1

SEMINAR REPORT

On

“Topic Name”

Submitted in

Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for BCA I Yr.

Session: 2018-19

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Faculty:Miss Krupali KUSHAL JAIN
Designation:. Regn. No 19BCAN043
ASST. PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF IT & CA

JECRC UNIVERSITY, JAIPUR

2019
 2

Ouline of the Presentation

• GSM Technology ……………………………………………………….. 04-05

• Techniques used in GSM……………………………………………….06-10
• Features of GSM ………………………………………………………..11
• CDMA Technology ……………………………………………………...12-13
• Features of CDMA……………………………………………………….14-25
• CDMA vs GSM ………………………………………………………….26-28
• Advantages of CDMA……………………………………………………29
• Disadvantages of CDMA………………………………………………..30
• Advantages of GSM …………………………………………………….31
• Disadvantages of GSM…………………………………………………. 32
• Reference ……………………………………………………………….33
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FIGURE TABLE
 4

1.GSM TECHNOLOGY
1.1 WHAT IS GSM?

GSM is a mobile communication modem; it is stands for global system for mobile
communication (GSM). The idea of GSM was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1970. It
is widely used mobile communication system in the world. GSM is an open and digital
cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services operates at the
850MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz and 1900MHz frequency bands.

GSM system was developed as a digital system using time division multiple access
(TDMA) technique for communication purpose. A GSM digitizes and reduces the data,
then sends it down through a channel with two different streams of client data, each in its
own particular time slot. The digital system has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of
data rates.

GSM Modem

There are various cell sizes in a GSM system such as macro, micro, pico and umbrella
cells. Each cell varies as per the implementation domain. There are five different cell sizes
in a GSM network macro, micro, pico and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell
varies according to the implementation environment.
 5

1.2 GSM Architecture

GSM network consists of the following components:

 A Mobile Station: It is the mobile phone which consists of the transceiver, the display
and the processor and is controlled by a SIM card operating over the network.
 Base Station Subsystem: It acts as an interface between the mobile station and the
network subsystem. It consists of the Base Transceiver Station which contains the
radio transceivers and handles the protocols for communication with mobiles. It also
consists of the Base Station Controller which controls the Base Transceiver station
and acts as a interface between the mobile station and mobile switching centre.
 Network Subsystem: It provides the basic network connection to the mobile stations.
The basic part of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile Service Switching Centre which
provides access to different networks like ISDN, PSTN etc. It also consists of the Home
Location Register and the Visitor Location Register which provides the call routing and
roaming capabilities of GSM. It also contains the Equipment Identity Register which
maintains an account of all the mobile equipments wherein each mobile is identified
by its own IMEI number. IMEI stands for International Mobile Equipment Identity.

Our modern world is awash with ideas. Some become the raw material of great
technology achievements. Most don’t. The difference in fortune usually comes down to
a pivotal moment along the way. For GSM it all came down to 37 weeks in 1987.

GSM can trace its origins as far back as 1975 when Henry Kieffer from the Swiss PTT
suggested Europe needed to find new spectrum for mobile at 900 MHz – the vital raw
material for radio.

Setting-up of GSM was the next significant milestone. Similar standards activity also
started in USA and Japan. In those countries the standards responsibility for the radio
and the linked network were split between different standards bodies. A similar split had
existed inside CEPT. The critical decision in 1982 was to allow GSM to define
everything it needed for itself. This secured a competitive edge for European mobile
standards making.

Over the next few years GSM became a funnel for ideas from every R&D Lab in
Europe. Great institutions like CNET, CSELT and BTRL, key Industrial Labs (Ericsson,
Alcatel etc) and many Universities were all drawn into this exciting new opportunity – to
digitalise Europe’s mobile networks.
 6

2.Techniques used in GSM

In the GSM system, TDMA in combination with FDMA is used .Thus, only a single
mobile is using a given frequency/timeslot combination at any particular time.

2.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA):

In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal spectra to
minimize crosstalk between the channels. A specific frequency band is given to one
person, and it will received by identifying each of the frequency on the receiving end. It
is often used in the first generation of analog mobile phone.

FIG.2.1
 7

2.1.2Advantages of FDMA
As FDMA systems use low bit rates (large symbol time) compared to average delay
spread, it offers the following advantages −
 Reduces the bit rate information and the use of efficient numerical codes increases
the capacity.
 It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)
 Equalization is not necessary.
 An FDMA system can be easily implemented. A system can be configured so that
the improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction may be easily
incorporated.
 Since the transmission is continuous, less number of bits are required for
synchronization and framing.
2.1.3Disadvantages of FDMA
Although FDMA offers several advantages, it has a few drawbacks as well, which are
listed below −
 It does not differ significantly from analog systems; improving the capacity
depends on the signal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
 The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.
 Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
 Hardware implies narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI and
therefore increases the cost.
 8

2.2Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA):

Time-division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared-

medium networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by
dividing the signal into different time slots.[1] The users transmit in rapid succession, one
after the other, each using its own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the
same transmission medium (e.g. radio frequency channel) while using only a part of
its channel capacity. TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such as Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM), IS-136, Personal Digital Cellular (PDC)
and iDEN, and in the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) standard
for portable phones. TDMA was first used in satellite communication systems
by Western Union in its Westar 3 communications satellite in 1979. It is now used
extensively in satellite communications,[2][3][4][5] combat-net radio systems, and passive
optical network (PON) networks for upstream traffic from premises to the operator. For
usage of Dynamic TDMA packet mode communication, see below.

FIG2.2

TDMA frame structure showing a data stream divided into frames and those frames divided into time slots

TDMA is a type of time-division multiplexing (TDM), with the special point that instead of having
one transmitter connected to one receiver, there are multiple transmitters. In the case of
the uplink from a mobile phone to a base station this becomes particularly difficult because the
mobile phone can move around and vary the timing advance required to make its transmission
match the gap in transmission from its peers.
 9

2.2.1TDMA characteristics

 Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users

 Non-continuous transmission makes handoff simpler
 Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA
 Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference
 Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA
 Advanced equalization may be necessary for high data rates if the channel is
"frequency selective" and creates Intersymbol interference
 Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more complicated than in
CDMA
 Frequency/slot allocation complexity
 Pulsating power envelope: interference with other device

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is an open, digital cellular technology
used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. GSM differs from first generation
wireless systems in that it uses digital technology and Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) transmission methods. GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides
each 200kHz channel into eight 25kHz time-slots. GSM operates in the 900MHz and
1.8GHz bands in Europe and the 1.9GHz and 850MHz bands in the US. The 850MHz
band is also used for GSM and 3GSM in Australia, Canada and many South American
countries.
 10

2.3 SOME GSM TECHNIQUES

GSM-900 and GSM-1800

 GSM-900 uses 890 - 915 MHz to send information from the Mobile Station to
the Base Transceiver Station (uplink) and 935 - 960 MHz for the other direction
(downlink), providing 124 RF channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at
200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used. In some countries the GSM-900
band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range. This 'extended
GSM', E-GSM, uses frequency range 880 - 915 MHz (uplink) and 925 - 960 MHz
(downlink), adding 50 channels (channel numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the
original GSM-900 band. The GSM specifications also describe 'railways
GSM', GSM-R, which uses frequency range 876 - 915 MHz (uplink) and 921 -
960 MHz (downlink). Channel numbers 955 to 1023. GSM-R provides additional
channels and specialized services for use by railway personnel. All these
variants are included in the GSM-900 specification.
 GSM-1800 uses 1710 - 1785 MHz to send information from the Mobile Station to
the Base Transceiver Station (uplink) and 1805 - 1880 MHz for the other
direction (downlink), providing 374 channels (channel numbers 512 to 885).
Duplex spacing is 95 MHz.
GSM-1800 is also called PCS in Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. Most of
the GSM operators in India use the 900 MHz band. Operators like Hutch, Airtel,
Idea, and some others, use 900MHz in rural areas and 1800MHz in urban areas.

GSM-850

GSM-850 uses 824 - 849 MHz to send information from the Mobile Station to the Base
Transceiver Station (uplink) and 869 - 894 MHz for the other direction (downlink).
Channel numbers 128 to 251
 11

3.FEATURES OF GSM

 Improved spectrum efficiency

 International roaming
 Compatibility with integrated services digital network (ISDN)
 Support for new services.
 SIM phonebook management
 Fixed dialing number (FDN)
 Real time clock with alarm management
 High-quality speech
 Uses encryption to make phone calls more secure
 Short message service (SMS)
The security strategies standardized for the GSM system make it the most secure
telecommunications standard currently accessible. Although the confidentiality of a call
and secrecy of the GSM subscriber is just ensured on the radio channel, this is a major
step in achieving end-to- end security
 12

4.CDMA TECHNOLOGY

fffff

FIG 4.1

4.1 What is CDMA Technology?

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various
radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access, which is
where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single
communication channel.
Multiple Access in CDMA:
• Each user is assigned a unique PN code.
• Each user transmits its information by spreading with unique code.
• Direct Sequence spread spectrum is used.
• Users are separated by code not by time slot and frequency slot.
 13

Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency
multiplexing. In this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire
duration. The basic principle is that different CDMA codes are used to distinguish among
the different users.
Techniques generally used are direct sequence spread spectrum modulation (DS-
CDMA), frequency hopping or mixed CDMA detection (JDCDMA). Here, a signal is
generated which extends over a wide bandwidth. A code called spreading code is used
to perform this action. Using a group of codes, which are orthogonal to each other, it is
possible to select a signal with a given code in the presence of many other signals with
different orthogonal codes.

4.2How Does CDMA Work?

CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by processing each
voice packet with two PN codes. There are 64 Walsh codes available to differentiate
between calls and theoretical limits. Operational limits and quality issues will reduce the
maximum number of calls somewhat lower than this value.
In fact, many different "signals" baseband with different spreading codes can be
modulated on the same carrier to allow many different users to be supported. Using
different orthogonal codes, interference between the signals is minimal. Conversely,
when signals are received from several mobile stations, the base station is capable of
isolating each as they have different orthogonal spreading codes.
 14

5.FEATURES OF CDMA

CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards. IS-95, also
called "cdmaOne", and its 3G evolution CDMA2000, are often simply referred to as
"CDMA", but UMTS, the 3G standard used by GSM carriers, also uses "wideband
CDMA", or W-CDMA, as well as TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, as its radio technologies.

5.1History
The technology of code-division multiple access channels has long been known. In
the Soviet Union (USSR), the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935
by Dmitry Ageev.[2] It was shown that through the use of linear methods, there are three
types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory. The technology of CDMA
was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer Leonid Kupriyanovich in
Moscow made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile phone, called
LK-1 by him, with a base station. LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 20–30 km operating
distance, and 20–30 hours of battery life.[3][4] The base station, as described by the
author, could serve several customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new
experimental "pocket" model of mobile phone. This phone weighed 0.5 kg. To serve
more customers, Kupriyanovich proposed the device, which he called "correlator."[5][6] In
1958, the USSR also started the development of the "Altai" national civil mobile phone
service for cars, based on the Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The phone system weighed
11 kg (24 lb). It was placed in the trunk of the vehicles of high-ranking officials and used
a standard handset in the passenger compartment. The main developers of the Altai
system were VNIIS (Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications) and
GSPI (State Specialized Project Institute). In 1963 this service started in Moscow, and
in 1970 Altai service was used in 30 USSR cities.[7]
 15

5.2Uses

FIG 5.1

 One of the early applications for code-division multiplexing is in the Global

Positioning System (GPS). This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile
phones.
 The Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cdmaOne.
 The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000, is used by several mobile
phone companies, including the Globalstar network.
 The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA.
 CDMA has been used in the OmniTRACS satellite system for
transportation logistics.

5.3Steps in CDMA modulation

CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple-access[8] technique. A spread-spectrum technique
spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A
spreading code is a pseudo-random code that has a narrow ambiguity function, unlike
other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate
than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined by
bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure shows how a spread-

spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of (symbol
period) is XORed with the code signal with pulse duration of (chip period).
(Note: bandwidth is proportional to where = bit time.) Therefore, the bandwidth of the
data signal is and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is Since is much
smaller than , the bandwidth of the spread-spectrum signal is much larger than the

bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio is called the spreading factor or
 16

processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of
users supported simultaneously by a base station.[9]

Generation of a CDMA signal

Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing
the codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA
systems.[1] The best performance occurs when there is good separation between the
signal of a desired user and the signals of other users. The separation of the signals is
made by correlating the received signal with the locally generated code of the desired
user. If the signal matches the desired user's code, then the correlation function will be
high and the system can extract that signal. If the desired user's code has nothing in
common with the signal, the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus
eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross-correlation. If the code is correlated
with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should be as close to
zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-path
interference.[10]
An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish
to talk to each other simultaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take turns
speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in
different languages (code division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where
people speaking the same language can understand each other, but other languages
are perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is
given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated
with a particular code can communicate.
In general, CDMA belongs to two basic categories: synchronous (orthogonal codes) and
asynchronous (pseudorandom codes).

5.4Code-division multiplexing (synchronous CDMA)

The digital modulation method is analogous to those used in simple radio transceivers.
In the analog case, a low-frequency data signal is time-multiplied with a high-frequency
pure sine-wave carrier and transmitted. This is effectively a frequency convolution
(Wiener–Khinchin theorem) of the two signals, resulting in a carrier with narrow
sidebands. In the digital case, the sinusoidal carrier is replaced by Walsh functions.
 17

These are binary square waves that form a complete orthonormal set. The data signal is
also binary and the time multiplication is achieved with a simple XOR function. This is
usually a Gilbert cell mixer in the circuitry.
Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties
of orthogonality between vectors representing the data strings. For example, binary
string 1011 is represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by taking
their dot product, by summing the products of their respective components (for example,
if u = (a, b) and v = (c, d), then their dot product u·v = ac + bd). If the dot product is
zero, the two vectors are said to be orthogonal to each other. Some properties of the
dot product aid understanding of how W-CDMA works. If vectors a and b are

orthogonal, then and:

Each user in synchronous CDMA uses a code orthogonal to the others'

codes to modulate their signal. An example of 4 mutually orthogonal
digital signals is shown in the figure below. Orthogonal codes have a
cross-correlation equal to zero; in other words, they do not interfere with
each other. In the case of IS-95, 64-bit Walsh codes are used to encode
the signal to separate different users. Since each of the 64 Walsh codes
is orthogonal to all other, the signals are channelized into 64 orthogonal
signals. The following example demonstrates how each user's signal can
be encoded and decoded.
 18

5.5Example

FIG5.2

An example of 4 mutually orthogonal digital signals

Start with a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal. (Although mutual
orthogonality is the only condition, these vectors are usually constructed
for ease of decoding, for example columns or rows from Walsh matrices.)
An example of orthogonal functions is shown in the adjacent picture.
These vectors will be assigned to individual users and are called
the code, chip code, or chipping code. In the interest of brevity, the rest of
this example uses codes v with only two bits.
Each user is associated with a different code, say v. A 1 bit is
represented by transmitting a positive code v, and a 0 bit is represented
by a negative code −v. For example, if v = (v0, v1) = (1, −1) and the data
that the user wishes to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1), then the transmitted
symbols would be
(v, −v, v, v) = (v0, v1, −v0, −v1, v0, v1, v0, v1) = (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1).
For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector
the transmitted vector.
Each sender has a different, unique vector v chosen from that set, but
the construction method of the transmitted vector is identical.
 19

Now, due to physical properties of interference, if two signals at a

point are in phase, they add to give twice the amplitude of each
signal, but if they are out of phase, they subtract and give a signal
that is the difference of the amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can
be modelled by the addition of the transmission vectors, component
by component.
If sender0 has code (1, −1) and data (1, 0, 1, 1), and sender1 has
code (1, 1) and data (0, 0, 1, 1), and both senders transmit
simultaneously, then this table describes the coding steps:
Step Encode sender0 Encode sender1

0 code0 = (1, −1), data0 = (1, 0, code1 = (1, 1), data1 = (0, 0, 1,
1, 1) 1)

1 encode0 = 2(1, 0, 1, 1) − (1, 1, encode1 = 2(0, 0, 1, 1) − (1, 1,

1, 1) = (1, −1, 1, 1) 1, 1) = (−1, −1, 1, 1)

2 signal0 = encode0 ⊗ code0 signal1 = encode1 ⊗ code1

= (1, −1, 1, 1) ⊗ (1, −1) = (−1, −1, 1, 1) ⊗ (1, 1)
= (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) = (−1, −1, −1, −1, 1, 1, 1, 1)

Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same time into the
air, they add to produce the raw signal
(1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) + (−1, −1, −1, −1, 1, 1, 1, 1) = (0, −2, −2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0).
This raw signal is called an interference pattern. The receiver then
extracts an intelligible signal for any known sender by combining
the sender's code with the interference pattern. The following
table explains how this works and shows that the signals do not
interfere with one another:
Step Decode sender0 Decode sender1

code0 = (1, −1), signal = (0, code1 = (1, 1), signal = (0,
0
−2, −2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0) −2, −2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0)

1 decode0 = pattern.vector0 decode1 = pattern.vector1

decode0 = ((0, −2), (−2, 0), decode1 = ((0, −2), (−2, 0),
2
(2, 0), (2, 0)) · (1, −1) (2, 0), (2, 0)) · (1, 1)

decode0 = ((0 + 2), (−2 + 0), decode1 = ((0 − 2), (−2 + 0),
3
(2 + 0), (2 + 0)) (2 + 0), (2 + 0))
 20

data0=(2, −2, 2, 2), meaning data1=(−2, −2, 2, 2),

4
(1, 0, 1, 1) meaning (0, 0, 1, 1)

Further, after decoding, all values greater than 0 are interpreted

as 1, while all values less than zero are interpreted as 0. For
example, after decoding, data0 is (2, −2, 2, 2), but the receiver
interprets this as (1, 0, 1, 1). Values of exactly 0 means that the
sender did not transmit any data, as in the following example:
Assume signal0 = (1, −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) is transmitted alone.
The following table shows the decode at the receiver:
Step Decode sender0 Decode sender1

code0 = (1, −1), signal = (1, code1 = (1, 1), signal = (1,
0
−1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1) −1, −1, 1, 1, −1, 1, −1)

1 decode0 = pattern.vector0 decode1 = pattern.vector1

decode0 = ((1, −1), (−1, 1), decode1 = ((1, −1), (−1, 1),
2
(1, −1), (1, −1)) · (1, −1) (1, −1), (1, −1)) · (1, 1)

decode0 = ((1 + 1), (−1 − 1), decode1 = ((1 − 1), (−1 + 1),
3
(1 + 1), (1 + 1)) (1 − 1), (1 − 1))

data0 = (2, −2, 2, 2), meaning data1 = (0, 0, 0, 0), meaning

4
(1, 0, 1, 1) no data

When the receiver attempts to decode the signal using sender1's

code, the data is all zeros, therefore the cross-correlation is equal
to zero and it is clear that sender1 did not transmit any data.
 21

5.6Spread-spectrum characteristics of CDMA

Most modulation schemes try to minimize the bandwidth of this
signal since bandwidth is a limited resource. However, spread-
spectrum techniques use a transmission bandwidth that is several
orders of magnitude greater than the minimum required signal
bandwidth. One of the initial reasons for doing this was military
applications including guidance and communication systems.
These systems were designed using spread spectrum because of
its security and resistance to jamming. Asynchronous CDMA has
some level of privacy built in because the signal is spread using a
pseudo-random code; this code makes the spread-spectrum
signals appear random or have noise-like properties. A receiver
cannot demodulate this transmission without knowledge of the
pseudo-random sequence used to encode the data. CDMA is also
resistant to jamming. A jamming signal only has a finite amount of
power available to jam the signal. The jammer can either spread
its energy over the entire bandwidth of the signal or jam only part
of the entire signal.[11]
CDMA can also effectively reject narrow-band interference. Since
narrow-band interference affects only a small portion of the
spread-spectrum signal, it can easily be removed through notch
filtering without much loss of information. Convolution
encoding and interleaving can be used to assist in recovering this
lost data. CDMA signals are also resistant to multipath fading.
Since the spread-spectrum signal occupies a large bandwidth,
only a small portion of this will undergo fading due to multipath at
any given time. Like the narrow-band interference, this will result
in only a small loss of data and can be overcome.
Another reason CDMA is resistant to multipath interference is
because the delayed versions of the transmitted pseudo-random
codes will have poor correlation with the original pseudo-random
code, and will thus appear as another user, which is ignored at the
receiver. In other words, as long as the multipath channel induces
at least one chip of delay, the multipath signals will arrive at the
receiver such that they are shifted in time by at least one chip
from the intended signal. The correlation properties of the pseudo-
random codes are such that this slight delay causes the multipath
to appear uncorrelated with the intended signal, and it is thus
ignored.
Some CDMA devices use a rake receiver, which exploits
multipath delay components to improve the performance of the
system. A rake receiver combines the information from several
 22

correlators, each one tuned to a different path delay, producing a

stronger version of the signal than a simple receiver with a single
correlation tuned to the path delay of the strongest signal.[12]
Frequency reuse is the ability to reuse the same radio channel
frequency at other cell sites within a cellular system. In the FDMA
and TDMA systems, frequency planning is an important
consideration. The frequencies used in different cells must be
planned carefully to ensure signals from different cells do not
interfere with each other. In a CDMA system, the same frequency
can be used in every cell, because channelization is done using
the pseudo-random codes. Reusing the same frequency in every
cell eliminates the need for frequency planning in a CDMA
system; however, planning of the different pseudo-random
sequences must be done to ensure that the received signal from
one cell does not correlate with the signal from a nearby cell.[13]
Since adjacent cells use the same frequencies, CDMA systems
have the ability to perform soft hand-offs. Soft hand-offs allow the
mobile telephone to communicate simultaneously with two or
more cells. The best signal quality is selected until the hand-off is
complete. This is different from hard hand-offs utilized in other
cellular systems. In a hard-hand-off situation, as the mobile
telephone approaches a hand-off, signal strength may vary
abruptly. In contrast, CDMA systems use the soft hand-off, which
is undetectable and provides a more reliable and higher-quality
signal.[13]

5.7Collaborative CDMA
In a recent study, a novel collaborative multi-user transmission
and detection scheme called collaborative CDMA[14] has been
investigated for the uplink that exploits the differences between
users' fading channel signatures to increase the user capacity well
beyond the spreading length in the MAI-limited environment. The
authors show that it is possible to achieve this increase at a low
complexity and high bit error rate performance in flat fading
channels, which is a major research challenge for overloaded
CDMA systems. In this approach, instead of using one sequence
per user as in conventional CDMA, the authors group a small
number of users to share the same spreading sequence and
enable group spreading and despreading operations. The new
collaborative multi-user receiver consists of two stages: group
multi-user detection (MUD) stage to suppress the MAI between
the groups and a low-complexity maximum-likelihood detection
stage to recover jointly the co-spread users' data using minimal
 23

Euclidean-distance measure and users' channel-gain coefficients.

Further to note that research in the area is going on and in 2004,
Prof. Li ping has introduced the new concept of enhanced CDMA
version known as INTERLEAVE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
(IDMA) scheme. It uses the orthogonal interleaved as the only
means of user separation in place of signature sequence used in
CDMA system. Many researchers has introduced various
orthogonal interleaving mechanisms including tree based
interleaved suggested by Prof. Manoj Kumar Shukla of Harcourt
Butler Technical University.
 24

FIG 5.3
25
 26

6.CDMA vs GSM

GSM stands for Global System for CDMA stands for Code

1. Mobile communication. Division Multiple Access.

GSM uses the technology named FDMA While it uses the

2. and TDMA. technology CDMA.

While it is in roaming in

3. GSM is in roaming in worldwide. limited.

4. GSM has slow data rate. While it has fast data rate.

In GSM, information in addition as voice While CDMA have not

5. each are transmitted at the same time. this facility.

While it is specific for

6. GSM is specific for SIM. headset or phone.

27
 28

FIG 6.1
 29

7.Advantages of CDMA:

Following are the benefits or advantages of CDMA:

➨In CDMA, signal to be transmitted spread across the wide bandwidth due to
spreading. Hence CDMA is robust against fading and noisy environment.
➨As the transmitted information is below the noise floor, it is difficult to intrude the
CDMA spectrum. Moreover it is difficult for hackers to decipher the CDMA code used
over traffic channel. Hence CDMA is more secure system.
➨CDMA allows use of entire bandwidth simultaneously and hence there is no limit on
number of subscribers per cell unlike TDMA and FDMA access schemes. This depends
on number of codes supported by the CDMA compliant base station. Moreover it is easy
to add users.
➨During the handover between the cells, due to soft handoff feature initially connection
is being established with new cell and hence it minimizes chances of call drop or
disconnection.
➨CDMA networks can interoperate with other cellular networks such as GSM/LTE.
Hence nationwide roaming is possible without any issues.
 30

8.Disadvantages of CDMA
Following are the disadvantages of CDMA:
➨In CDMA, orthogonal codes are used by mobile subscribers. Orthogonality between
the codes need to be maintained in order to recover the data. The subscribers which
are farthest from BS will incur more attenuation and hence will lose the orthogonality
and hence it will be difficult to recover the data.
➨CDMA uses soft handoff. In this type of handoff, mobile needs to establish connection
with the new target cell before disconnecting itself from serving cell. This procedure it
more complex compare to the hard handoff type.
➨Precision code synchronization is needed to recover the original baseband signal.
➨Increase in number of users will decrease the overall QoS.
➨Near far problem is encountered in CDMA system. This requires close control of
transmit powers of CDMA handsets. This helps farthest CDMA Phone to transmit at
higher power compare to CDMA phone which is closer in order to maintain good SNR at
BS (Base station).
➨Self Jamming is observed in CDMA system due to loss of orthogonality of PN codes
or spreading sequences of different subscribers.
 31

9.ADVANTAGES OF GSM

GSM or Global System for Mobile Communications is how mobile phones communicate
around the world. Over 3 billion people are using it. It has many benefits over CDMA and
is becoming more and more used by the year. GSM phones have made text messaging
a daily occurrence in many places around the world, even third world countries.

1. Emergency Response.
112 is now a universal emergency number among GSM networks. No matter where the
user is, if they’re using GSM, they can call for help.

2. Technological Growth
The growth of communications technology has been prompted by worldwide competition,
allowed by the universality of GSM. This has lead to a reliable cell-phone service and
improved quality in both connection stability and ease.

3. Universal Data Transfer

The Global System for Mobile Communications allows for reliable and efficient data
transfer. It even allows text and pictures to be sent from anywhere the system is available.

4. Better sound.
As a digital carrier, a GSM cell phone makes for clearer connections, as it can filter
background noise. This makes communication, despite distance, easy.

5. Greater security.
Due to the way it’s designed, a call needs to request access. This is a safety features that
makes sure that only the caller and the receiver are in the conversation.

6. Has international capabilities.

While sometimes costly, GSM phones have built-in international capabilities.
Occasionally, it costs more depending on what region the call is being placed to, but it
remains a valuable benefit.

There are few disadvantages to GSM, especially when compared to CDMA or Code
Division Multiple Access. A GSM phone will often pay for itself, as it comes with many
features and is often cheaper than a CDMA phone. Depending on where a consumer is,
it may actually be difficult to purchase, whether because of supply or cost.
 32

10.DISADVANTAGES OF GSM

Dropped and Missed Calls

 According to Cellular News, call quality problems, including dropped calls and missed
calls are common problems with GSM technology. These problems result directly from
the technology in use. GSM technology cannot accommodate as many callers on a
single cell tower as the more modern CDMA technology. This means that callers in
areas where there are not a preponderance of cell towers may find that the call
problems on GSM will be more common.

 Security Issues
 ZDNet UK reports that GSM has a serious security flaw, demonstrated by a hacker who
was able to intercept phone calls from a number of GSM-based cellular phones. The
problem is based directly on the technology according to this hacker and his solution
was to "turn off" the GSM technology (only the older 2G technology though) that is
commonly used by people all over the world. The problem is largely mitigated however
by the use of the more modern 3G technology that is commonly used (as of November,
2010) on many GSM phones.

 Efficiency
 Another problem with GSM is a network problem rather than a consumer problem,
though it is a consumer problem for those who don't want to see a proliferation of
cellular towers. As previously noted, GSM technology can handle fewer callers on a
single cellular tower. Therefore, networks who work with GSM must find ever more
areas to built GSM cellular towers, causing them to have problems with costs and
locations. By the same token, some consumers who prefer not to see a proliferation of
cellular towers consider this a problem because the cellular towers must be placed in
more and more urban areas, potentially spreading more radiation and causing what
some consider a blight on the landscape.
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11.Reference

 Mobile Computing Technology, Applications and Service Creation – Asoke K

Talukder, Hasan Ahmed, Roopa R yavagal
 http://www.howstuffworks.com/
 http://en.wikipedia.org/