such as acetic or formic acid, used in oil and gas well-stimulation treatments. The use of inhibited HCl at elevate
temperatures is limited to relatively short exposure times because of the risk of increased corrosion. Inhibited organic acids are much
less reactive with metals than are HCl or mixtures of HCl and HF. For this reason, organic acids are commonly used successfully at hig
bottomhole temperatures or when long contact times between acid and pipe are needed, such as during perforating. Organic acids als
are used to protect exotic alloys, such as aluminum or chrome-plated parts.
A type of damage in which heavy hydrocarbons precipitate when temperature or pressure is reduced. These deposits are commonly
located in the tubing, gravel pack and perforations, or inside the formation. The injection of cold treating fluids promotes the formation o
organic deposits. Organic deposits such as paraffins or asphaltenes are resolubilized using aromatic organic solvents such as toluene
or xylene. Small amounts of alcohol help to further dissolve asphaltenes.
p

A set of techniques used to prevent or considerably reduce paraffin deposition. Paraffin control might involve the following options: · us
of paraffin inhibitors. · maintaining pipe surfaces in a water-wet condition because paraffin will not adhere to water. However, the
presence of natural surfactants in some crude oils converts water-wet surfaces to an oil-wet condition, making this technique effective
only temporarily. · coating the pipe with plastic to provide a smooth surface and reduce paraffin adhesion. · reducing heat transfer to
maintain the oil temperature above its cloud point. Filling the annulus of a well with a fluid that has poorer heat transfer properties than
the oil maintains the temperature of the flowing crude oil above its cloud point.
A chemical injected into the wellbore to prevent or minimize paraffin deposition. The effectiveness of paraffin inhibitors is strongly
dependent on crude oil composition. Paraffin inhibitors must be introduced into the oil before the oil cools to its cloud point. In additiona
asphaltene composition should be determined before treatment because it can reduce the effectiveness of the paraffin inhibitor. In som
cases, the use of a paraffin inhibitor can actually increase the rate of paraffin deposition because the stability of colloidal asphaltenes is
disturbed.
The degree of solubilization of a solute into each of multiple immiscible phases at equilibrium. For example, a water-
soluble surfactant injected as part of an enhanced oil recovery flood will partially solubilize, or partition, in the oil phase. The degree of
partitioning will influence the efficiency of the enhanced oil recovery agent.

A standard laboratory instrument used to measure interfacial tension. The method is particularly applicable to relatively high interfacial
A type of corrosion in which there is loss of metal in localized areas. The corrosion rate in the pits is many times greater than the
corrosion rate on the entire surface. The resultant pits can be large and shallow or narrow and deep. Pitting is a more dangerous
problem than general corrosion because the pitted areas can be easily penetrated.
A polymer with a high molecular weight. The basic repeating unit or monomer of polyacrylamide is a combination of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. Polyacrylamides increase the viscosity of the water slug that precedes the final water injection. Polyacrylamides
are frequently used as mobility-control buffers in micellar-polymer flooding operations.

An enhanced oil recovery technique using water viscosified with soluble polymers. Viscosity is increased until the mobility of the injecta
is less than that of the oil phase in place, so the mobility ratio is less than unity. This condition maximizes oil-recovery sweep efficiency,
creating a smooth flood front without viscous fingering. Polymer flooding is also applied to heterogeneous reservoirs; the viscous
injectant flows along high-permeability layers, decreasing the flow rates within them and enhancing sweep of zones with lower
permeabilities. The two polymers that are used most frequently in polymer flooding are partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide and xantha
A carbohydrate composed of many monosaccharides. Polysaccharides increase the viscosity of the water slug that precedes the final
water injection. However, they are not frequently used in chemical flooding operations because they generate numerous by-products th
can potentially plug filters or well sandfaces, especially when they contact polyvalent cations or bacteria. Polysaccharides are also call
biopolymers.

A reaction by-product. In sandstone acidizing, the reaction between hydrofluoric acids [HF] or spent HF acids with formation minerals
can precipitate nondamaging products, such as silica, borosilicates or fluoborates. However, other insoluble or difficult to remove by-
products can create formation damage. Ferric iron (Fe +3) and ferrous iron (Fe+2) are potential sources for precipitates. Ferric iron prese
in some formation minerals, including chlorite and glauconite clays, and in tubing rust (iron oxide) can precipitate as ferric hydroxide
[Fe(OH)3], which is a gelatinous, highly insoluble mass that can plug pore channels and reduce permeability. The precipitation of ferric
hydroxide or ferrous hydroxide [Fe(OH)2] depends on the pH of the spent acid. The former needs a pH higher than 2.2, while the latter
requires a pH higher than 7.7. Since the maximum pH for a spent acid is approximately 5.3, the precipitation of ferric hydroxide is more
common. Iron-sequestering or iron-reducing agents can be used in acid to maintain the ferric iron in solution. Calcium fluoride [CaF 2]
precipitates when HF contacts calcite or any other calcium source, and alkali-fluosilicates or iron sulfide form crystal-like by-products th
can bridge pore throats. Additionally, some sequestering agents, corrosion inhibitors or friction reducers can also form residues that ma
plug formation pores. The formation of precipitates can be avoided or reduced by using a preflush, which dissolves calcareous materia
iron rust or iron scales, and displaces formation brines (K, Na, Ca ions) away from the wellbore, thereby reducing the formation of CaF
ferric hydroxide and alkali-fluosilicates.
A fluid stage, normally hydrochloric acid [HCl], pumped ahead of the main treating fluid (mixture of hydrofluoric [HF] and hydrochloric
[HCl] or organic acids) in a sandstone matrix-stimulation treatment. One of the purposes of a preflush is to displace formation brines th
contain K, Na, Ca ions away from the wellbore, decreasing the possibility of crystallizing alkali-fluosilicates that could plug the pores. T
other purpose of a preflush is to dissolve calcareous materials to minimize calcium fluoride [CaF 2] precipitation, and to dissolve
iron scale or rust to avoid the precipitation of the gelatinous, highly insoluble ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH) 3]. Multiple preflush stages using
brines such as ammonium chloride [NH4Cl] or solvents are used when multiple damage types are present. A preflush is sometimes call
a spearhead.

A graphical representation indicating phase behavior for variation of saturation pressure and injection gas concentration at a given
temperature. The diagram indicates conditions for single-phase and two-phase behavior and, within the two-phase region, lines of
constant volume fraction, termed quality lines. The diagram is constructed using swelling test saturation pressures and liquid volumes.

Also known as primary recovery, the first stage of hydrocarbon production, in which natural reservoir energy, such
as gasdrive, waterdrive or gravity drainage, displaces hydrocarbons from the reservoir, into the wellbore and up to surface. Initially, the
reservoir pressure is considerably higher than the bottomhole pressure inside the wellbore. This high natural differential pressure drive
hydrocarbons toward the well and up to surface. However, as the reservoir pressure declines because of production, so does the
differential pressure. To reduce the bottomhole pressure or increase the differential pressure to increase hydrocarbon production, it is
necessary to implement an artificial lift system, such as a rod pump, an electrical submersible pump or a gas-lift installation. Production
using artificial lift is considered primary recovery. The primary recovery stage reaches its limit either when the reservoir pressure is so
low that the production rates are not economical, or when the proportions of gas or water in the production stream are too high. During
primary recovery, only a small percentage of the initial hydrocarbons in place are produced, typically around 10% for oil reservoirs.

The first stage of hydrocarbon production, in which natural reservoir energy, such as gasdrive, waterdrive or gravity drainage, displaces
hydrocarbons from the reservoir, into the wellbore and up to surface. Initially, the reservoir pressure is considerably higher than
the bottomhole pressure inside the wellbore. This high natural differential pressure drives hydrocarbons toward the well and up to
surface. However, as the reservoir pressure declines because of production, so does the differential pressure. To reduce the bottomho
pressure or increase the differential pressure to increase hydrocarbon production, it is necessary to implement an artificial lift system,
such as a rod pump, an electrical submersible pump or a gas-lift installation. Production using artificial lift is considered primary recove
The primary recovery stage reaches its limit either when the reservoir pressure is so low that the production rates are not economical,
when the proportions of gas or water in the production stream are too high. During primary recovery, only a small percentage of the init
hydrocarbons in place are produced, typically around 10% for oil reservoirs. Primary recovery is also called primary production.
An abbreviation for pressure, volume, temperature. The term is used in fluid properties evaluations.
R

The recoverable amount of hydrocarbon initially in place, normally expressed as a percentage. The recovery factor is a function of
the displacement mechanism. An important objective of enhanced oil recovery is to increase the recovery factor.

A chemical added to an acid to stabilize iron. The injected acid dissolves iron from rust, millscale, iron scales or iron-containing mineral
in the formation. Iron can exist as ferric iron [Fe +3] or ferrous iron [Fe+2]. If the iron is not controlled, it will precipitate insoluble products
such as ferric hydroxide and, in sour environments, ferrous sulfide [FeS], which will damage the formation. Reducing agents change or
reduce Fe+3 to Fe+2 to avoid precipitation. Erythorbic acid is an effective reducing agent.
Natural forces in the reservoir that displace hydrocarbons out of the reservoir into the wellbore and up to surface. Reservoir-drive
mechanisms include gasdrive (gas cap or solution gasdrive), waterdrive (bottomwater drive or edgewater drive), combination drive,
and gravity drainage. Waterdrive is the most efficient drive mechanism, followed by gasdrive and gravity drainage. Reservoir-drive
mechanisms are also called natural drives.

The variations in rock properties in a reservoir. The variations can result in directional variations in permeability. Geological processes,
such as sedimentation, diagenesis and erosion, act to produce nonuniformities in rock formations. Because there are so many types o
reservoir heterogeneities, a unique interpretation of test results from pressure data alone is often impossible. Expert test interpreters re
heavily on experience, core analysis, well logs and knowledge of the geology specific to the region.
Natural forces in the reservoir that displace hydrocarbons out of the reservoir into the wellbore and up to surface. Reservoir-drive
mechanisms include gasdrive (gas cap or solution gasdrive), waterdrive (bottomwater drive or edgewater drive), combination drive,
and gravity drainage. Waterdrive is the most efficient drive mechanism, followed by gasdrive and gravity drainage. Reservoir-drive
mechanisms are also called natural drives.

Oil that does not move when fluids are flowed through the rock in normal conditions, for example primary and secondary recovery,
and invasion.

A test for water mud or oil mud, also known as the water, oil and solids test. Proper procedures for retort tests have been published by
API. The test is a distillation of a mud sample that measures condensed oil and water collected from the retort. Data obtained are: (1)
vol. % water, (2) vol. % oil and (3) vol. % retort solids. Retort solids is the volume that was not recovered as a liquid. Three sizes of reto
apparatus are available: 10-, 20- and 50-cm3 mud sample size. Some designs have a small oven in the carrying case to heat the samp
(the preferred method for oil muds) while others use a blade heater that goes into the mud sample. Retorts should be heated to around
700°F [371°C] to be effective.

A type of in-situ combustion in which the burning front moves in an opposite direction to the injected air. Initially, air is injected into
a production well and the fire is ignited. After the burning front has advanced some distance from the production well, air is supplied on
near the injection well. The burning front advances toward the injection well while the oil moves toward the production well. Reverse
combustion actually refers to dry reverse combustion and can be used to recover extremely viscous oil or tar. In reverse combustion,
the liquid blocking problem is solved because a hot zone is maintained near the production well. Despite this advantage, this process i
not as efficient as dry forward combustion because lighter fractions of the oil are burned and heavier fractions are left behind the burnin
front. Another drawback is the possibility of a spontaneous ignition in the injector well, which will divert air for combustion near the
injector well instead of near the producer.

A type of bimetallic corrosion. Ringworm corrosion has the shape of a ring and is located a few inches from the pipe upset. The ring ca
either be very smooth or have severe pitting. Ringworm corrosion is caused by the upsetting process, in which the heat required for
upsetting creates two different grain structures, one in the upset and another in the rest of the pipe. This condition can be avoided by
fully normalizing the pipe after upsetting. To normalize the pipe, heat is applied to change the grains to a uniform structure.

A laboratory device used to indicate miscibility between reservoir oil and injection gas. A gas bubble is injected into an oil-filled visual c
at a given temperature and test pressure. The change in shape of the rising bubble indicates its miscibility with the oil at those
conditions. Below the minimum miscibility pressure (MMP), the bubble holds its shape as it rises. Above the MMP, the bubble shape
changes as it rises; it may disintegrate, dissolve or disappear into the oil. Testing at several pressures helps determine the MMP
between the gas and oil. The rising-bubble test represents a forward-contacting miscibility process and therefore may not accurately
estimate the MMP for a backward or combined contact mechanism.
S
The study of and description of sandstones, including the mineral content. In matrix stimulation, only the mineral surfaces contacted by
the stimulation fluid will be dissolved, so a petrographic study often helps anticipate the rocks response to fluid
injection. Sandstone reservoirs are made of silicate grains such as quartz, feldspar, chert and mica, which are deposited as sand;
secondary minerals may be deposited in the original pore spaces. Secondary quartz or carbonate minerals often bind sand grains
together. Authigenic clays, mainly composed of silicon and aluminum, may also form in the pores. The reactivity of a given mineral
depends on three factors: surface area, chemical composition and temperature. Clays have greater specific surface area compared wi
other matrix minerals, which makes them the most reactive components during well-stimulation operations.
Special core analysis laboratory.

[Drilling Fluids] A deposit or coating formed on the surface of metal, rock or other material. Scale is caused by a precipitation due to a
chemical reaction with the surface, precipitation caused by chemical reactions, a change in pressure or temperature, or a change in the
composition of a solution. The term is also applied to a corrosion product. Typical scales are calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, barium
sulfate, strontium sulfate, iron sulfide, iron oxides, iron carbonate, the various silicates and phosphates and oxides, or any of a number
compounds insoluble or slightly soluble in water.

[Well Completions] A mineral salt deposit that may occur on wellbore tubulars and components as the saturation of produced water is
affected by changing temperature and pressure conditions in the production conduit. In severe conditions, scale creates a significant
restriction, or even a plug, in the production tubing. Scale removal is a common well-intervention operation, with a wide range of
mechanical, chemical and scale inhibitor treatment options available.
A type of inhibition treatment used to control or prevent scale deposition. In a scale-inhibitor squeeze, the inhibitor is pumped into a
water-producing zone. The inhibitor is attached to the formation matrix by chemical adsorption or by temperature-
activated precipitation and returns with the produced fluid at sufficiently high concentrations to avoid scale precipitation. Some chemica
used in scale-inhibitor squeezes are phosphonated carboxylic acids or polymers.

A common well-intervention operation involving a wide variety of mechanical scale-inhibitor treatments and chemical options. Mechanic
removal is done by means of a pig or by abrasive jetting that cuts scale but leaves the tubing untouched. Scale-inhibition treatments
involve squeezing a chemical inhibitor into a water-producing zone for subsequent commingling with produced fluids, preventing furthe
scale precipitation. Chemical removal is performed with different solvents according to the type of scale: · Carbonate scales such
as calcium carbonate or calcite [CaCO3] can be readily dissolved with hydrochloric acid [HCl] at temperatures less than 250 oF [121oC].
Sulfate scales such as gypsum [CaSO4·2H2O] or anhydrite [CaSO4] can be readily dissolved using ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
(EDTA). The dissolution of barytine [BaSO4] or strontianite [SrSO4] is much more difficult. · Chloride scales such as sodium chloride
[NaCl] are easily dissolved with fresh water or weak acidic solutions, including HCl or acetic acid. · Iron scales such as iron sulfide [FeS
or iron oxide [Fe2O3] can be dissolved using HCl with sequestering or reducing agents to avoid precipitation of by-products, for exampl
iron hydroxides and elemental sulfur. · Silica scales such as crystallized deposits of chalcedony or amorphous opal normally associate
with steamflood projects can be dissolved with hydrofluoric acid [HF].
A type of inhibition treatment used to control or prevent scale deposition. In a scale-inhibitor squeeze, the inhibitor is pumped into a
water-producing zone. The inhibitor is attached to the formation matrix by chemical adsorption or by temperature-
activated precipitation and returns with the produced fluid at sufficiently high concentrations to avoid scale precipitation. Some chemica
used in scale-inhibitor squeezes are phosphonated carboxylic acids or polymers.
Equipment placed in a pipeline for inserting or retrieving a pipeline scraper (pig).
A preliminary assessment of the suitability of a reservoir for a particular process or development methodology. The assessment
compares the reservoir characteristics to a number of screening criteria. The criteria are developed by studying the reservoir
characteristics of similar past projects and identifying the ones that influenced success or failure of the process or methodology, or are
consistently present where the process or methodology succeeded or failed.
The second stage of hydrocarbon production during which an external fluid such as water or gas is injected into the reservoir through
injection wells located in rock that has fluid communication with production wells. The purpose of secondary recovery is to maintain
reservoir pressure and to displace hydrocarbons toward the wellbore. The most common secondary recovery techniques are gas
injection and waterflooding. Normally, gas is injected into the gas cap and water is injected into the production zone to sweep oil from t
reservoir. A pressure-maintenance program can begin during the primary recovery stage, but it is a form or enhanced recovery. The
secondary recovery stage reaches its limit when the injected fluid (water or gas) is produced in considerable amounts from the
production wells and the production is no longer economical. The successive use of primary recovery and secondary recovery in an oil
reservoir produces about 15% to 40% of the original oil in place.

In matrix stimulation, a characteristic of rock that indicates the degree of reaction between the rock minerals and a given treating fluid.
A formation is described as sensitive if a given stimulating fluid damages the formation. The detrimental reactions include disaggregatio
and collapse of the matrix, release of fines or formation of precipitates. Sensitivity depends on the overall reactivity of the formation
minerals with the fluid; reactivity depends on the structure of the rock and the distribution of minerals within the
rock. Sandstone sensitivity also depends on permeability; low-permeability formations are normally more sensitive than high-permeabi
sandstones for a given mineralogy because certain types of damage, such as formation of precipitates, are more harmful in
small pore throats (as in low-permeability formations).

Another term for chelating agent, a chemical added to an acid to stabilize iron. The injected acid dissolves iron from rust, millscale, iron
scales or iron-containing minerals in the formation. Iron can exist as ferric iron [Fe +3] or ferrous iron [Fe+2]. If the iron is not controlled, it
will precipitate insoluble products such as ferric hydroxide and, in sour environments, ferrous sulfide [FeS], which will damage the
formation. Chelating agents associate with iron [Fe +3 or Fe+2] to form soluble complexes. Citric acid, acetic acid and EDTA are effective
chelating agents and can be used at temperatures up to 400 oF [204oC].

Bacteria that can live with or without oxygen and produce mats of high-density slime that cover surfaces. Their primary detrimental
effects are the protection of sulfate-reducing bacteria and pore plugging.

Bacteria that can live with or without oxygen and produce mats of high-density slime that cover surfaces. Their primary detrimental effe

A laboratory test used to estimate the minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) or minimum miscibility concentration (MMC) of a given
injection solvent and reservoir oil. The slim tube is a long coiled tube filled with sand of a specific mesh size or similar porous media. Th
tube is saturated at the beginning of each test with reservoir fluid at a given temperature. Solvent injection is performed at several test
pressures. Effluent production, density and composition are measured as functions of the injected volume. Oil recovery after injection o
a specific number of pore volumes (PV) such as 1.2 PV of solvent is the test criterion for miscibility. Two trend lines appear on a plot of
recovery versus pore pressure for several slim-tube tests. The point of intersection of those trend lines is the estimated MMP for the
given oil-solvent system. The data from a slim tube test can also be used as input to fine-tune a fluid equation of state for reservoir
simulation.
A thick, viscous emulsion containing oil, water, sediment and residue that forms because of the incompatibility of certain native crude o
and strong inorganic acids used in well treatments. Use of certain additives, such as surfactants, or the presence of dissolved iron can
promote sludge formation, especially if asphaltenes are present in the crude oil. Therefore, it is important to test a sample of crude with
the treating fluid before injecting a treatment into a reservoir.
In cyclic steam injection, the second phase between the steam-injection phase and the production phase. During the soak phase, the
well is shut in for several days to allow uniform heat distribution to thin the oil.

The maximum amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature and pressure, or the degre
to which a substance will dissolve in a particular solvent. The solubility of a substance is its concentration in a saturated solution. Two
fluids that are soluble in one another in all proportions are also referred to as miscible.
A type of reservoir-drive mechanism in which the energy for the transport and production of reservoir fluids is provided by the gas
dissolved in the liquid. As reservoir fluids enter the wellbore, changing pressure conditions cause the gas to break from solution to crea
a commingled flow of gas and liquid that aids production.
The corrosion caused by contact with hydrogen sulfide [H 2S] dissolved in water. Sour corrosion takes the form
of sulfide stress cracking or hydrogen embrittlement.

A standard laboratory instrument to measure interfacial tension. The method is particularly applicable to values of interfacial tension
below 1 mN/m and especially below 10-2 mN/m, as may occur when employing surfactants for enhanced oil recovery. The method
utilizes a tube containing a drop of the less-dense phase within the more-dense phase. When the tube is spun along its long axis at hig
speed, the resulting forces center the drop on the tube axis and deform it. The interfacial tension is a function of the shape of the
deformed drop, the liquid densities and the rotation speed. Advanced versions of the instrument can periodically vary the rotation rate.
The phase lag between the change of rotation rate and the drop deformation can be used to determine both interfacial elasticity and
interfacial viscosity.

A type of batch-treating technique used in corrosion control. The batch of corrosion inhibitor is displaced through the annulus to the
bottom of the well. Once the inhibitor is at the bottom, it is circulated up the tubing and returned back into the annulus, leaving a
considerable amount of inhibitor in the annulus for further circulation. A standard batch treatment is used mainly in pumping wells and
could last from a day to several months depending on the specific corrosion inhibitor used.

A two-phase mixture of liquid water and steam produced from a generator. The latent heat of vaporization for steam is very high, and
when the steam condenses in the reservoir a significant amount of heat is transferred from the steam to the formation rock and fluids.
Since steam is lighter and more mobile than oil, gravity differences and channeling of the steam through the most permeable parts of t
reservoir can create sweep efficiency problems during steam-injection processes. To increase sweep efficiency, there are two categorie
of improvements. The first is operational changes such as selective completion of injector wells, fracturing operations and constructing
horizontal wells, and the second is the use of additives in the steam. For example, water-soluble surfactants modify interfacial propertie
of the oil-water system, and foams reduce steam mobility.

The volume of reservoir in which mobile steam exists for an extended period of time. Within the steam chamber, rock temperature rises
to the point where steam vapor can be sustained at reservoir pressure conditions. The steam chamber is normally found in the upper
portion of a reservoir sand between a steam injector and a producer, where steam has broken through to the producer. With time, the
steam chamber can expand to cover an entire area of a five-spot pattern steamflood. For a steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)
system, the steam chamber in a mature field project can extend from a broad area across the top of the sand to a narrow finger down t
the producing horizontal well near the bottom of the sand. Also referred to as a steam chest.

A method of thermal recovery in which steam generated at surface is injected into the reservoir through specially distributed injection
wells. When steam enters the reservoir, it heats up the crude oil and reduces its viscosity. The heat also distills light components of the
crude oil, which condense in the oil bank ahead of the steam front, further reducing the oil viscosity. The hot water that condenses from
the steam and the steam itself generate an artificial drive that sweeps oil toward producing wells. Another contributing factor that
enhances oil production during steam injection is related to near-wellbore cleanup. In this case, steam reduces the interfacial
tension that ties paraffins and asphaltenes to the rock surfaces while steam distillation of crude oil light ends creates a small solvent
bank that can miscibly remove trapped oil. Steamflooding is also called continuous steam injection or steam drive.

Parameter used to monitor the efficiency of oil production processes based on steam injection. Commonly abbreviated as SOR, it
measures the volume of steam required to produce one unit volume of oil. Typical values of SOR for cyclic steam stimulation are in the
range of three to eight, while typical SOR values for steam assisted gravity drainage are in the range of two to five. The lower the SOR
the more efficiently the steam is utilized and the lower the associated fuel costs.
Another term for soak phase, in cyclic steam injection, the second phase between the steam-injection phase and the production phase
During the soak phase, the well is shut in for several days to allow uniform heat distribution to thin the oil.
A barrier or resistance to the flow of injected steam formed by a volume around a producing well in a steamflood that contains high oil
and liquid water saturation. This is typically maintained by choking the production well to keep the surrounding formation just below
saturated steam temperature and pressure conditions. It is used in the steam-assisted gravity-drainage process.
A thermal production method for heavy oil that pairs a high-angle injection well with a nearby production well drilled along a parallel
trajectory. The pair of high-angle wells is drilled with a vertical separation of about 5 m [16 ft]. Steam is injected into the reservoir throug
the upper well. As the steam rises and expands, it heats up the heavy oil, reducing its viscosity. Gravity forces the oil to drain into the
lower well where it is produced.

A method of thermal recovery in which steam generated at surface is injected into the reservoir through specially distributed injection
wells. When steam enters the reservoir, it heats up the crude oil and reduces its viscosity. The heat also distills light components of the
crude oil, which condense in the oil bank ahead of the steam front, further reducing the oil viscosity. The hot water that condenses from
the steam and the steam itself generate an artificial drive that sweeps oil toward producing wells. Another contributing factor that
enhances oil production during steam injection is related to near-wellbore cleanup. In this case, steam reduces the interfacial
tension that ties paraffins and asphaltenes to the rock surfaces while steam distillation of crude oil light ends creates a small solvent
bank that can miscibly remove trapped oil. Steamflooding is also called continuous steam injection or steam drive.
Parameter used to monitor the efficiency of oil production processes based on steam injection. Commonly abbreviated as SOR, it
measures the volume of steam required to produce one unit volume of oil. Typical values of SOR for cyclic steam stimulation are in the
range of three to eight, while typical SOR values for steam assisted gravity drainage are in the range of two to five. The lower the SOR
the more efficiently the steam is utilized and the lower the associated fuel costs.

A treatment performed to restore or enhance the productivity of a well. Stimulation treatments fall into two main groups, hydraulic
fracturing treatments and matrix treatments. Fracturing treatments are performed above the fracture pressure of
the reservoir formation and create a highly conductive flow path between the reservoir and the wellbore. Matrix treatments are perform
below the reservoir fracture pressure and generally are designed to restore the natural permeability of the reservoir following damage t
the near-wellbore area. Stimulation in shale gas reservoirs typically takes the form of hydraulic fracturing treatments

The volume of oil in a reservoir prior to production.

The volume of oil in a reservoir prior to production.

A chemical that preferentially adsorbs at an interface, lowering the surface tension or interfacial tension between fluids or between a flu
and a solid. This term encompasses a multitude of materials that function as emulsifiers, dispersants, oil-wetters, water-wetters, foame
and defoamers. The type of surfactant behavior depends on the structural groups on the molecule (or mixture of molecules). Hydrophil
lipophile balance (HLB) number helps define the function that a molecular group will perform
An enhanced oil recovery process in which a small amount of surfactant is added to an aqueous fluid injected to sweep the reservoir.
The presence of surfactant reduces the interfacial tension between the oil and water phases and also alters the wettability of the
reservoir rock to improve oil recovery.

An enhanced oil recovery process in which alternating slugs of a surfactant solution and gas are injected into a reservoir. The injected
surfactant and gas mix and generate foam that reduces the gas mobility, especially in previously swept or high-permeability regions of
the reservoir. This improves sweep efficiency by mitigating gravity override and viscous fingering during gas injection. The presence of
the surfactant in the injectant can also improve recovery by reducing interfacial tension between reservoir oil and the injection phases.
A measure of the effectiveness of an enhanced oil recovery process that depends on the volume of the reservoir contacted by the
injected fluid. The volumetric sweep efficiency is an overall result that depends on the injection pattern selected, off-pattern wells,
fractures in the reservoir, position of gas-oil and oil/water contacts, reservoir thickness, permeability and areal and
vertical heterogeneity, mobility ratio, density difference between the displacing and the displaced fluid, and flow rate
1. n. [Well Completions] The deterioration of metal due to contact with carbon dioxide or similar corrosive agents, but excluding hydrog
sulfide [H2S]. Sweet corrosion typically results in pitting or material loss and occurs where steel is exposed to carbon dioxide and
moisture. 2. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery] The corrosion caused by contact with carbon dioxide [CO2] dissolved in water. In gas
condensate wells, sweet corrosion takes the form of deep pitting inside the tubing walls. The pitting is produced only at depths where t
acidic gas contacts condensed water droplets.

[Heavy Oil, Enhanced Oil Recovery] Abbreviation for thermal enhanced oil recovery, also known as thermal recovery, a general term fo
injection processes that introduce heat into a reservoir. Thermal recovery is used to produce viscous, thick oils with API gravities less
than 20. These oils cannot flow unless they are heated and their viscosity is reduced enough to allow flow toward producing wells.
During thermal recovery, crude oil undergoes physical and chemical changes because of the effects of the heat supplied. Physical
properties such as viscosity, specific gravity and interfacial tension are altered. The chemical changes involve different reactions such a
cracking, which is the destruction of carbon-carbon bonds to generate lower molecular weight compounds, and dehydrogenation, whic
is the rupture of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Thermal recovery is a major branch of enhanced oil recovery processes and can be subdivid
in two types: hot fluid injection such as steam injection (steamflood or cyclic steam injection) and hot waterflooding and in-situ
combustion processes.
A graphical representation of concentrations in a system with three components. Since the sum of the component percentages is unity
any composition can be uniquely mapped to a single point within a triangular space. In many cases, a mixture of fluids with more than
three components is divided into three pseudocomponents, such as light, intermediate and heavy components of a hydrocarbon phase
These diagrams are used to illustrate the phase behavior of a fluid.

Traditionally, the third stage of hydrocarbon production, comprising recovery methods that follow waterflooding or pressure maintenanc
The principal tertiary recovery techniques used are thermal methods, gas injection and chemical flooding. The term is sometimes used
as a synonym for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), but because EOR methods today may be applied at any stage of reservoir developme
the term tertiary recovery is less commonly used than in the past.

A general term for injection processes that introduce heat into a reservoir. Thermal recovery is used to produce viscous, thick oils with
API gravities less than 20. These oils cannot flow unless they are heated and their viscosity is reduced enough to allow flow toward
producing wells. During thermal recovery, crude oil undergoes physical and chemical changes because of the effects of the heat
supplied. Physical properties such as viscosity, specific gravity and interfacial tension are altered. The chemical changes involve differe
reactions such as cracking, which is the destruction of carbon-carbon bonds to generate lower molecular weight compounds, and
dehydrogenation, which is the rupture of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Thermal recovery is a major branch of enhanced oil recovery
processes and can be subdivided in two types: hot fluid injection such as steam injection (steamflood or cyclic steam injection) and hot
waterflooding and in-situ combustion processes.
The finite-difference or finite-element reservoir simulation that includes energy equations and calculations used to describe heat
conduction, heat and fluid convection, and latent heat exchanges occurring in the reservoir rock and fluids during a thermal recovery
process such as steamflooding, steam assisted gravity drainage, or in-situ combustion. Combustion thermal simulation also requires
equations for modeling combustion reaction kinetics.
In a ternary diagram, a graphical representation of two fluids being mixed. The ends of the tie line indicate the compositional
concentrations of the two mixed fluids. The composition of the mixture lies on the line, with its position dependent on the concentration
ratio of the two end-point fluids.
An in-situ combustion method for producing heavy oil. In this technique, the fireflooding starts from a vertical well, while the oil is
produced from a horizontal well having its toe in close proximity to the vertical air-injection well. This production method is a modificatio
of conventional fire flooding techniques in which the flame front from a vertical well pushes the oil to be produced from another vertical
well.
Oil in pore spaces that cannot be moved because of capillary forces. Typical trapped or residual oil saturation is in the range of 10% to
50% of the pore space, and it is higher in tighter formations where the pore spaces are small. The amount of trapped oil is a function o
the displacement method and conditions, making this oil a target for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes. EOR methods introduce
fluids that reduce viscosity, interfacial tension or mobility ratio, and thus improve flow and sweep efficiency to release the residual oil.
A type of batch-treating technique used in corrosion control in which a batch of corrosion inhibitor is displaced through the tubing to the
bottom of the well. The well is shut in for 2 to 15 hr and then put back on production. The tubing-displacement technique, also called a
kiss squeeze, is used mainly in wells with packers and in gas-lift wells. The treatment could last from a week to several months
depending on the specific corrosion inhibitor used.

Values of interfacial tension (IFT) less than about 10-2 mN/m. Mixed surfactant systems, as used in enhanced oil recovery, adsorb at th
oil/water interface and can be designed to generate an interface that is flexible and that has an ultralow IFT. Ultralow IFT implies (1) a
significant increase in the capillary number for a given flow velocity and therefore that viscous forces generated during a flood can
mobilize additional oil; and (2) a significant increase in the Bond number and therefore that gravitational forces (i.e., buoyancy) can
mobilize additional oil. Micellar-polymer and alkaline-surfactant-polymer flooding are techniques used to achieve ultralow IFT.
A non-thermal heavy oil production method. Similar in concept to SAGD, in vapor extraction a solvent vapor is used to
reduce viscosity of the heavy oil. The injected solvent vapor expands and dilutes the heavy oil by contact. The diluted heavy oil will dra
by gravity to the lower horizontal well, to be produced.

A gasflood process in which a lean gas, for example methane, nitrogen or carbon dioxide, is injected into a reservoir to achieve multipl
contact miscibility. Upon contact with the oil, light and intermediate molecular-weight hydrocarbons transfer from the oil into the
gas phase, thus vaporizing into the gas. Formation of miscibility may require several contacts between gas containing vaporized
components and fresh reservoir oil. If the injected gas becomes sufficiently enriched with these components that miscibility results with
the oil, then the lean gas and oil have multiple-contact miscibility. A forward multiple-contact test is a laboratory evaluation of a vaporizi
drive process. In the field, both forward- and backward-contact processes can occur during a given gasflood.

In a displacement process, the ratio of the cumulative height of the vertical sections of the pay zone that are contacted by injection fluid
to the total vertical pay zone height. Vertical displacement efficiency (EI) strongly depends on parameters such as mobility ratio and tot
volume of fluid injected. Nonuniform permeability may cause an irregular front that affects the vertical displacement efficiency because
the injected fluid flows faster in high-permeability zones than in low-permeability zones.
Another term for vertical displacement efficiency, in a displacement process, the ratio of the cumulative height of the vertical sections o
the pay zone that are contacted by injection fluid to the total vertical pay zone height. Vertical displacement efficiency (EI) strongly
depends on parameters such as mobility ratio and total volume of fluid injected. Nonuniform permeability may cause an irregular front
that affects the vertical displacement efficiency because the injected fluid flows faster in high-permeability zones than in low-permeabili
zones.
A condition whereby the interface of two fluids, such as oil and water, bypasses sections of reservoir as it moves along, creating an
uneven, or fingered, profile. Fingering is a relatively common condition in reservoirs with water-injection wells. The result of fingering is
an inefficient sweeping action that can bypass significant volumes of recoverable oil and, in severe cases, an early breakthrough of
water into adjacent production wellbores.

A measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. Viscous forces in a fluid are proportional to the rate at which the fluid velocity is changing in
space; the proportionality constant is the viscosity. For Newtonian liquids (liquids that show no variation of viscosity with shear or
extension rate), the ratio of extensional viscosity to shear viscosity is 3. This value is Trouton's ratio. For more complex liquids, for
example, polymer solutions, Trouton's ratio can be different from 3 and can vary with shear or extension rate.
Crude oil with high viscosity (typically above 10 cp), and high specific gravity. The API classifies heavy oil as crudes with a gravity belo
22.3° API. In addition to high viscosity and high specific gravity, heavy oils typically have low hydrogen-to-carbon ratios, high asphalten
sulfur, nitrogen, and heavy-metal content, as well as higher acid numbers.
Another term for volumetric sweep efficiency, a measure of the effectiveness of an enhanced oil recovery process that depends on the
volume of the reservoir contacted by the injected fluid. The volumetric sweep efficiency is an overall result that depends on the injection
pattern selected, off-pattern wells, fractures in the reservoir, position of gas-oil and oil/water contacts, reservoir
thickness, permeability and areal and vertical heterogeneity, mobility ratio, density difference between the displacing and the displaced
fluid, and flow rate.

A measure of the effectiveness of an enhanced oil recovery process that depends on the volume of the reservoir contacted by the
injected fluid. The volumetric sweep efficiency is an overall result that depends on the injection pattern selected, off-pattern wells,
fractures in the reservoir, position of gas-oil and oil/water contacts, reservoir thickness, permeability and areal and
vertical heterogeneity, mobility ratio, density difference between the displacing and the displaced fluid, and flow rate.
An enhanced oil recovery process whereby water injection and gas injection are carried out alternately for periods of time to provide
better sweep efficiency and reduce gas channeling from injector to producer. This process is used mostly in CO2 floods to
improve hydrocarbon contact time and sweep efficiency of the CO2.
An enhanced oil recovery process whereby water injection and gas injection are carried out alternately for periods of time to provide
better sweep efficiency and reduce gas channeling from injector to producer. This process is used mostly in CO 2 floods to
improve hydrocarbon contact time and sweep efficiency of the CO 2.

A reservoir-drive mechanism whereby the oil is driven through the reservoir by an active aquifer. As the reservoir depletes, the water
moving in from the aquifer below displaces the oil until the aquifer energy is expended or the well eventually produces too much water
be viable.

A method of secondary recovery in which water is injected into the reservoir formation to displace residual oil. The water from injection
wells physically sweeps the displaced oil to adjacent production wells. Potential problems associated with waterflood techniques includ
inefficient recovery due to variable permeability, or similar conditions affecting fluid transport within the reservoir, and early
water breakthrough that may cause production and surface processing problems

1. adj. [Enhanced Oil Recovery, Well Completions] Pertaining to the adhesion of a liquid to the surface of a solid. In water-wet condition
a thin film of water coats the surface of the formation matrix, a condition that is desirable for efficient oil transport. Treatments that
change the wettability of the formation from water-wet to oil-wet can significantly impair productivity.2. adj. [Formation
Evaluation]Describing the preference of a solid to be in contact with a water phase rather than an oil or gas phase. Water-wet rocks
preferentially imbibe water. Generally, sandstones and carbonates are water-wet before contact with crude oil, but may be altered by
components of the crude oil to become oil-wet. Certain minerals, as well as different crystallographic faces of the same mineral, may b
variably prone to being oil- or water-wet.
The first indication of increased crude-oil production as the result of a waterflooding project.

A treatment performed to restore or enhance the productivity of a well. Stimulation treatments fall into two main groups, hydraulic
fracturing treatments and matrix treatments. Fracturing treatments are performed above the fracture pressure of the reservoir formation
and create a highly conductive flow path between the reservoir and the wellbore. Matrix treatments are performed below the reservoir
fracture pressure and generally are designed to restore the natural permeability of the reservoir following damage to the near-wellbore
area. Stimulation in shale gas reservoirs typically takes the form of hydraulic fracturing treatments.

An in situ combustion technique in which water is injected simultaneously or alternately with air into a formation. Wet combustion actua
refers to wet forward combustion and was developed to use the great amount of heat that would otherwise be lost in the formation. The
injected water recovers the heat from behind the burning front and transfers it to the oil bank ahead. Because of this additional energy,
the oil displacement is more efficient and requires less air. In spite of these advantages, a wet combustion process cannot avoid liquid-
blocking problems and use of wet combustion is limited by the oil viscosity. Wet combustion is also called in situ steam generation or a
combination of forward combustion and waterflooding, which is abbreviated as COFCAW.
The preference of a solid to contact one liquid or gas, known as the wetting phase, rather than another. The wetting phase will tend to
spread on the solid surface and a porous solid will tend to imbibe the wetting phase, in both cases displacing the nonwetting phase.
Rocks can be water-wet, oil-wet or intermediate-wet. The intermediate state between water-wet and oil-wet can be caused by a mixed-
wet system, in which some surfaces or grains are water-wet and others are oil-wet, or a neutral-wet system, in which the surfaces are
not strongly wet by either water or oil. Both water and oil wet most materials in preference to gas, but gas can wet sulfur, graphite
and coal. Wettability affects relative permeability, electrical properties, nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation times
and saturation profiles in the reservoir. The wetting state impacts waterflooding and aquifer encroachment into a reservoir. Reservoir
wetting preference can be determined by measuring the contact angle of crude oil and formation water on silica or calcite crystals or by
measuring the characteristics of core plugs in either an Amott imbibition test or a USBM test.

A type of damage in which the formation wettability is modified, generating a change in relative permeability that eventually affects well
productivity. Surfactants or other additives in drilling fluids, especially oil-base mud, or other injected fluids can change formation
wettability. A naturally water-wet formation could be changed into an oil-wet formation with consequent production impairment caused b
reduction of oil relative permeability. Wettability change is normally treated with mutual solvents to remove the rock-
oil coating (asphaltene or paraffin precipitation), followed by a strong water-wet surfactant to reduce the tendency of
further hydrocarbon precipitation.

A distinction among three phase behaviors of oil, water and surfactant systems when they form a microemulsion. The salinity of
the brine phase is an important parameter influencing which type of behavior occurs. To test for the type of system, surfactant is added
to an oil-water system. In a Winsor Type I system, the surfactant forms an oil-in-water microemulsion in the aqueous phase. This
behavior is not favorable to achieve ultralow interfacial tension with surfactants. In a Winsor Type II system, the surfactant forms a wate
in-oil emulsion in the oil phase. This behavior leads to surfactant retention in the oil phase and is unfavorable for an enhanced
oil recovery (EOR) process. In a Winsor Type III system, the surfactant forms a microemulsion in a separate phase between the oil and
aqueous phases. This phase is a continuous layer containing surfactant, water and dissolved hydrocarbons. This situation is ideal to
achieve ultralow interfacial tension values and is favorable for EOR.

1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery] A large, empty channel that can penetrate several feet into the formation, caused by the nonuniform
dissolution of limestone or dolomite by hydrochloric acid [HCl]. Wormholes are created during matrix stimulation or acid fracturing of
carbonate formations. The purpose of matrix stimulation is to create highly conductive wormholes to bypass damage. However, in
fracture acidizing, wormholing is a problem, since it is an unwanted diversion of the live acid from the hydraulic fracture system, which
causes a reduction of the etched fracture length. 2. n. [Heavy Oil]
A high-porosity, high-permeability channel that develops when heavy oil is produced simultaneously with sand (during cold heavy oil
production with sand, or CHOPS). Wormholes develop in a radial pattern away from the borehole and can extend 150 m [492 ft] from t
borehole. The development of wormholes can cause reservoir pressure to fall below the bubblepoint, resulting in dissolved gas coming
out of solution and forming foamy oil.
1. n. [Enhanced Oil Recovery]
A relationship describing the pressure difference across an interface between two fluids at a static, curved interface. This relationship
defines the capillary pressure difference at such an interface.

(1.) Pc = σ (1/R1 + 1/R2),

(2.) Pc = 2σ/r,

where
Pc = capillary pressure
σ = interfacial tension between the fluids
R1, R2 = principal radii of curvature of the interface
r = capillary radius.
Capillary NC = Ca = σ = surface or
μ = fluid U = fluid
number where capillary interfacial
viscosity velocity
equation: number tension.

NC = Ca = (μU) / σ
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