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COLLEGE
SRM NAGAR, KATTANKULATHUR – 603 203.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
LAB MANUAL
Prepared by:
Mr.P.Tamilarasan, Assistant Professor (O.G) - EEE
Ms.K.Durgadevi, Assistant Professor (O.G) - EEE
VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur -603 203
3
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)
PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
PO2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet the
specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and
the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling
to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6: The Engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the
professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and
demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10:Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering
activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being
able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these to
one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
PO12:Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
4
EC8311 - ELECTRONICS LABORATORY L T P C
0 0 4 2
OBJECTIVES:
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
5
CYCLE – I
1. Study of CRO for frequency and phase measurements
2. Characteristics of Semiconductor diode and Zener diode
3. Characteristics of a NPN Transistor under common emitter , common
collector and common base configurations
4. Characteristics of JFET and draw the equivalent circuit
5. Characteristics of UJT and generation of saw tooth waveforms
6. Design and Frequency response characteristics of a Common Emitter
amplifier
CYCLE – II
6
CONTENTS
7
Block Diagram of CRO
Observation
Sine wave
Square
Wave
Triangular
Wave
8
Ex. No.: 1
STUDY OF CRO FOR FREQUENCY AND PHASE
MEASUREMENTS
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
9
Draw observed waveforms
Sine wave: ( Amplitude: Frequency _ )
10
Major blocks:
11
FORMULA:
12
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
Thus the operation of CRO has been studied along with the measurement of
frequency and phase of a signal.
13
SYMBOL & PIN DIAGRAM:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FORWARD BIAS:
REVERSE BIAS:
14
Ex. No.: 2(a)
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
15
TABULATION:
FORWARD BIAS: REVERSE BIAS:
MODEL GRAPH:
16
PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
REVERSE BIAS:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
17
SYMBOL & PIN DIAGRAM:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FORWARD BIAS:
REVERSE BIAS:
18
Ex. No.: 2(b)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
19
TABULATION:
MODEL GRAPH:
20
PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
REVERSE BIAS:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of Zener diode were drawn and the necessary
parameters are determined from the graph.
21
PIN DIAGRAM OF BC107
MODEL GRAPH:
22
Ex. No.: 3(a)
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
23
TABULATION:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
24
DESCRIPTION:
Input Characteristics: The variation of the base current IB with the base-emitter
voltage VBE keeping the collector-emitter voltage VCE fixed, gives the input
characteristic in CE mode.
Input Dynamic Resistance (ri): This is defined as the ratio of change in base
emitter voltage (∆VBE) to the resulting change in base current (∆IB) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE). This is dynamic and it can be seen from the input
characteristic, its value varies with the operating current in the transistor:
The value of ri can be anything from a few hundreds to a few thousand ohms.
Output Characteristics: The variation of the collector current IC with the collector-
emitter voltage VCE is called the output characteristic. The plot of IC versus VCE for
different fixed values of IB gives one output characteristic. Since the collector current
changes with the base current, there will be different output characteristics
corresponding to different values of IB.
Output Dynamic Resistance (r o): This is defined as the ratio of change in
collector-emitter voltage (∆VCE) to the change in collector current (∆IC) at a constant
base current IB.
The high magnitude of the output resistance (of the order of 100 kW) is due to the
reverse biased state of this diode.
Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics are plotted between the input
and output currents (IB versus IC). Both IB and IC increase proportionately.
Current amplification factor (β)
This is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base
current at a
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) when the transistor is in active state.
This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very large. The ratio
of IC and
IB we get what is called dc of the transistor. Hence,
Since IC increases with IB almost linearly, the values of both dc and ac are nearly
equal.
25
26
PROCEDURE:
TO FIND THE INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristic of BJT in Common Emitter
configuration were plotted and the dynamic resistance and amplification factor were
obtained.
27
PIN DIAGRAM OF BC107
MODEL GRAPH:
28
Ex. No.: 3(b)
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
29
TABULATION:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
30
DESCRIPTION:
Input Characteristics: The variation of the base current IB with the base-collector
voltage VBC keeping the collector-emitter voltage VCE fixed, gives the input
characteristic in CC mode.
Input Dynamic Resistance (ri): This is defined as the ratio of change in base
collector voltage (∆VBC) to the resulting change in base current (∆IB) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCE). This is dynamic and it can be seen from the input
characteristic, its value varies with the operating current in the transistor:
The value of ri can be anything from a few hundreds ohms to a few hundred kilo
(750KΩ) ohms.
Output Characteristics: The variation of the emitter current IE with the collector-
emitter voltage VCE is called the output characteristic. The plot of IE versus VCE for
different fixed values of IB gives one output characteristic. Since the emitter current
changes with the base current, there will be different output characteristics
corresponding to different values of IB.
Output Dynamic Resistance (r o): This is defined as the ratio of change in
collector-emitter voltage (∆VCE) to the change in emitter current (∆IE) at a constant
base current IB.
The output resistance of the common collector is very low in the order of 50Ω. This
circuit arrangement is mainly used for impedance matching.
31
Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics are plotted between the input
and output currents (IB versus IE). Both IB and IE increase proportionately.
The current gain of a common collector amplifier is high. The ratio of IE and IB we
get what is called dc of the transistor. Hence,
32
PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
33
PIN DIAGRAM OF BC107
MODEL GRAPH:
34
Ex. No.: 3(c)
THEORY:
35
TABULATION:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
36
DESCRIPTION:
Input Characteristics: Voltage across Base Emitter junction V BE vs IE, where VCB
constant.
Input Dynamic Resistance (ri) this is defined as the ratio of change in base emitter
voltage (∆VEB) to the resulting change in emitter current (∆IE) at constant
collector-emitter voltage (VCB). This is dynamic as its value varies with the operating
current in the transistor.
Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics are plotted between the input
and output currents (IE versus IC).
Current amplification factor (α)
This is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in emitter
current at a constant collector-base voltage (VCB) when the transistor is in active
state.
This is also known as small signal current gain and its value is very lar ge. The ratio
of IC and
IE is called dc of the transistor. Hence,
Since IC increases with IE almost linearly, the values of both dc and ac are nearly
equal.
37
38
PROCEDURE:
TO FIND THE INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as in the circuit diagram.
2. Keep VEE and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply
3. Set VCB = 1 volt by varying VCC. and vary the VEE smoothly with fine control
such that emitter current IE varies in steps of 0.2mA from zero up to 25mA,
and note down the corresponding voltage V EB for each step in the tabular
form.
4. Repeat the experiment for VCB =2 volts and 3 volts.
5. Draw a graph between VEB vs. IE against VCB = Constant.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
39
PIN DIAGRAM OF BFW10
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
MODEL GRAPH:
40
Ex. No.: 4
CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET AND ITS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
AIM:
To plot the Drain and Transfer characteristics of JFET and to find Drain
resistance, Transconductance, Amplification factor, Drain saturation current IDSS
and Pinch off voltage.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
41
TABULAR COLUMN:
Drain characteristics
VGS = 0V VGS = -2V VGS = - 4 V
VDS (V) ID(mA) VDS (V) ID(mA) VDS (V) ID(mA)
Transfer characteristics
42
PROCEDURE:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram and start with VGG and VDD
keeping at zero volts.
2. Keep VGG such that VGS = 0 volts, Now vary VDD such that VDS Varies
in steps of 1 volt up to 10 volts. And Note down the corresponding Drain
current ID.
3. Repeat the above experiment with VGS = -2V and -4V and tabulate the
readings.
4. Draw a graph VDS Vs ID against VGS as parameter on graph.
5. From the above graph calculate rd and note down the corresponding diode
current against the voltage in the tabular form.
6. Draw the graph between voltages across the Diode vs. Current through the
diode in the first quadrant as shown in model graph.
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
PRECAUTIONS:
43
MODEL GRAPH:
CALCULATIONS:
Calculation of rd :
Construct a Triangle on one of the output characteristic for a particular VGS in the
active region and find ΔVDS and ΔID.
Drain resistance rd = ΔVDS/ ΔID (VGS = constant)
Calculation of gm :
Calculation of μ:
Amplification factor μ = gm x rd.
44
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
Thus the drain and transfer characteristic of JFET is drawn and following
parameters are observed.
45
PIN DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH
46
Ex. No.: 5
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
47
TABULATION:
48
PROCEDURE:
49
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR SAWTOOTH WAVEFORM GENERATION
USING UJT
MODEL GRAPH:
50
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
Thus the static emitter characteristics of UJT drawn & the following values
were determined and sawtooth waveform also generated.
Peak voltage =
Valley voltage =
51
PIN DIAGRAM:
52
Ex. No.: 6
DESIGN AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
OF A COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To design and construct BJT CE Amplifier using voltage divider bias and to
obtain its frequency response.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
Common Emitter amplifier has the emitter terminal as the common terminal
between input and output terminals. The emitter base junction is forward biased and
collector base junction is reverse biased, so that transistor remains in active region
throughout the operation. When a sinusoidal AC signal is applied at input terminals
of circuit during positive half cycle the forward bias of base emitter junction V BE is
increased resulting in an increase in IB, The collector current Ic is increased by β
times the increase in IB, VCE is correspondingly decreased. i.e. output voltage gets
decreased. Thus in a CE amplifier a positive going signal is converted into a negative
going output signal i.e. 180° phase shift is introduced between output and input
signal and it is an amplified version of input signal.
53
TABULATION:
Vi = 1V
MODEL GRAPH:
54
DESIGN:
55
56
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What are the operating modes of BJT with reference to junction biasing?
2. Why CE configuration is preferred over CB configuration?
3. Write some applications of CE amplifier.
4. What will be the input and output impedance of CE amplifier?
5. What is the voltage and current gain of CE amplifier?
RESULT:
Thus a BJT CE Amplifier with voltage divider bias was designed and plotted
the frequency response curve.
57
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TABULATION:
MODEL GRAPH:
58
Ex. No.: 7(a)
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO DIODE
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
59
60
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
Thus the VI characteristic of a Photo diode was plotted in the presence and
absence of illumination.
61
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TABULATION:
MODEL GRAPH:
62
Ex. No.: 7(b)
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
63
64
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
65
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
66
Ex. No.: 7(c)
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
A photo relay or light activated relay is a circuit which opens and closes the
relay contacts according to the light. Here a photo diode is used to sense the light.
The photo diode offers a high resistance when there is no light falling on it. Here
the photo diode is connected in reverse biased condition. The only current flowing
through it will be due to the minority carriers. When light falls on it, the current due
to the minority carriers increase and the diode offers a low resistance. As a result the
voltage across the diode will not be sufficient to make the transistor Q1 forward
biased and the relay will OFF. When there is darkness the photo diode resistance
increases and the voltage across it will become enough to forward bias the transistor
Q1 making the relay ON. The diode D2 is used as a freewheeling diode to prote ct
the transistor from transients produced to the switching of relay. By this way the
load connected through the relay contacts can be switched ON and OFF according
to the light falling on the photo diode.
67
68
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
69
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
MODEL GRAPH
70
Ex. No.: 8(a)
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
AIM:
To design and construct a RC phase shift oscillator for the given frequency
(f0).
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
In the RC phase shift oscillator, the required phase shift of 180˚ in the
feedback loop from the output to input is obtained by using R and C components,
instead of tank circuit. Here a common emitter amplifier is used in forward path
followed by three sections of RC phase network in the reverse path with the output
of the last section being returned to the input of the amplifier. The phase shift Ф is
given by each RC section Ф=tanˉ1 (1/ωRC). In practice R-value is adjusted such
that Ф becomes 60˚. If the value of R and C are chosen such that the given frequency
for the phase shift of each RC section is 60˚. Therefore at a specific frequency the
total phase shift from base to transistor’s around circuit and back to base is exactly
360˚ or 0˚. Thus the Barkhausen criterion for oscillation is satisfied.
71
DESIGN:
Vce=Vcc/2=6V, Vre=0.1Vcc=1.2V
Vb=Vre+0.7=1.9V,
R1=Vcc/10Ib – R2
=12/(10*20μA) – 10 K =47 K Ω
Rc=Vcc–Vce– (IeRe/Ic)
=2.4 K Ω =2.2 KΩ
= 0.012 μF
Consider C =0.01 μF
72
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
RESULT:
Thus a sine wave with required phase shift is produced using transistor
phase shift oscillator. Thus,
73
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
MODEL GRAPH:
74
Ex. No.: 8(b)
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
AIM :
To design and construct a Hartley and Colpitts oscillator.
THEORY
DESIGN:
1
Frequency of oscillation 𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞
where , Ceq = (C1C2)/(C1+C2)
Then , 𝑓𝑜 = 5kHz
75
DESIGN:
Choose, RE =800 Ω
Vcc = IcRC +VCE + VE
Rc = ( Vcc – VCE – VE) /Ic = (10 – 5 – 1) / 1.2mA
Rc =3.3kΩ
Choose , Rc = 3.9kΩ
VBE = VB – VE
VB = VBE + VE = 0.7 +1 =1.7 V
VB = (Vcc *R2)/ (R1+R2) =15kΩ
R2/(R1+R2) = 1.7 /10 = 0.17
R1 = 15kΩ / 0.17 = 88.24kΩ
Choose, R1 = 100kΩ
R2/(R1+R2) = 0.17
R2 =18kΩ
Choose, R2 =12kΩ
Let C1 =C2 = 0.1μF
76
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
Thus Colpitts oscillator is designed and constructed, and the out put sine
wave form is observed and compared with theoretical oscillation frequency.
77
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT
FILTER:
78
Ex. No.: 9(a)
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM:
To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor and percentage
of Regulation in Half wave rectifier with and without Capacitor filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY
In half wave rectifier only one diode is used which conducts during positive
cycle. During positive half cycle of the input voltage anode of the diode is positive
compared with the cathode. Diode is in forward bias and current passes through the
diode and positive cycle develops across the load resistance RL. During negative half
cycle of input voltage, anode is negative with respected to cathode and diode is in
reverse bias. No current passes through the diode hence output voltage is zero.
Half wave rectifier without filter capacitor convert AC voltage into pulsating
DC voltage. Filter capacitor is used to obtain smooth DC voltage. For practical
circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
The voltage can be stepped-down, as needed.
The AC source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus, preventing
shock hazards in the secondary circuit.
79
TABULATION WITHOUT FILTER:
80
PROCEDURE:
Without Capacitor:
1. Test your transformer: Give 230V, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the
transformer and observe the AC waveform of rated value without any
distortion at the secondary of the transformer.
2. Connect the half wave rectifier as shown in figure.
3. Measure the Vdc & Vac using DC and AC Voltmeters.
4. Calculate the ripple factor r = V ac / Vdc
5. Compare the theoretical ripple factor with the practical ripple factor.
With capacitor:
1. Connect the half wave rectifier with filter circuit as shown in fig.
2. Connect CRO across load.
3. Keep the CRO switch in ground mode and observe the horizontal line and
adjust it to the X-axis.
4. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform.
81
Calculations:
Without Filter:
RF = Forward resistance of diode =30Ω
RL = Load resistance
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋(𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2(𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐿)
2 2 1
(𝑉 𝑑𝑐 )
− 𝑉
Ripple factor = 𝑟 = ⁄2 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑑𝑐
Average load voltage at no load (V NL) = Vm/π
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
Average load voltage at full load =𝑉𝐹𝐿 =
2(𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐿)
With Filter:
f = 50HZ
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1
+ 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
1 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ( )( 1 )
2√3 𝑓𝐶 + 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
𝑉𝑎𝑐
Ripple factor
Calculate = r = Vof
Percentage rms / Vdc (or) �䀈
Regulation, %𝜂 =
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑛𝑜 𝑙 𝑜 𝑎𝑑 −𝑉𝑓 𝑢𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑜 𝑎 𝑑
× 100%
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
=
82
REVIEW QUESTIONS
RESULT:
Thus the half wave rectifier is designed with and without capacitor filter and
the corresponding dc output voltages and the ripple factors are measured and
verified with the theoretical values.
83
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT
FILTER:
84
Ex. No.: 9(b)
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM:
To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor and percentage
of Regulation in Full wave center tapped rectifier with and without Capacitor filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY
Full wave rectifier utilizes both the cycle of input AC voltage. Two or four
diodes are used in full wave rectifier. If full wave rectifier is designed using four
diodes it is known as full wave bridge rectifier. Full wave rectifier using two diodes
without capacitor is shown in the figure. Center tapped transformer is used in this
full wave rectifier. During the positive cycle diode D1 conducts and it is available at
the output. During negative cycle diode D1 remains OFF but diode D2 is in forward
bias hence it conducts and negative cycle is available as a positive cycle at the output.
Note that direction of current in the load resistance is same during both the cycles
hence output is only positive cycles.
Disadvantages:
Requires center tap transformer
Requires two diodes compared to one diode in half wave rectifier.
85
TABULATION WITHOUT FILTER:
86
PROCEDURE:
WITHOUT FILTER:
1. Connecting the circuit on bread board as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary of the transformer to main supply i.e. 230V, 50Hz
3. Connect the decade resistance box and set the RL value to 100Ω
4. Connect the Multimeter at output terminals and vary the load resistance
(DRB)
5. from 100Ω to 1KΩ and note down the Vac and Vdc as per given tabular form
6. Disconnect load resistance ( DRB) and note down no load voltage Vdc (V no
load)
7. Connect load resistance at 1kΩ and connect Channel – II of CRO at output
terminals and CH – I of CRO at Secondary Input terminals observe and note
down the Input and Output Wave form on Graph Sheet.
𝑉
8. Calculate ripple factor 𝛾 = 𝑉 𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑐
𝑛𝑜 𝑙 𝑜 𝑎𝑑 −𝑉𝑓 𝑢𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑜 𝑎 𝑑
9. Calculate Percentage of Regulation, %𝜂 = × 100%
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
WITH CAPACITOR FILTER:
1. Connecting the circuit as per the circuit Diagram and repeat the above
procedure from steps 2 to 8.
87
Calculations:
Without Filter:
RF = Forward resistance of diode =30Ω
RL = Load resistance
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋(𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2(𝑅𝐹 +𝑅𝐿)
2 2 1
(𝑉 𝑑𝑐 )
− 𝑉
Ripple factor = 𝑟 = ⁄2 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑑𝑐
Average load voltage at no load (V NL) = Vm/π
𝑉 𝑅
Average load voltage at full load =𝑉𝐹𝐿 = 2(𝑅 𝑚+𝑅𝐿 )
𝐹 𝐿
With Filter:
f = 50HZ
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1
+ 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
1 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ( )( 1 )
2√3 𝑓𝐶 + 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
88
REVIEW QUESTIONS
RESULT:
Thus the Full wave rectifier is designed with and without capacitor filter and
the corresponding dc output voltages and the ripple factors are measured and
verified with the theoretical values.
89
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT
FILTER:
90
Ex. No.: 9(c)
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
AIM:
To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor and percentage
of Regulation in Full-wave Bridge rectifier circuit with and without Capacitor filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
91
TABULATION WITHOUT FILTER:
92
Advantages of bridge rectifier:
PROCEDURE:
WITHOUT FILTER:
1. Connecting the circuit on bread board as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary of the transformer to main supply i.e. 230V, 50Hz
3. Connect the decade resistance box and set the RL value to 100Ω
4. Connect the Multimeter at output terminals and vary the load resistance
(DRB)
5. from 100Ω to 1KΩ and note down the Vac and Vdc as per given tabular form
6. Disconnect load resistance ( DRB) and note down no load voltage Vdc (V no
load)
7. Connect load resistance at 1KΩ and connect Channel – II of CRO at output
terminals and CH – I of CRO at Secondary Input terminals observe and note
down the Input and Output Wave form on Graph Sheet.
𝑉
8. Calculate ripple factor 𝛾 = 𝑎𝑐
𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑛𝑜 𝑙 𝑜 𝑎𝑑 −𝑉𝑓 𝑢𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑜 𝑎 𝑑
9. Calculate Percentage of Regulation, %𝜂 = × 100%
𝑉𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
WITH CAPACITOR FILTER:
1. Connecting the circuit as per the circuit Diagram and repeat the above
procedure from steps 2 to 8.
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CALCULATIONS:
Without Filter:
𝑉𝑑𝑐 2
Average load voltage at no load (V NL) = 2Vm/π
2𝑉 𝑅
Average load voltage at full load =𝑉𝐹𝐿 = 𝜋(2𝑅 𝑚+𝑅𝐿 )
𝐹 𝐿
With Filter:
f = 50HZ
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1
+ 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
1 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ( )( 1 )
4√3 𝑓𝐶 + 𝑅𝐿
4𝑓𝐶
𝑉𝑎𝑐
Ripple factor = r = Vrms / Vdc (Or) 𝛾=𝑉
𝑑𝑐
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REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of Bridge Rectifier over the center tapped
Rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?
3. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?
4. If the output voltage of a bridge rectifier is 100V, the PIV of diode will be ?
5. What does Regulation indicate?
6. What is the Theoretical maximum value of Ripple factor of a Full-wave
Rectifier?
7. What is the PIV requirement of a Diode in a Bridge Rectifier?
8. Explain the operation of Bridge Rectifier.
9. Mention the TUF for the Centre tapped Rectifier.
10. How will you choose the transformer for a rectifier circuit.
RESULT:
Thus the Full wave bridge rectifier is designed with and without capacitor
filter and the corresponding dc output voltages and the ripple factors are measured
and verified with the theoretical values.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL CALCULATIONS:
Gain Ac = Vo / ((V1+V2)/2)
Ac =
ii) For differential mode signal:
V1 = volts V2 = volts
Gain Ad = Vo / (V1 - V2)
Ad =
CMRR in dB = 20 log10(Ad / Ac).
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Ex. No.: 10
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS USING FET
AIM:
To construct the Differential Amplifier in Differential mode and to find the
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
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FORMULA:
C.M.R.R = | Ad/Ac |
C.M.R.R in dB = 20 log | Ad/Ac |
Ad = Differential mode gain
Ac = Common mode gain
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PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
Thus the differential amplifier is constructed and CMRR has been calculated.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
MODEL GRAPH:
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100
Ex. No.: 11
REALIZATION OF PASSIVE FILTERS
AIM:
To realize the characteristics of passive low pass filter and high pass filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
DESIGN:
1
Cut off frequency fc =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
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TABULATION:
(i) Low Pass Filter
Vin = (volts)
𝑉
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 10( 𝑜 𝑢𝑡 )
Frequency (Hz) Vout (Volts) 𝑉𝑖𝑛
dB
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102
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
RESULT:
Thus the frequency response of the passive low pass and high pas filter is
obtained.
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103
TUNED CLASS C AMPLIFIER:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:
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Ex. No.: 12
TUNED CLASS C AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To design and construct the class-c power amplifier and to plot its frequency
response.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
In a class-c amplifier, the transistor is in the active region for less than half
cycle. It means, conduction takes place for less than one half cycle. This implies that
the collector current of a class-c amplifier is highly non-sinusoidal because current
flows in pulses. The load is a tuned circuit which converts the non-sinusoidal o/p to
nearly sinusoidal form. Because of the flow of collector current less than 1800, the
average collector current is much less, if hence losses are less, so efficiency is very
high.
Resonance frequency (fr)=1/2π√LC.
At resonant frequency, the inductance of parallel resonant circuit is very high
and is purely resistive. When the circuit is tuned to the resonant frequency, the
voltage across R1 is maximum and sinusoidal. The tuned circuit helps in rejecting the
harmonics that are developed in the transistor due to class-C operation.
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OBSERVATION:
Vin=__ (v)
Frequency(Hz) Vout(v) Gain(dB)=20 log(V0/Vin)
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106
PROCEDURE:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is tuned amplifier? What are the various types of tuned amplifiers?
2. Why tuned amplifier cannot be used at low frequency?
3. What is the other name for tuned amplifier?
4. Mention the applications of tuned amplifiers.
5. State advantages and disadvantages of tuned amplifiers.
6. Compare amplifier, feedback amplifier & tuned amplifier.
7. List out the different coil losses.
8. What are the different types of neutralization?
9. What is the need for neutralization circuits?
10. Define loaded and unloaded Q.
RESULT:
Thus single tuned amplifier is designed and constructed for the given
operating frequency and the frequency response is plotted.
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