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Work-life balance
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Work–life balance 10
Jawad Syed
• Understand how issues of time and place of work are relevant to employees and
managers in modern organisations and also how they are relevant to diversity
management
• Have learnt about the changing nature of the workplace and its implications for the
family and vice versa
• Have learnt about the notions of flexible work, employee well-being and work–life
initiatives, such as childcare and employee assistance
• Have learnt about work–life related issues for single parents and single people with
weak family ties
• Have become aware of some recent debates on time and place of work, virtual
workplaces, job stress, and current organisational approaches and practices
• Understand the significance of legislative and demographic context for work–life
balance and have reviewed some cross-national examples
Introduction
Previous chapters in this book have dealt with issues unique to specific diversity
groups, such as women (Chapter 4), LGBT persons (Chapter 9) and ethnic minority
groups (Chapter 5). A common observation in these chapters and also in the diversity
literature overall is that employees in general face the challenge of having to balance
their professional and personal lives on an ongoing basis. The present chapter dis-
cusses the issue of how organisations and employees can manage work–life balance
(WLB) in an increasingly global competitive environment. It discusses the notion of
WLB and examines the factors that have caused an increase in attention to WLB, and
how the issue is addressed within diversity management. The chapter identifies impor-
tant changes within society and organisations which have contributed to an increased
focus on WLB within organisational policies. The chapter explores organisational
examples in order to assess how diversity management policies address WLB and how
this affects employees and organisations. The chapter offers a critical review of the
literature and organisational policies that identifies some gaps in diversity policies sur-
rounding the issue of WLB.
The world of work is changing rapidly and so are the needs of employees. Baby
boomers (i.e. those born between 1946 and 1964) are ageing and there is an increas-
ingly ageing society in most industrialised countries. Also, with the kick-start from the
internet generation, new opportunities and applications of technology are on the
march. Migration and globalisation mean there are important changes in ethnic and
religious diversity which need to be taken into account in designing and implementing
organisational policies. Family dynamics are also changing, with the increasing growth
and acceptance of single-parent and non-traditional families. In this context, work–life
balance (WLB) is about developing working approaches that are equally beneficial to
individuals and organisations (DfEE, 2000).
The concept of WLB represents the conviction that personal life and paid work may
be viewed as complementary, not competing, elements of life (Holliday and Manfredi,
2004; Lewis, 2000). This balance can be achieved by conceptualising WLB as a two-
way process that considers the needs of employees as well as those of employers
(Lewis, 2000).
Employee demographics in Europe and elsewhere have changed dramatically since
World War II, and more recently due to globalisation and migration. There are an
increasing number of women in the workplace and also in managerial roles, many of
whom are still heavily burdened in terms of their family-related responsibilities.
Today’s workforce also comprises dual-earner couples, something which is now rou-
tine rather than an exception in the labour market. Such workers have to take care of
not only their jobs but also children or elderly dependents (Bond et al., 1998).
Moreover, due to the recent financial crisis (2008–12), governments and organisations
are seeking to make employees redundant while also trying to lengthen the work week.
This situation is particularly challenging and unnerving for dual-career couples and
other employees who need time to attend to their family-related roles (Hill et al., 2001).
A survey of 5,000 US households found that 63 per cent have high levels of job-related
stress (Jayson , 2012). Increased stress levels resulting from lack of WLB have become
more frequent, and represent a major challenge for employees and organisations.
Definitions
Felstead et al. (2002: 56) define work–life balance as ‘the relationship between the insti-
tutional and cultural times and spaces of work and non-work in societies’. Expanding on
this definition, Hill et al. (2001: 49) refer to WLB as ‘the degree to which an individual is
able to simultaneously balance the temporal, emotional, and behavioral demands of both
paid work and family responsibilities’. Clark (2000) defines WLB as ‘satisfaction and good
functioning at work and at home, with a minimum role of conflict’.
Kirton and Greene (2010) define WLB as employment policies facilitating the bal-
ancing of work and life outside of work – implicitly extending beyond parenting/
caring responsibilities. According to RCN (2008), WLB denotes the working practices
that acknowledge and seek to support the needs of staff in achieving a balance
between their homes and working lives.
While there is a consensus on the benefits of WLB, Grzywacz and Carlson (2007)
note that ambiguity revolves around how WLB should be defined, measured and
researched. In other words, the theorising of the subject is still a work-in-progress.
Historical context
The roots of WLB go back to the nineteenth century when workers and unions suc-
cessfully campaigned against long working hours in factories, and it became apparent
that a decrease in working hours had no significant impact on production (Bosworth
and Hogarth, 2009). During the early twentieth century, the campaign for a maximum
cap on working hours was also reflected in pioneering studies in the field of WLB
(e.g. Myers, 1924). The studies emphasised the role of motivation, human relations
and conditions under which reduction in working hours may improve productivity. In
1938, the US government of introduced the Fair Labor Standards Act with a maximum
workload of 44 hours per week (US Department of Labor, 2013). Finally in the 1980s,
companies began to introduce family-friendly policies, such as telecommuting and
flexible scheduling. Even though such policies were originally focused on women, in
practice they accommodated both women’s and men’s needs. In this context, the cur-
rent notion of WLB gained currency, with a view to protect family life in an increasingly
competitive workplace and career-driven society (Parakati, 2010).
According to Bosworth and Hogarth (2009), a number of indicators represent the
current policy mix in terms of WLB, i.e. health and safety at work, equality, a flexible
Demographic change
An important factor that affects WLB is demographic change in societies and labour mar-
kets. An example of this is the ageing workforce. The 2006–7 Human Solutions Report
showed that one-third of all workers in the US were aged 45–64. Those in this age bracket
are likely to be more susceptible to health issues. However, WLB policies are equally
important to younger workers. In terms of age, Smith and Gardner (2007) show that young
employees tend to make more use of WLB policies such as compressed work weeks,
flexitime and telecommuting. In terms of gender, Allen (2001) found that women are more
likely to benefit from WLB policies than men, mostly for maternity and childcare.
the UK are largely derived from the Maternity and Parental Leave etc. Regulations 1999,
the Employment Rights Act 1996 and the Work and Families Act 2006. Table 10.1 offers
a comparative perspective on maternity leave policies across the world. However, much
of the legislation provides only limited rights for working women with care commit-
ments (Conaghan and Rittich, 2005). This legislative oversight may be attributed to an
assumption that a traditional nuclear family is the norm, i.e. the male breadwinner and
female homemaker model. However, non-traditional forms of family are becoming
increasingly common. For example in the US, only around 17 per cent of married cou-
ple are composed of working men and unemployed wives. In contrast, 26 per cent are
headed by single women, while nearly 5 per cent of married families are composed of
working women and unemployed husbands (US Department of Labor, 2004). This lack
of regard for contemporary social changes has led to the slow development of work–
life balance and diversity initiatives in organisations (Özbilgin et al., 2011).
Australia Paid parental leave (government funded) began 1 January 2011. Up to 18 weeks paid at the national minimum
wage
China The minimum length of maternity leave was increased in May 2012 to 98 days
Germany Germany introduced a system of parental leave benefit, the so-called Elterngeld, on 1 January 2007, replacing
a much less generous system called Erziehungsgeld. The new system offers a 67% replacement rate of
previous labour earnings (from employment or self-employment) for either father or mother for up to 12
months post-childbirth
Italy Maternity leave lasts for 5 months (these are paid at 80% of mother’s usual salary). Additional parental leave lasts
6 months per parent (with a maximum of 11 months per child), and parents receive 30% of their usual salary
Japan Mothers in Japan are guaranteed 14 weeks maternity leave, including 6 mandatory weeks post-childbirth. Pay
depends upon the employer and various other elements. In addition, mothers have access to childcare leave,
which lasts until the child’s first birthday.
Netherlands Women receive a guaranteed 16 weeks paid maternity leave (six weeks before and 10 weeks after childbirth). In
addition, women can take 13 weeks of full-time leave or six months of part-time leave before their child’s eighth
birthday
India Under the Maternity Benefits Act of 1961, women are entitled to maternity benefits at the rate of their average
daily wage for a maximum period of 12 weeks (6 weeks before delivery and 6 weeks after). This provision is
available only to those who have worked at least 80 days in their organisation in the last 12 months. (ILO, n.d.)
Norway 9 weeks compulsory maternity leave, 100% salary. May also take parental leave for 44 additional weeks at
100% salary. May also take an additional year of unpaid leave
Russia Women receive 140 days maternity leave, 70 of which are to be taken prior to birth, with 70 taken after birth,
with up to 100% of salary as a ceiling. The maternity leave is mandatory
UK 26 weeks of Ordinary Maternity Leave and 26 weeks of Additional Maternity Leave making one year in total.
The combined 52 weeks is known as Statutory Maternity Leave. A recent amendment makes it mandatory for
women to take a minimum of 2 weeks maternity leave immediately after childbirth (4 weeks minimum for
factory workers). Pregnant employees may also be eligible for a one-time, tax-free payment, offered to low-income
mothers to buy supplies for the baby, which does not have to be paid back
Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) offers a number of policies that recognise the
importance of WLB, e.g. flexible working and the ‘your time’ scheme. The
‘your time’ scheme recognises the need for unexpected time off work due to
emergent family and other commitments. The scheme won an HR excellence
award for flexibility. The scheme amongst other initiatives has helped RBS in
being recognised as a family-friendly organisation and has also boosted its
recruitment (RBS, 2013).
Discuss what could be some possible reasons for a positive effect of WLB
on recruitment. Find examples of WLB policies in organisations in your local
area or region which may be compared to the flexible working facilities
offered by RBS.
(Continued)
provide little to no protections for, and at times show hostility toward, their
LGBT employees. Activists have criticised Wal-Mart for denying employee
benefits to same-sex partners and for failing to prohibit discrimination based
on gender identity (Harris, 2011).
Sav et al.’s (2014) qualitative study shows how Australian Muslim men cope
with potential conflict and try to achieve balance between their work, family
and religious roles. The study shows that personal coping strategies, such as
time management and workplace adjustment, are more effective in achieving
WLB and coping with conflict as opposed to external ones such as supervi-
sor support. The study shows that Muslim men in Australia use these strate-
gies to actively achieve WLB while also avoiding potential conflict.
Should organisations expect their ethnic minority employees to change
their lifestyle and ethnic or faith-based practices to fit the organisational
requirements? What could be a fair boundary-line for such expectations and
adjustments?
demands of work. This is the reason why organisations may have to offer different incen-
tives and training to keep employees engaged and also to ensure high productivity. This
explains why some companies may be reluctant to adopt flexible working arrangements.
Pay inequality is often identified as a problem related to WLB. Employees in gen-
eral like to have equality of pay and other conditions for flexible and standard jobs
(Alison and Jeff, 2005). While some employees, women in particular, try to gain more
flexibility by working in non-standard jobs, this may have a negative impact on their
earnings. If the equal pay rule is imposed, women can have fewer worries about their
income as they will be sure to receive salaries in accordance with the time they work.
It is however recognised that even highly paid women (and men) are subject to time-
and stress-based conflict between work and home.
The problem with the equal pay rule is that it is hard to measure the contributions
of standard workers and non-standard workers. Studies find that training opportunities
are more likely to be available to full-time workers than to those working part-time
(Alison and Jeff, 2005). Moreover, full-time workers may have a greater motivation to
perform better in their tasks to gain bonuses and promotions, while for part-time
workers such options may not be available.
Each employee may have her or his own reasons to need WLB. While some may
need time to take care of their children, others may need financial support or subsidy
to pursue further studies. All of these activities require time and/or money from the
employee. Organisations can consider providing financial help or flexible scheduling
of work to their employees based on their issues and needs. This may also motivate
employees to put in more effort because they have reduced personal worries.
However, organisations may not be willing to spend extra money on their employees
when they are not sure whether this investment will provide sufficient returns. Misuse
by people who do not really need flexible work or subsidies may happen, and other
employees may consider it unfair when they do not qualify for such benevolence.
a GDP of US$2.555 trillion, Russia has in the last few decades moved from a centrally
planned economy to a more market-based and globally integrated economy.
Economic reforms in the 1990s privatised most of industry, with notable exceptions
in the energy and defence-related sectors. However, the private sector remains sub-
ject to heavy state regulation. The labour force is estimated to be 75.24 million,
mostly concentrated in services (64.7 per cent), followed by industry (27.4 per cent)
and agriculture (7.9 per cent). The current unemployment rate is 5.7 per cent (2012
estimate) (CIA Factbook, 2014).
Since the Soviet era, the Russian Federation has had a long tradition of female
employment and also institutional arrangements for childcare. During the transition
period there was some decline in female employment and public expenditure on the
family was also cut (Ovcharova and Papova, 2005). The governmental family allow-
ance is quite low and has not taken into account the increasing cost of childcare.
Parental leave is paid for children under 18 months and additional unpaid leave may
be taken until the child is three (Pailhe, 2009).
Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, the development of family
policy in Russia has experienced the turmoil of transformation, privatisation of
enterprises, and rising unemployment affecting citizens’ social rights and lifestyle
(Teplova, 2007).
Putin’s speech to the nation in 2006 exhibited clear pro-natalist intentions. Not
only were benefits increased but the most important measure, the so-called mater-
nity capital, was introduced in 2007, giving mothers the right to attractive
non-monetary benefits. The maternity grant given at childbirth amounted to 6,000
rubles on the condition that the mother had registered with a medical establishment
during pregnancy. For early registration she was awarded an extra 300 rubles
(Council of Europe, 2005). According to Zakharov (2008), changes in family policies
during the 1980s led to a short-term baby boom in Russia, which was mostly due to
women giving birth to children earlier than planned or catching up with previously
postponed births.
Thus, despite underfunding and turmoil during transition, WLB remains an impor-
tant feature of governmental laws and organisational policies in Russia. In terms of
health and well-being, the Russian government, through the obligatory medical insur-
ance system, covers medical and emergency care for employees working in the public
sector. Contributions are required from employees as well as employers for the
obligatory medical insurance fund. Despite the growing private health care sector,
most Russians still prefer government-affiliated hospitals which provide free obligatory
care. Physical fitness centres have become popular with employees and are available
throughout major cities (Engle et al., 2010).
There are also specific provisions for parental leave and care of children. A preg-
nant woman is legally entitled to paid maternity leave of 70–84 days before childbirth
and of 70–110 calendar days after childbirth. Maternity pay comes from a govern-
ment Social Security Fund to which both employees and employers contribute. The
government also supports a childcare leave programme in which a mother can take
off up to three years from her position to care for her child. During this time she
receives a government allowance equivalent to half of her annual salary and the com-
pany guarantees her the same level of position upon her return. Women are legally
protected from dismissal when taking maternity leave or leave to care for a child
(Engle et al., 2010).
In terms of flexibility, approximately 17 per cent of Russian companies offer flexible
work options to full-time employees. In some Russian-owned companies, managers
prefer to have their staff working within a zone of their effective control, thus discour-
aging remote working arrangements. In terms of commuting, organisations help their
employees by providing special buses to transport employees to and from the office.
In some companies, some employees, particularly those working in field sales jobs,
are provided with company cars (Engle et al., 2010)
According to the OECD Better Life Index (OECD BLI, 2013), the Russian
Federation has made progress over the last decade in improving the quality of life
of its citizens. The BLI statistics shows that people in Russia work 1,981 hours a year,
about 11 per cent higher than the OECD average of 1,776 hours. However, only 0.2
per cent of employees in Russia work very long hours, much lower than the OECD
average of 9 per cent. While men spend more hours in paid work across the OECD,
in Russia there is hardly any difference (OECD BLI, 2013).
Questions
1. Compare the historical context and current policies of WLB in Russia with those in
your own country. What similarities and differences do you identify?
2. To what extent do governmental, political and ideological approaches to work and
family affect work–life balance policies in organisations?
3. What steps do you suggest for organisations in Russia to effectively manage WLB?
impact on career trajectory. Clearly, economic and societal structures, including organ-
isational structures, remain masculine and ethnocentric, thus providing unequal
opportunities and an imbalanced environment for women and other disadvantaged
groups. Many women who work part-time do so not because they seek lower stress
levels via reduced job responsibilities but because the time demands and rigid sched-
uling of many full-time positions do not easily enable individuals to meet the demands
of their caregiving role. And in addition to pay, another issue with part-time work is
underemployment, which is its own source of WLB-related stress.
To conclude, there has been an increasing demand for a better WLB from employ-
ees. To achieve WLB, organisations may develop strategies that deal with the diverse
needs of their employees, so that employees can have greater flexibility in their work
while the organisation too can gain value from their work. Indeed, WLB is not just
about family and childcare, nor is it about working less. It is about ‘working smart’,
about being fresh enough to give all one can to both work and home, without trading
one for the other (OBU, 2007).
Discussion questions
Further reading
Hill, E.J., Miller, B.C., Weiner, S.P. and Colihan, J. 1998. Influences of the virtual office on aspects
of work and work/life balance. Personnel Psychology, 51(3), 667–83.
Houston, D.M. 2005. Work-Life Balance in the Twenty-First Century. London: Palgrave.
Hughes, S. and Bolton, T. 2002. Work–Life Balance. Spiro Press.
Kaiser, S. and Ringlstetter, M.J. (Eds) 2010. Work-Life Balance. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-
Verlag.
Smithson, J. and Stokoe, E.H. 2005. Discourses of work–life balance: negotiating ‘gender blind’
terms in organizations. Gender, Work & Organization, 12(2), 147–68.
CASE STUDY
Yahoo!
One of the first internet pioneers and leaders, Yahoo! is currently struggling
in the fast-changing world of technology. After the departure of three CEOs
in a short span of four years, a new CEO was needed who could lead the
company into the future (Fisman, 2013). On 16 July 2012, Marissa Mayer was
appointed President and CEO of Yahoo!, and with her appointment the cor-
poration’s search for direction was about to end.
Marissa Mayer, then 37, was the youngest and one of the few women lead-
ing a Fortune 500 company, and probably the only one that was five months
pregnant at the time of her appointment. Before taking over at Yahoo! Mayer
had joined Google in 1999 as the company’s first female engineer (Fisman
2013; McLean, 2014). After the appointment as the new CEO of a pregnant
woman, many employees at Yahoo!, especially woman, thought there was
finally someone who understood what it meant to be a mother and working
at the same time. They seemed to be proved wrong. In March 2013, Mayer
surprised both her employees as well as independent analysts by decreeing
that there will be no longer be a remote working option for Yahoo! staff. A
company memo leaked to the media stated, that with effect from June 2013,
employees would no longer be permitted to work remotely, in order to cre-
ate a more productive and connected organisational culture (Goudreau,
2013). The leaked memo reads in part:
This policy is expected to affect hundreds of remote workers. It was alleged that
the new policy was aimed at getting rid of rogue employees while keeping only
those deemed committed and productive (Fisman, 2013; Weinberger, 2013).
(Continued)
(Continued)
After the announcement a veritable outcry went through the internet,
causing a debate on WLB. It was alleged that more than 20 years after a
strong movement towards work–life balance, Yahoo! was falling back in time.
Headlines like ‘Boohoo, not Yahoo: Are we moving backwards on work–life
balance?’ (Total Trust, 2013) circulated on the internet. Following Yahoo!’s
announcement, Silicon Valley echoed with debate on the role and future of
flexible work in the modern workplace. Currently, a large number people in
Silicon Valley work from home or have other flexible arrangements in place
(Weinberger, 2013). Overall 10 per cent of US employees work at least one
day from home (Shah, 2013). However, the question remains as to why Yahoo!
decided to take this road.After giving birth, Mayer only took two weeks off
before returning to her office. After the ban on remote work, it transpired
that she had rented an office next to her own with a private nanny for her
baby, so they could be close (Reynolds and Neild, 2013). That bothered many
employees, since due to the policy they couldn’t work from home, and had to
leave their babies at home, while their CEO enjoyed the privilege of a private
nursery right next to her office.
This obviously caused demotivation in the existing staff. In fact, there was
talk of Silicon Valley competitors using flexible schedules as bait to recruit
Yahoo!’s competitive employees (Kedleck, 2013).
To be fair, one should also consider the intended or alleged benefits to
be gained from the new policy. Companies in the technology sector criti-
cally depend on innovation and new developments. A major argument, as
emphasised in Yahoo!’s leaked memo, is that some of the best ideas and
decisions come from hallway and cafeteria discussions, therefore it is
important that employees are present at the workplace. Previous research
shows that despite modern IT and communication facilities, business lead-
ers still spend 80 per cent of their time in face-to-face meetings (Fisman,
2013). The reason for this is, in order to cut through complex agendas and
work on new innovative ideas, quite often people need to have face-to-face
meetings.
The media attention given to the Yahoo! case shows that many people feel
affected by work–life balance. It remains to be seen whether Yahoo!’s new
policies lead to success. It may be the right choice over the short and medium
run, given the company’s current economic situation. However, its long-term
implications in terms of staff turnover, motivation and productivity remain far
from certain.
This case study can also be analysed in the context of current debates on
the problems of presenteeism and flexible working. Presenteeism is generally
defined as a tendency to attend work even when one feels unhealthy. It applies
to employees attending work while sick and also to those employees who rou-
tinely work overtime for the sake of performance, money or corporate citizen-
ship (Johns, 2010; Simpson, 1998). The Yahoo! example by way of illustration
highlights the CEO’s view that people need to be physically at work.
Questions
1. To what extent do you agree or disagree with Marissa Mayer’s policy of
requiring employees to be physically at Yahoo! instead of remote work-
ing? Why?
2. What would you do if you were in Marissa Mayer’s place?
3. To what extent are issues of work–life balance linked with an organisa-
tion’s approach to diversity and inclusion?
4. How do you analyse the Yahoo! case study in the context of current
debates on presenteeism? Find a couple of examples in other organisa-
tions where presenteeism is encouraged.
Acknowledgments
1. Thanks to Greg Innes, Katy Wright, Tarek Belhous and Yeuk Yiu Wai for contribut-
ing to lively class debates on this topic and also assisting in the literature review.
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