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POETRY
JULIATI, ARIS SISWANTI
The writers
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Page
Preface ................................................................................. i
Table of Contents ................................................................... ii
References ............................................................................ 51
Rencana Proses Kegiatan Pembelajaran Semester (RPKPS)… 53
ii
UNIT I
WHAT IS POETRY?
A. INTRODUCTION
Answer these questions. Then discuss them with your classmates.
1. Definitions of Poetry
It seems that poetry is the least favorable literary work. In fact, poetry
can be regarded as the oldest as literary genre. Poetry has already existed
when the other genres have not invented yet. In British literary history, the
oldest literary work identified is in the form of a poem. Beowulf, an epic poem
consisting of thousands of line, is one of them. The mantra used by medicine
man/woman is also a poetic work. Now, in the twenty-first century poetry
remains to exist. Thus, we can say that poetry never dies. It is alive along
with human life.
Poetry is close to our life though we often do not realize it. The general
assumption that poetry is the most difficult work of literature often
discourages people to know it better or to enjoy it at least. Poetry is indeed
different from the other genres of literature- prose and drama. But this
difference is as common as the difference of prose from drama.
To define what poetry one can give his or her own understanding of it
because one’s perception about poetry is established by his/her experience.
We may directly refer as a group of lines arranged in a particular rule such as
meter, stanzaic form, and rhyme. It may sound superficial but its concentrated
form indeed makes poetry distinctive from other genres since the other
characteristics such as it is an expression of feeling and thought, or it
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entertains as well as teaches about human life are also embedded in other
genres.
Some definitions of poem are provided by some poets such as William
Wordsworth, Matthew Arnold and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Mathew Arnold says
that “Poetry is simply the most beautiful, impressive, and widely effective
mode of saying things”. William Wordsworth as a romantic poet defines it as
the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings which takes its origin from
emotion recollected in tranquility. Meanwhile R.W. Emerson says that “Poetry
teaches the enormous forces of a few words”.
2. Types of Poetry
In spite of the seemingly never-ending search for the definition of
poetry, there are several types of poetry to know. For the sake of clarification
and simplification, poetry can be classified into three types: lyric, narrative
and dramatic. Classifications of this kind are not exclusive. Poems in each of
these categories may have elements characteristics of the other.
a) Lyric poetry
It is the most popular form of poetry today. It is characterized by the
expression of the speaker’s innermost feelings, thoughts, and imagination. The
word lyric is taken from a stringed musical instrument called the lyre, which
was used in classical and medieval times to accompany a singer. In addition to
the very subjective stance of the speaker, lyric poems are melodic-melody not
derived from a lyre but from the words and their arrangement. It’s not mere
coincidence that the words that accompany the melody in a song are called
lyrics (Pickering and Hoeper, 1980)
Lyric poetry includes pastoral poem, love poem which is perhaps the most
familiar to us, poem of praise, ode, elegy etc. Pastoral poem is a poem telling
the life in the countryside such as shepherds, cattle, hills, and mountains. Ode
is a lyric poem that expresses a noble feeling with dignity. Elegy is a poem of
lamentation.
b) Narrative poetry
A narrative poem tells a story. The poet takes on a role similar to of a
narrator in a work of fiction. Ballad is narrative poem which is quite popular. It
is strongly marked by rhythm suitable for singing. Traditional British ballads
are written in quatrains, or four-line stanzas. Lines 1 and 3 have four beats;
lines 2 and 4 have three beats and rhyme. The traditional ballad is usually an
anonymous. It deals with the comedies and tragedies of everyday life. The
example of traditional ballad is Barbara Allan.
Barbara Allan
Anonymous (printed in Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama and the
Essay by Robert DiYanni)
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He sent his man down through the town,
To the place where she was dwelling:
"O haste and come to my master dear,
Gin ye be Barbara Allan."
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c) Dramatic poetry
When a poet tries to break out of his or her own consciousness and
reach into the world of another, it results in dramatic poetry. Dramatic poetry
provides the reader an opportunity to hear the imagined thoughts of
characters who lack the poet’s opportunity of expression. The simplest form of
dramatic poetry is soliloquy. In soliloquy, the speaker is merely overheard,
talking to no one in particular. This form of poetry is also called dramatic
monologue (Bergman and Epstein, 1987,p.477-478). Some examples of
dramatic poetry are William Carlos William’s The Widow’s lament in
Springtime, and William Blake’s The Little Vagabond
a) Objective approach
This approach is considered the oldest and traditional one. An objective
approach to a poem begins with a complete description of the poem’s physical
properties such as its length, rhyme scheme and figures of speech. The
analysis does not stop at describing the physical properties or the basic
information of the poem. It should proceed to give more complex information
about why the poet chooses to include them and also how is the meaning of
the poem conveyed through the use of the technical devices.
b) Subjective approach
This approach begins with personal interest in the poem. We respond to
a poem based on our experience. When we use this approach, we do not
intend to be involved deeply in analyzing the poem’s structure. We are
concerned exclusively with what the poem means to us. This approach
therefore is the most like to produce a variety of interpretation.
This approach, however, has weakness in term of its relativity. Of
course merely depending on one’s own private experience will raise a situation
that any interpretation is correct. Thus, it would be wrong if we take an
exclusively subjective approach in analyzing a poem. We should consider the
various possible responses (Reaske, 1966). In addition, this approach can lead
to the ignorance of literary clues that one should take into account.
c) Thematic approach
Applying subjective approach sometimes also deals with the theme of
the poem because that is what we search for when we read a poem. When we
are reading or analyzing a poem, we always try to come to a certain
conclusion about its theme. As theme is the main idea of a work. It is the
poet’s view about phenomena presented in the poem. It usually provides an
insight about human life. Thus thematic approach attempts to find what a
poem is saying.
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4. Practice
1) Read the poem written by Emily Dickinson below and give your response to
it by answering the following questions. Write your answer in the space
provided.
A word is dead
When it is said,
Some say.
I say it just
Begins to live
That day.
Source: www.differentiatedkindergarten.com
2) Make a group of three and discuss what the poem means by answering the
following questions. Write your answer in the space provided.
Source: downloadclipart.net
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a) What does “minor” here mean?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
b) Does the poem essentially talk about a bird or a human being?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
C. INDEPENDENT STUDY
Glossary
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UNIT II
VERSIFICATION IN POETRY
A. INTRODUCTION
1. Rhythm
In poetry, rhythm is created by the pattern of repeated sounds—in
terms of both duration and quality—and ideas. It is a combination of vocal
speeds, rises and falls, starts and stops, vigor and slackness, and relaxation
and tension. Rhythm is significant because poets “invite” us to change speeds
while reading—to slow down and linger or pass rapidly over some words and
sounds or to give more or less vocal stress or emphasis on certain syllables.
All these are related to emotions that are charged in the poem.
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a) Rhythm and scansion
Scansion is the act of scanning a poem to discover how the poem
establishes a metrical pattern—which syllables are accented (receive stress)
and which are not (receive no stress). The accented syllables are usually
1) Metrical feet
A line of a poem seems to be divided into a number of repeated units
combining the same number of accented and unaccented syllables. This unit is
called a poetic foot. To separate one foot from another, a slash (/) is used. Is
a pattern of one foot is repeated or varied in the entire poem, the pattern for
the poem is established. The followings are some names of poetic feet.
(Donne, Song)
(Tennyson, In Memoriam)
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As we examine the metrical feet, we also need to examine the metrical
line—the number of feet contained in a line. The types are as follows:
(a) The caesura: The pause in a line, which is often best discovered by reading
the poem aloud. The pause is not necessarily punctuated. The caesura can
be marked with (//).
Example:
Milton! Thou shouldst be living at this hour. (Wordsworth, London, 1802)
The caesura in this line is after the word Milton.
(b) End-stopped line: A line of poetry that naturally pauses at the end of the
line (when it shows a complete clause or sentence); it is the opposite of
run-on line, where readers should not stop but read through to the next
line.
Example:
(1) End-stopped line:
My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun.
Coral is far more red than her lips red. (Shakespeare, Sonnet 130)
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2. Rhyme
Rhyme is the identical final syllables of words. Rhyme gives delight and
strengthens a poem’s psychological impact. The similar sounds help promote
our memory on the poem. Most often, rhymes are placed at the ends of lines.
Rhymes may appear in two successive lines, in alternating lines, or at intervals
of four, five, or more lines. However, if rhyming sounds are too far away from
each other, they lose their immediacy and effectiveness.
When we want to describe the rhyme pattern in a poem of a stanza, we
label the first sound at the end of a line “a”, the next “b”, then “c”, “d”, and so
forth. When a sound reappears, we use the same letter to label the sound. We
would then say that the pattern, or the rhyme scheme of a stanza or poem,
is abcbca, abba, etc.
There are several variations of rhymes. They are, among others:
c) Internal rhyme
This is when the rhyming words are found within the line, often a word
in the middle of a line rhyming with the last word or sound of the line.
Example: Small feet were pattering, wooden shoes clattering,
(Browning, The Pied Piper of Hamelin)
d) Alliteration
It is the identical consonant sounds that start several words that are
close to each other. Check the following example. What effect do the repeated
sounds produce?
For winter's rains and ruins are over,
And all the season of snows and sins;
The days dividing lover and lover,
The light that loses, the night that wins;
(Swinburne, Chorus from Atalanta)
e) Assonance
The repetition of identical vowel sounds in different words that are close
to one another. One example is bird and thirst. (The er sound is identical in
both words.)
f) Consonance
Words have the same consonants but not the same vowel sounds, as in
pat and pit. Assonance and consonance are known as slant rhyme.
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g) Onomatopoeia
It is a blend of consonant and vowel sounds designed to imitate or
suggest a situation or action. This technique uses a word whose spund
suggests its meaning, such as buzz, crackle, hum, etc.
h) Blank verse
It is unrhymed iambic pentameter. Shakespeare’s plays and Milton’s
Paradise Lost are two popular examples.
i) Free verse
Some poetry is composed in lines which are free of the traditional
patterns of lines and meter. The rhythm is based on the stress resulting from
the meaning of the line and its natural and punctuated pauses.
3. Stanzaic Forms
A stanza is a group of lines in a poem. Ordinarily, each stanza follows a
particular rhyme scheme. Some of the more common stanzas are:
1) Couplet—a stanza of two lines which usually rhymes.
2) Triplet/tercet—a stanza of three lines
3) Quatrain--—a stanza of four lines
4) Sestet—a stanza of six lines
5) Septet—a stanza of seven lines
6) Rhyme royal—a stanza of seven lines written in iambic pentameter and
rhyming ababbcc
7) Octave—a stanza of eight lines
8) Sonnet —a stanza of fourteen lines
The Italian sonnet is divided into an octave (rhyming abba,abba) and a
sestet (rhyming cde, cde (or its variations) or cd,cd,cd). The octave usually
presents one idea, and the sestet gives an example. Besides, octave may
show a problem and the sestet talk about the solution. The
English/Shakespearian sonnets usually consist of three quatrains and one
couplet (abab, cdcd, efef, gg). The sonnet may present three arguments
concerning with its theme in the three quatrains and draw a conclusion in the
couplet. Therefore, it is suggested that sonnet is a perfect example of close
relationship of form and content in poetry.
9) Spenserian stanza
This stanza has nine lines; the first eight are iambic pentameter while
the last is iambic hexameter. The final line typically has a caesura, or break,
after the first three feet. The stanza rhymes ababbcbcc. An example of the
form is the first stanza of Spenser’s Book I of The Faerie Queene (Smith,
n.d.):
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10) Ottava rima—a stanza of eight lines
The stanza consists of eight lines written in iambic pentameter. The
following example is from Byron’s Don Juan.
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“Ode on Solitude” is composed in five quatrains, with an a-b-a-b rhyme
pattern. The first three lines of every stanza are in iambic tetrameter, with
sprung rhythms, while the fourth line is in dimeter.
The first stanza begins with a trochee because the first syllable of the
word happy is naturally accented. The line then uses a regular pattern of
iambs. There are no caesuras. The fourth line, the dimeter, is scanned with
four stresses, though the first foot (In his) could be pronounced without
stress.
The second stanza is in iambs, and there is one caesura in the middle of
the first line.
The third stanza employs a number of variations in rhythm. The caesura
after the first syllable isolates the word Blest, so that it gets further emphasis.
Also, an exclamation mark (!) is a punctuation mark that marks the ending of
a statement, so a reader needs to pause on the mark. The speaker of the
poem wants the reader to pause and to savor what an exceptional thing such
a life would be. The double caesura in the next line, setting off "Hours," and
"days," which are both stressed, gives emphasis on these measures of time.
The fourth stanza has several interesting variations. The spondee in the
first foot enforces the soundness of the sleep, while the caesura in mid-line
again creates balance. But in the next line the speaker takes adds a syllable
and violates the strict regularity. This is because he is introducing the idea of
recreation, which is itself a departure from the orderly rhythms of work.
"Meditation" in the fourth line adds an extra syllable to maintain the overall
symmetry.
The final stanza is emphatic, loaded with extra stresses. The two
caesuras in the first line mark out the speaker's solitariness. The two spondees
in the very last line echo the two at the end of the first stanza, carrying a link
between the ground that a person lives on and the ground that the person is
buried in.
5. Practice
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For oft, when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
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6) How do the characteristics you have identified in no. 1, 4, and 5 relate to
idea or theme of the poem?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
C. INDEPENDENT STUDY
1) Daffodils
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And neigh like Boanerges**;
Then, punctual as a star,
Stop--docile and omnipotent--
At its own stable door.
a) According to lines 1-2, what does “it” (the subject of the poem) “lap” and
“lick”?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
b) Name three places to which “it” travels. What words describe its
movements in these places?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
c) What does the poet refer to as “it” in the poem?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
d) Read the poem out loud and take notes of the syllables and accents in each
line.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
e) Does the poem follow a regular or irregular rhythm? Explain.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
f) How does the punctuation affect the rhythm?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Glossary
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UNIT III
DENOTATION, CONNOTATION, AND TONE
A. INTRODUCTION
1. Does the word “hand” in the two contexts below have the same meaning?
a. Ow! I broke my hand.
b. Could you give a hand?
2. Do the two expressions below have the same meaning?
a. What a beautiful day!
b. What a beautiful day?
a) Denotation
A word is only an accurate tool of communication if it conveys the same
idea to both the speaker and the listener; yet the meanings of words
continually change and, despite the existence of dictionaries, can only be said
to mean what people think they mean. New words are continually entering the
language and old words dropping out or changing their implications.
Furthermore, the same words can mean different things to different people or
to different contexts. If, for example, we say of someone, “He is a bit red”, we
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may mean that he is embarrassed, sunburned, or attracted to Communism.
So is the word “mistress”; its meaning has changed. It used to be a praise for
a woman wife of noble-blood, but now it is used for disparaging a woman lack
of a marriage–license (Pickering and Hoeper,1980).
The various meanings of the words above are all denotations – that is,
they are listed as definitions in nearly any good dictionary. We know that
nearly every word has many definitions and that its denotation in particular
instance will depend largely on the context. Therefore, the first step to do in
understanding a poem is to understand thoroughly each word in it. Often, the
best clues to the meaning of an unfamiliar word are to be found within the
poem itself. (Pickering and Hoeper,1980)
b) Connotation
As it is well-known, denotation refers to the dictionary meaning of a
word. Connotation, on the other hand, is determined by the ideas associated
with or suggested by the word. Denotation is the meaning a word gives to a
sentence; connotation is the verbal coloring a word takes on from those
sentences in which it is commonly used. Denotative meaning is closely related
to the history, association and the environment where the word is used.
Therefore, a word’s connotation, like its denotation, may change over time.
Here are some examples of connotations. The word “flower” denotes a
part of plant, but it connotatively means girl, beauty and delicacy. The word
“childlike” and “childish” both mean an attitude and behavior of a child, but
they have different meanings. “childlike” means “meekness’, “innocence”,
while “childish” means “foolishness” and “willfulness”. Denotation is quite
important for a poet because it can enrich the meaning of each line he/she
writes (“saying more in fewer words”).
2. Tone
The tone of a poem is the attitude that we feel in it. It is the writer's
attitude and feeling toward the subject. Neglecting the existence of tone in
poetry can mislead our understanding of the poem. Sometimes tone is fairly
obvious but sometimes it is not. Thus, we have to read the poem carefully to
be able to discover its tone. How can we find the tone of a poem? A poet can
put forward his/her underlying sentiments through the rhythm, images and
word choices. So, by analyzing those aspects we can figure out the attitude of
the poet. Indeed, poets refine their language, but they usually wish to achieve
the spontaneity of sincere expression. (Bergman and Epstein, 1987)
There are several kinds of tone that we can find in a poem. When read a
poem of praise, we can feel the tone of approval. In a poem such as “Richard
Cory” by Arlington, we can feel irony. Tone can be playful, humorous,
regretful, angry, neutral and didactive/ convincing. The followings are some
examples of poem with different tone.
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Then again she comes to the curb
To call the ice-man, fish-man, and stands
Shy, uncorseted, tucking in
Stray ends of hair, and I compare her
To a fallen leaf.
The noiseless wheels of my car
Rush with a crackling sound over
Dried leaves as I bow and pass smiling
(taken from Bergman &Epstein, 1987 p.606-607)
In this poem, the speaker tells about a woman that he finds attractive.
Instead of saying,” What a beautiful housewife!”, he seems to be cool in
describing the woman. He does not exaggerate her charm. He only compares
her to a fallen leaf. In this poem, we can feel a restraint of expression.
Therefore, it sounds neutral.
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A poem has a comic/amusing tone when the poet has a comic attitude
toward the subject. The comic tone is usually an effect of feminine rhyme. A
comic poet’s repertoire has two popular tricks namely pun and spoonerism.
The pun is a play on words with similar sounds or on a single word with
different meanings, while spoonerism is a slip of the tongue that exchanges
the parts of two words. For example,” Let’s sit by the fire and spin” becomes
Let’s spit the fire and sin”. (Bergman and Epstein,1987)
3. Practice
Exercises no 1-5 have been from Poetry Booklet adapted from Sound
and Sense, Eighth Edition by Laurence Perrine and Thomas R. Arp.
a) Which word in each group has the most “romantic” connotation?
a. horse, steed, donkey
b. king, ruler, tyrant
c. rose, flower, plant
2) Which word in each group is the most emotionally connotative?
a. female, mother, dam
b. offspring, children, progeny
c. brother, sibling
3) Arrange the words in each group from most positive to most negative in
connotation:
a. skinny, thin, gaunt, slender
b. prosperous, loaded, moneyed
c. brainy, intelligent, eggheaded, smart
4) In the following examples the denotation for the word white remains the
same, but the connotations differ. Explain.
a) The young princess had blue eyes, golden hair, and a breast as white as
snow.
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b) Confronted with the evidence, the young princess turned as white as a
sheet.
____________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________
5) Please identify and explain the connotative meaning of the lines below.
a) Remember me when I am gone away,
Gone far away into the silent land; (Christina Rossetti)
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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b) The soul selects her own society,
Then shut the door; (Emily Dickinson)
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
c) Forgive us, mother
as we have taken your gold
and ignored your beauty
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6) Read the short poem below and answer the following questions.
____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
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Glossary:
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Pun (n) : a play on words with similar sounds or on a single word
with different meanings
Spoonerism (n) : a slip of the tongue that exchanges the parts of two
words
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UNIT IV
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (1)
Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, and Antithesis
A. INTRODUCTION
1. What do you know about figurative language?
2. Have you ever heard people use figurative language in daily conversation?
If you ever heard it, can you give the example?
3. In your opinion, what is the function of figurative language used in poetry?
a) Simile
Simile is a figure of speech in which two things are compared using ‘as’,
‘as when’, ‘like’, ‘than’, or other equivalent constructions. Simile asserts
similarity.
Example: "My love is like a red, red rose" (Robert Burn).
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In this example, the speaker compares his love to a red rose using the word
‘like’, suggesting that the two objects are similar, so the figure of speech used
in this line is simile.
b) Metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech which directly compares one thing to
another. It is used when a writer feels that two terms are identical instead of
merely similar. It established an analogy between two objects. Generally, it is
formed through the use of some form of the verb “to be”.
Example: All the world’s a stage” (Shakespeare).
From the example above, the speaker directly compares ‘all the world’ to ‘a
stage’ using the verb ‘is’. This kind comparison can be categorized as a
metaphor.
Both metaphor and simile contain two parts. The first one is the
principle or primary term, which is the one that conveys the literal statement.
The second one is the secondary term, which is used figuratively to add color
to the principle or primary term.
c) Allegory
Allegory is an extended or prolonged metaphor. We can say that an
allegory has two meanings, the literal meaning and the symbolic one. The
literal meaning is a metaphor for the real meaning behind it. Using allegory,
an auhor can present one thing in the guise of something else. A story which
contains of allegory usually contains a series of actions which are in fact
represent other actions.
Example: Animal Farm by George Orwell
Animal Farm is a fable about a group of animal in a certain farm that
want to gain their own freedom, which leads them into a series of events. This
fable is actually an allegory of the Russian Revolution.
d) Antithesis
Antithesis is a condition where a pair or more of strongly contrasting
ideas or terms are presented together. It produces an effect of tension caused
by the contradiction of the words.
Example: “In doubt to deem himself a God, or Beast;
In doubt his Mind or Body to prefer;
( Alexander Pope )
The words ‘God’ and ‘Beast’, as well as ‘Mind’ and ‘Body’, which are are
contradictory to each other, are presented together to produce a certain effect
caused by the contradiction of the words.
2. Practice
Go back the poems Daffodils by William Wordsworth and The Adversary
by Phyllis McGinley. Identify and explain the metaphor and simile used in the
poems.
D. INDEPENDENT STUDY
Try to create your own simile and metaphor. It can be about people,
objects or situations around you. Tell your classmates about it and ask them
to guess the meaning of the simile or metaphor. Discuss the answers.
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Glossary
Simile (n) : a figure of speech in which two things are compared using
‘as’, ‘as when’, ‘like’, ‘than’, or other equivalent
constructions. Simile asserts similarity
Metaphor (n) : a figure of speech which directly compares one thing to
another. It is used when a writer feels that two terms are
identical instead of merely similar. It established an analogy
between two objects. Generally, it is formed through the use
of some form of the verb “to be”
Allegory (n) : an extended or prolonged metaphor. We can say that an
allegory has two meanings, the literal meaning and the
symbolic one
Antithesis (n) : a condition where a pair or more of strongly contrasting ideas
or terms are presented together. It produces an effect of
tension caused by the contradiction of the words
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UNIT V
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (2)
Personification, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, and Euphemism
A. INTRODUCTION
1. When you hear someone say “Fear knocked on the door”, what do you
have in mind? Do you imagine that Fear really knocks your door?
2. People tend to exaggerate something. Can you give an example?
1. Personification
Personification is a type of figurative speech in which human
characteristics are attributed to nonhuman objects, abstractions, or ideas. The
poet describes them as if they were real people.
Example: "The Night was creeping on the ground! She crept and did not make
a sound" (James Stephens)
In the example above, the narrator addresses the Night using the word ‘she’,
as the one that is capable to ‘crept and did not make a sound’ just like a real
human being.
2. Apostrophe
Apostrophe is a limited form of personification. It occurs when a poet or
one of his characters addresses a speech to a person, animal, idea, or object.
Example: “To you, my purse, and to non other wight
Complayne I, for ye be my lady dere!”
(Geoffrey Chaucer)
Here, the speaker speaks to his purse as if it is a real person that is able
to understand his words and feeling.
3. Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a kind of figure of speech in which exaggeration is used to
emphasis a statement in an extreme way and to produce a very dramatic
effect.
Example: “In faith, I do not love thee with mine eyes,
For they in thee a thousand errors note,”
(Shakespeare).
Although it may be true that when we look at someone, i.e. analyze a
the person, we will find that the person is not perfect, yet the statement that
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the speaker can see “a thousand errors” in the other person still sounds
exaggerating.
4. Euphemism
Euphemism is a kind of figure of speech which substitutes obvious and
explicit words with the less direct ones. Euphemism catches the readers’
attention more than the blunt and unappealing words.
Example: the sun “blossomed out of the horizon”, means the sun “rose”.
The words ‘blossomed out of the horizon’ are used to substitute the word
‘rose’ to attract the readers more since those words create a different mood
and atmosphere.
5. Practice
Now study this poem and answer the following questions.
Source: thepictureofmylife.tumblr.com
Page | 27
4) Can you describe the mood and the atmosphere of this poem?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
C. Independent Study
Study questions
1. What does the speaker’s star do in the first six lines of the poem?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. According to lines 7-8, do his friends see his star?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. To what two things does the speaker compare his star in line 10?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Page | 28
4. According to the last line, how does the speaker feel about his star, and
why does he feel this way?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
5. In what way does the speaker’s connection to his star set him apart from
other people? What might the speaker mean when he says that his star has
“opened its soul” to him?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
6. Can you think of other things that might inspire the sort of affection the
speaker feels for his star? Why might people develop such feelings?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Glossary
Page | 29
UNIT VI
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (3)
Irony, Paradox, Metonymy, and Synecdoche
A. INTRODUCTION
When you want to mock someone or indirectly criticize someone for bad
thing that he did, what do you say and how do you say it?
1. Irony
Irony is used to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Irony is a
kind of result from the contrast between the actual meaning of a statement
and the suggestion of another meaning. It is actually a mockery of what is
literally being stated. Irony can be light and playful. A heavier version of irony
is sarcasm, where harsh words are usually used.
Irony can take on a number of different forms. Dramatic irony is when
the state of affairs known to the reader is the reverse of what its participants
suppose it to be. Situational irony is built when a set of circumstances turns
out to be the reverse of what is appropriate or expected. The most common
form of irony is verbal irony, which involves a contrast between what is
literally said what is actually meant (Pickering and Hoeper, 1986).
2. Paradox
Paradox is a kind of statement that is true in some sense, although it
appears self-contradictory and absurd at first. Its primary purpose is to atrrack
attention and produce dramatic effect.
Example:
"Freedom is slavery."
"Ignorance is strength."
(George Orwell, 1984)
Freedom is contradictory to slavery; yet, the sentence ‘freedom is slavery’ is
not that far from the truth since in this life, even we have our own freedom,
we still have to obey every rule that affects our way of life.
3. Metonymy
Metonymy is replacing the word that is actually meant with something
associated with an object or idea. In other words, one word is substituted with
another word which is closely associated.
Example: the Americans speak of the government as the “White House”.
Page | 30
The words ‘White House’ is already known as the term used to address the
government of America.
4. Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a condition where a part of something is used to
represent the whole thing, or where the whole thing is used to represent a
part of it.
Example: “She wept with waking eyes” (George Meredith).
England won a gold medal in that event.
The one that won a gold medal was an athlete from England, not the whole
England; yet, the word ‘England’ is used to address the winner
5. Practice
Now study the following poem and answer the questions.
Page | 31
2) What kind of figurative speech does the speaker mostly use?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3) Describe about the mood and the atmosphere of the poem.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4) According to the last stanza, how does the author feel about the lady?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
C. INDEPENDENT STUDY
Find more examples of irony, paradox, metonymy, and synecdoche in
poems or song lyrics. Compare your findings with your classmates’.
Glossary:
Irony (n) : a kind of result from the contrast between the actual
meaning of a statement and the suggestion of another
meaning
Metonymy (n) : replacing the word that is actually meant with something
associated with an object or idea.
Paradox (n) : a kind of statement that is true in some sense, although it
appears self-contradictory and absurd at first
Synecdoche (n) : is a condition where a part of something is used to
represent the whole thing, or where the whole
thing is used to represent a part of it
Page | 32
UNIT VII
IMAGERY AND SYMBOLS
A. INTRODUCTION
1. Describe what you see in this picture. Use as many descriptive details as
possible.
2. Some colors are said to show some characteristics. For example, the color
black usually means death, darkness, or sadness, while white represents
purity, peace, or surrender. Do you know what these colors mean?
a. Blue _____________________________________________
b. Gold _____________________________________________
c. Green _____________________________________________
d. Pink _____________________________________________
e. Red _____________________________________________
f. Purple _____________________________________________
g. Yellow_____________________________________________
h. Grey _____________________________________________
Page | 33
B. DISCUSSION AND PRACTICE
1. Imagery
Imagery is “images, pictures, or sensory content, which we find in a
poem. Images are fanciful or imaginative descriptions of people or objects
stated in terms of our senses.” (Reaske, 1966, pp. 34-35) According to
Abrams (1999), imagery includes visual sense qualities and qualities that are
auditory, tactile (touch), thermal (heat and cold), olfactory (smell), gustatory
(taste), and kinesthetic (sensations of movement). For example, in William
Wordsworth's She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways, the readers can
experience visual images of the literal objects the poem refers to (for
example, “untrodden ways," "springs," "grave") and visual images of the
"violet" of the metaphor and the "star" of the simile in the second stanza.
2. Symbols
A symbol is the use of a concrete object to represent an abstract idea.
In a literary work, it may appear in the form of a word, a figure of speech, an
event, the total action, or a character in which the object a person, object or
situation represents something beyond the literal meaning. When a picture or
representation is repeated over and over again, it becomes a symbol (Reaske,
1966). Symbols are traditionally recognized through conventions because
there has been a previous agreement on their meanings, that they can be
used to represent a more universal meaning in addition to their literal
meanings. However, there are also personal symbols, such as symbols that
one poet uses repeatedly in his works, which may cause difficulty in the
interpretation as the symbols can be unique (Abrams, 1999). Therefore, it is
necessary to study the background of the author and the work to decide
whether there is a symbol in the work and whether it is a conventional or
personal symbol. An object may also symbolize different things in different
Page | 34
cultures. For example, one culture may regard the color red as a symbol of
prosperity or courage, while in another society it is associated with anger or
evil.
Abrams (1999) gives an example of the word rose as a symbol. The
literal meaning of rose is a kind of flower. In William Blake's poem The Sick
Rose we read:
The rose is a rose, but it is also something more than a rose: words such as
bed, joy, love, are not literally related to an actual flower. There is also a
sinister tone and the intensity of the lyric speaker is s feeling that suggests the
object has another meaning besides just being a flower. The implicit
suggestions in the poem—the sexual connotations, in the realm of human
experience, of bed and love, in relation to joy and worm—supplemented by
our knowledge of similar elements and topics in his other poems lead us to
infer that the speaker’s lament for a rose which has been entered and
damaged by a dark and secret worm symbolizes the destruction created by
secrecy, deceit, and hypocrisy in a frank and joyous relationship of physical
love.
The followings are some conventional symbols summarized from
Chevalier and Gheerbrant (1996) and Hancock (1972) cited in Louis (n.d.)
a. Nature and time
1) Seasons
Spring: birth, new beginning
Summer: maturity, knowledge
Autumn: decline, nearing death, growing old
Winter: death, sleep, stagnation
2) Weather
Rain: sadness, despair, new life, divine influence on earth
Wind and storms: violent human emotions
Fog/mist: prevents clear vision or thinking, isolation, a development
phase when shapes have not been formed (mist),
Lightning: the spark of life, power or strength
Rainbows: pathways between earth and heaven, cycles of rebirth,
prologue to disturbance
Thunder: the voice of God or gods
3) Time
Morning: purity, the beginning, the time of God’s blessings
Day/light: hope, sanity, clarity
Night/dark: despair, madness, unknown
Sunrise: new beginning
Sunset: ending
Page | 35
4) Plants
Tree: life, family, nature, origins
Flower: beauty, youth, gentleness
Weeds: evil, wildness, outcast of society
Thorn: pain
5) Water: washes away guilt, origin of life, regeneration, vehicle of
cleansing
6) River: fluidity of life, stream of life and death
7) Moon: changing and returning shape, feminine symbol
8) Sun: source of life, masculinity
9) Mountain: stability, safety, human pride, places where heaven and
earth meet
10) Silver: object or harms of desires, female principle
11) Gold: wealth, the reflection of heavenly light, male principle
12) Pearl: knowledge, wealth
b. Animals
1) Dove: peace, purity, simplicity
2) Fox: slyness, cleverness
3) Lion: power, pride
4) Snake: temptation, evil
5) Mouse: shyness, meeknees
6) Lamb: sacrificial element
7) Owl: wisdom, messenger of death
8) Cats: cunning, forethought, ingenuity
c. Human body parts
1) Blood: qualities of fire, vital and bodily heat
2) Bones: strength and virtue (because bones contain marrow)
3) Hands: strength or weakness
4) Eyes: windows to the soul or emotions
5) Mouth: indicates character traits
d. Objects
1) Chain: ties two beings or extremes
2) Mirror: separation (a broken mirror), a happy marriage (unbroken)
3) Key: having the power and authority of letting in and shutting out
4) Ladder: ascension and realization of potential
5) Tower of Babel: confusion, human pride
e. Setting
1) The forest: a place of evil or mystery
2) A garden: paradise
3) Window: freedom (or lack of thereof)
4) Bed: consummation of marriage
Page | 36
2) Read William Blake’s Ah Sunflower below. Does sunflower symbolize
something? In connection with the theme, why do you think the speaker
uses the symbol?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
C. INDEPENDENT STUDY
Study these poems and answer the questions.
Page | 37
1) Why is the poem entitled “Sympathy”? How does the title connect to the
theme of the poem?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2) How is the bird used as a symbol? How is it personified? Why did
Dunbar choose a bird to express his feelings?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
1) What is happening to the speaker in this poem? How is she dealing with it?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2) What is the speaker expecting to see? What happens instead?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Page | 38
3) How is the fly used as a symbol in this poem?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
4) In the poem, find an example of the following:
a) Metaphor
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
b) onomatopoeia
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
c) simile
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Glossary
bosom (n) : the chest; especially when considered as the source of emotion
chalice (n) : a bowl-shaped drinking vessel or goblet
Imagery (n) : “images, pictures, or sensory content, which we find in a
poem. Images are fanciful or imaginative descriptions of
people or objects stated in terms of our senses.” (Reaske,
1966, pp. 34-35)
Symbol (n) : the use of a concrete object to represent an abstract idea
Page | 39
UNIT VIII
BIOGRAPHICAL APPROACH
A. INTRODUCTION
1. Have you ever written a poem? What triggered you to do so? Was it based
on your own life experience?
2. When someone loses his/her beloved one, what does he or she probably do
to express his/her feeling of loss?
1. Biographical Approach
We basically can gain understanding of a poem without knowing the
poet because the poem is a finished product of the poet’s creativity. When it
has been composed, the meaning emerges by itself as the result of the poem’s
structure. Therefore, one poem may arise various interpretations by its reader.
Yet, knowing some information about the poet to some extent is fruitful
although it will not change one’s understanding of the poem in any large way,
one should at least know of the biographical elements behind it.
When we examine the poem in relation to what is known about the
poet’s life, we apply what is called biographical approach. Often a particular
poem is subject to this kind of analysis simply by nature of the material. For
example, in these following lines from Henry Vaugham’s “The Retreat”, the
poet is discussing his desire to return to childhood:
Page | 40
and of poetic statement of fanciful but less important desire. To understand
thoroughly the poet’s actual or final feelings about the desirability or
enjoyability of childhood, we need to know something about his own
childhood. (Reaske,1966,p.54-55)
3. Practice
Read these poems and answer the questions that follow.
Page | 41
1) Read “Annabel Lee” poem written by Edgar Allan Poe by heart. Then,
read it aloud. While you are reading it, does it produce a rhythm?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) Identify the rhyme scheme and the stanzaic form.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3) Scan the poem; put the stress marks on the syllables as necessary.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4) Identify the metrical pattern. What are the dominant metrical foot and
line length?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
5) What was the cause of Annabel Lee’s Death?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
6) What is the one adjective that the poet uses to describe Annabel Lee?
Why do you suppose the poet repeats this adjective many times? Find
another phrase that is repeated several times throughout the poem.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
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7) What figures of speech do you find in the poem?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
8) What is the mood of this poem? Does the narrator sound unhappy?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
9) Do you think that the poet refers to someone he knows in his life?
Explain the evidence.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
10) Why does the poet create the poem in the setting of a fairy tale?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Page | 43
I've known her from an ample nation
Choose one;
Then close the valves of her attention
Like stone.
C. INDEPENDENT STUDY
1) Try to find a poem which its theme related to the life of the poet.
2) Give your interpretation of the poem you get, and share it with your friend.
Glossary
Page | 44
UNIT IX
HISTORICAL APPROACH
A. INTRODUCTION
1. Have you ever found a poem which its language seems “old” to you? What
difficulties did you find in spite of the language?
2. What does the word “book” means to you? Is it possible that it may mean
something a bit different for people in a certain age?
1. Historical Approach
One of the most common approaches used in poetry analysis is referred
to as the historical method of literary criticism. This means that you interpret
the poem within the story, or contemporary frame of reference behind the
poem. In other words, to discuss an Elizabethan sonnet, you must have a
broad knowledge of the sonnet form, know something about how it evolved,
and how it was generally meant to be understood in Elizabethan times. The
historical approach insists that a poem’s meaning can only be understood
within a historical setting. That is, those who use the historical approach do
not allow for the possibility of making a completely interpretative reading of a
poem. You would not acknowledge as a legitimate analysis the subjective or
psychological approaches, and would never base your conclusions on
something mutable as the meaning of imagery unless you could understand
the poem’s imagery in historical terms. You would say, for example, “to the
seventeenth century reader the word X would have meant Y because…”
(Reaske,1966).
The 19th century is often called as the Romantic Era, when the Romantic
Movement emerged to revolt against convention and authority in a search for
personal freedom in personal, politic and artistic life. The Romantic Movement
was:
… a reaction against the intellectualism of the Enlightenment,
against the rigidity of social structures protecting privilege, and
against the materialism of an age which, in the first stirring of
the Industrial Revolution, … The romantic temperament responds
to emotion rather than reason, is excited by mystery rather than
persuaded by clarity, listens more intently to the individual
conscience than to the demands of society, and prefers rebellion to
acceptance (Gascoigne, 2001).
Page | 45
Some characteristics of the era, according to Romanticism:
introduction to romanticism (2009) are listed below.
1. The imagination was elevated to a position as the supreme faculty of the
mind. This contrasted distinctly with the traditional arguments for the
supremacy of reason. The Romantics tended to define and to present the
imagination as our ultimate "shaping" or creative power, the approximate
human equivalent of the creative powers of nature or even deity. It is
dynamic, an active, rather than passive power, with many functions.
2. "Nature" meant many things to the Romantics. ... nature as a healing
power, nature as a source of subject and image, nature as a refuge from
the artificial constructs of civilization, … , Romantics gave greater attention
both to describing natural phenomena accurately and to capturing
"sensuous nuance"—
3. Emphasis on the activity of the imagination was accompanied by greater
emphasis on the importance of intuition, instincts, and feelings, and
Romantics generally called for greater attention to the emotions as a
necessary supplement to purely logical reason.
4. The Romantics asserted the importance of the individual, the unique, even
the eccentric.
2. Practice
Now study this poem and answer the following questions.
Page | 46
One impulse from a vernal wood
May teach you more of man,
Of moral evil and of good,
Than all these sages can.
Page | 47
6) Is nature always as harmonious as he pictures?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
7) How does this poem show the characteristics of Romanticism?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
8) From your own knowledge, give instances of warring elements and cruelty
in nature.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
C. INDEPENDENT STUDY
Read the poem London by William Blake and answer the following
questions to reveal the historical background of the poem.
London (1794)
Page | 48
1) What does the speaker mean when he calls the streets and river
“charter’d”?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2) Do the “charter’d” streets and river relate to the expression of faces the
speaker meets?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3) What does the speaker mean by “mind-forg’d manacles?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4) In what sense does the chimney sweeper’s cry appall the church?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5) What historical aspect do you find in the last stanza?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
GLOSSARY
Ban (v) : order with authority hat something must not be done
Chimney (n) : structure through which smoke from a fire is carried away
Harlot(n) :prostitute
Linnet (n) : small brown songbird
Luster(n) :quality of being bright
Manacle (n) : chain
Mellow (n) : soft and sweet in taste
Plague (n) : a kind of disease characterized with spots on skin
Page | 49
Romantic (adj): having ideas, feelings,etc remote from experience
and real life; given to romance
Sage (n) : wise people
Toil (n) : hard work
Vernal (adj) : springlike
Page | 50
REFERENCES
Abrams, M.H. (1999). A glossary of literary terms 7th ed. Boston: Heinle &
Heinle.
Birkerts, S.P. (1996). Literature: the evolving canon, 2nd edition. A Simon &
Schuster Company: Needham Heights.
Bergman,David and Epstein (1987). The Heath Guide to Literature, 2nd edition.
Massachusetts: D.C. Heath and Company.
Reaske, C. R. (1966). How to Analyze Poetry. New York: Monarch Press Inc.
Page | 51
The Pennsylvania University. (2012). The poems of Emily Dickinson. Retrieved
September 5, 2012 from
http://www2.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/dickinson/dickinson.pdf
Page | 52
RENCANA PROSES KEGIATAN PEMBELAJARAN SEMESTER (RPKPS)
Semester : Genap/IV
Program Studi : S-1 Sastra Inggris
Dosen : Tim
1. Juliati, M.Hum. 3. Ni Wayan Swardhani, S.S.
2. Arcci Tusitta, S.S., M.Hum. 4. Aris Siswanti, S.S., M.Pd.
Deskripsi Singkat :
Mata kuliah ini merupakan mata kuliah wajib yang harus diikuti seluruh mahasiswa
Sastra Inggris dengan bobot 3 SKS. Mata kuliah ini bertujuan memberikan
pengetahuan dan ketrampilan menelaah puisi secara komprehensif baik dari sisi
struktur maupun elemen ekstrinsik atas puisi abad 18 hingga abad 19 baik dari
Inggris maupun Amerika. Unsur-unsur instrinsik puisi seperti basic versification, gaya
bahasa, imagery menjadi tahap awal sebelum menggali unsur-unsur ekstrinsik seperti
latar belakang pengarang, zeitgeist, dll untuk memperoleh telaah komprehensif atas
puisi. Materi terkait puisi yang telah diperoleh pada mata kuliah Introduction to
Literature dan periodisasi sastra dalam mata kuliah History of English Language and
Literature menjadi landasan bagi mahasiswa untuk bisa berpartisipasi aktif dalam
perkuliahan. Kompetensi yang ingin dicapai dalam mata kuliah ini adalah mahasiswa
mampu menelaah puisi abad 18 dan 19 secara komprehensif baik dari sisi intrinsik
maupun ekstrinsik.
Pelaksanaan Kuliah:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
MINGG KEMAMPUAN MATERI BENTUK KRITERIA
U KE AKHIR YANG PEMBELAJAR PEMBELAJAR (INDIKATOR)
(1 DIHARAPKAN AN AN PENILAIAN
pertemu
an =150
menit)
1-2 1. Mampu 1. Kontrak Diskusi 1. Mampu
memahami Kuliah menyebutkan
kontrak 2. Definisi tujuan, topik,
perkuliahan puisi dan kriteria
2. Mampu penilaian
menjelaskan matakuliah
definisi puisi, Poetry
jenis-jenis 2. Mampu
puisi, dan menyebutkan
pendekatan definisi puisi dan
dasar analisa menentukan
puisi jenis puisi
Page | 53
2. Mampu
mengidentifikasi
meter,poetic
feet,
rhythm,rhyme,
dan stazaic form
dalam puisi
3. Mampu
menjelaskan
hubungan
meter,poetic
feet, rhythm,
rhyme, dan
stazaic form
dalam puisi
dengan makna
puisi tersebut
Page | 54
puisi tersebut
9 Ujian Tengah Semester
10 Mampu Imagery, Ceramah, 1. Mampu
mengidentifikasi Symbols diskusi dan menyebutkan
dan menjelaskan praktek definisi imagery
imagery dan dan symbols
symbols dalam 2. Mampu
puisi mengidentifikasi
imagery dan
symbols dalam
puisi
3. Mampu
menjelaskan
hubungan
imagery dan
symbols dalam
suatu puisi
dengan makna
puisi tersebut
Page | 55
menjelaskan
hubungan
semangat zaman
suatu puisi
dengan makna
puisi tersebut
13-15 Mampu Unsur intrinsik Presentasi 1. Mampu menulis
memahami puisi dan ekstrinsik kelompok analisa sederhana
berdasarkan puisi (2-3 halaman)
unsur-unsur dan orisinal
intrinsik dan sebuah puisi
ekstrinsik sebuah berdasarkan
puisi unsur-unsur
intrinsik dan
ekstrinsik puisi
tersebut
2. Mampu
mempresentasika
n analisa puisi
secara
berkelompok
KAJIAN PUSTAKA
Abrams, M.H. (1999). A glossary of literary terms 7th ed. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Birkerts, S.P. (1996). Literature: the evolving canon, 2nd edition. A Simon & Schuster
Company: Needham Heights.
Bergman,David and Epstein (1987). The Heath Guide to Literature, 2 nd edition.
Massachusetts: D.C. Heath and Company.
Kearns, Ackley, and Ferrara. (1984). Apreciating Literature. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co.
Pickering, J.H. and Hoeper, J.D. (1980). Concise Companion to Literature. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc.
Reaske, C. R. (1966). How to Analyze Poetry. New York: Monarch Press Inc.
Roberts, E.V. and Jacobs, H.E. (1998). Literature: an introduction to reading and
writing, 5th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Page | 56