Atoms are the smallest units of matter that still retain the fundamental chemical properties of an element.

Much of the study of chemistry, however, involves looking at what happens when atoms combine with
other atoms to form compounds. A compound is a distinct group of atoms held together by chemical bonds.
Just as the structure of the atom is held together by the electrostatic attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons surrounding it, the stability within chemical bonds is
also due to electrostatic attractions. To illustrate further, consider the two major types of chemical bonds:
covalent bonds and ionic bonds. In covalent bonds, two atoms share pairs of electrons, while in ionic
bonds, electrons are fully transferred between two atoms so that ions are formed. Let’s consider both types
of bonds in detail.

Covalent bonds and molecules

A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share electron pairs. In a covalent bond, the stability of the
bond comes from the shared electrostatic attraction between the two positively charged atomic nuclei and
the shared, negatively charged electrons between them.

A single, neutral hydrogen atom is shown on the left; a molecule of hydrogen, H2, is shown on the right.
A neutral hydrogen atom, shown left, contains one electron. Two hydrogen atoms can combine by donating each of their electrons into a single covalent
bond, depicted on the right as the area where the gray clouds around each hydrogen atom overlap. In the covalent bond, the electron pair is shared
between the two hydrogen atoms. When the covalent bond is formed, we no longer have two separate hydrogen atoms but instead a single molecule of
hydrogen—H_22start subscript, 2, end subscript. Image credit: Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0
When atoms combine by forming covalent bonds, the resulting collection of atoms is called a molecule. We
can therefore say that a molecule is the simplest unit of a covalent compound. As we will now see, there are
a variety of different ways to represent and draw molecules.
[A note on definitions]

_2start subscript, 2, end subscript_2start subscript, 2, end subscript_3start subscript, 3, end subscript

Representing molecules: chemical formulas

Chemical formulas, sometimes also called molecular formulas, are the simplest way of representing
molecules. In a chemical formula, we use the elemental symbols from the periodic table to indicate which
elements are present, and we use subscripts to indicate how many atoms of each element exist within the
molecule. For example, a single molecule of NH_\purpleC{3}3start subscript, start color #aa87ff, 3, end
color #aa87ff, end subscript, ammonia, contains one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms. By contrast,
a single molecule of N_\blueD{2}2start subscript, start color #11accd, 2, end color #11accd, end
subscriptH_\redD{4}4start subscript, start color #e84d39, 4, end color #e84d39, end subscript, hydrazine,
contains two nitrogen atoms and four hydrogen atoms.

Concept check: The chemical formula for acetic acid, a common acid found in vinegar, is C_22start
subscript, 2, end subscriptH_44start subscript, 4, end subscriptO_22start subscript, 2, end subscript. How
many oxygen atoms are there in three molecules of acetic acid?
[Show answer.]

_2start subscript, 2, end subscript_4start subscript, 4, end subscript_2start subscript, 2, end subscript3\times
\blueD{2}=63, times, start color #11accd, 2, end color #11accd, equals, 6

As your study of chemistry continues, you will find that sometimes chemists write molecular formulas in
different ways. For example, as we just saw, the chemical formula for acetic acid is C_22start subscript, 2,
end subscriptH_44start subscript, 4, end subscriptO_22start subscript, 2, end subscript; however, we will
often see it written as CH_33start subscript, 3, end subscriptCOOH. The reason for this second type of
formula is that the order in which the atoms are written helps to show the structure of the acetic acid
molecule—this is sometimes called the condensed structural formula. As such, we can think of CH_33start
subscript, 3, end subscriptCOOH as being like a cross between a chemical formula and a structural formula,
which we will consider next.

Representing molecules: structural formulas

Chemical formulas only tell us how many atoms of each element are present in a molecule, but structural
formulas also give information about how the atoms are connected in space. In structural formulas, we
actually draw the covalent bonds connecting atoms. In the last section, we looked at the chemical formula
for ammonia, which is NH_33start subscript, 3, end subscript. Now, let’s consider its structural formula:
 Two structural formulas for ammonia.
Two structural formulas for ammonia, NH_33start subscript, 3, end subscript. The formula on the left gives only a two-dimensional approximation of
molecular structure, whereas the formula on the right shows the orientation of atoms in space using dashes going into the plane of the page and wedges
coming out of the plane of the page. The two dots on nitrogen in the right formula indicate a lone pair of electrons. Image credit: left, Physique
Applique, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0; right, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0

From both of these structural formulas, we can see that the central nitrogen atom is connected to each
hydrogen atom by a single covalent bond. Keep in mind, however, that atoms and molecules, just like
everything else in the universe, exist in three dimensions—they have length and width, as well as depth. In
the structural formula to the left, we are only seeing a two-dimensional approximation of this molecule.
However, in the more detailed structural formula on the right, we have a dashed line to indicate that the
rightmost hydrogen atom is sitting behind the plane of the screen, while the bold wedge indicates that the
center hydrogen is sitting out in front of the plane of the screen. The two dots above nitrogen indicate a lone
pair of electrons that are not involved in any covalent bond. We will discuss the significance of these
electrons at the end of this section. To help show this three-dimensional shape even more accurately, we
can rely on space-filling models as well as ball-and-stick models. Let's consider both of these models for
NH_33start subscript, 3, end subscript:

A space-filling model and a ball-and-stick model of ammonia.

A space-filling model, left, and a ball-and-stick model, right, for ammonia, NH_33start subscript, 3, end subscript. Nitrogen atoms are depicted in blue,
and hydrogen atoms are depicted in white. Image credit: left, Wikipedia; right, Wikipedia, public domain

The left-hand image shows the space-filling model for ammonia. The nitrogen atom is depicted as the
larger, central blue sphere, and the three hydrogen atoms are depicted as the smaller white spheres off to
the sides, which form a kind of tripod. The overall shape of the molecule is a pyramid with nitrogen at the
vertex and a triangular base formed by the three hydrogen atoms. As you will learn when you study
molecular shapes and molecular geometry, this type of arrangement is known as trigonal pyramidal. The
main advantage of the space-filling model is that it gives us a sense of the relative sizes of the different
atoms—nitrogen has a larger atomic radius than hydrogen.

The right-hand image shows us the ball-and-stick model for ammonia. As you might be able to guess, the
balls represent the atoms, and the sticks that connect the balls represent the covalent bonds between the
atoms. The advantage of this type of model is that we get to see the covalent bonds, which also allows us to
more easily see the geometry of the molecule.
[Why are the hydrogen atoms in ammonia pushed downward into a tripod shape?]

Ions and ion formation

Now that we have an understanding of covalent bonds, we can begin to discuss the other major type of
chemical bond—an ionic bond. Unlike covalent bonds, in which electron pairs are shared between atoms,
an ionic bond is formed when two oppositely charged ions attract one another. To better illustrate this, we
first need to examine the structure and formation of ions.

Recall that neutral atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons. The result of this is that the total
positive charge of the protons exactly cancels the total negative charge of the electrons, so that the atom
itself has an overall charge, or net charge, of zero.

However, if an atom gains or loses electrons, the balance between protons and electrons is upset, and the
atom becomes an ion—a species with a net charge. Let’s first look at what happens when a neutral atom
loses an electron:
 The oxidation of sodium.
A neutral sodium atom, Na, loses one electron to form a cation, Na^++start superscript, plus, end superscript. Image credit: Introduction to Chemistry:
General, Organic, and Biological, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

In the diagram above, we see a neutral atom of sodium, Na, losing an electron. The result is that the sodium
ion, Na^++start superscript, plus, end superscript, has 11 protons, but only 10 electrons. Thus, the sodium
ion has a net charge of 1+, and it has become a cation—a positively charged ion.
Next, we’ll look at the formation of an anion—an ion with a net negative charge.

The reduction of chlorine to chloride.

A neutral chlorine atom, Cl, gains an electron to form an anion, Cl ^-−start superscript, minus, end superscript. Image credit: Introduction to Chemistry:
General, Organic, and Biological, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

In this diagram, we see the opposite process of what we saw with the sodium atom. Here, a neutral chlorine
atom, Cl, is gaining an electron. The result is that the newly formed chloride ion, Cl^-−start superscript,
minus, end superscript, has 17 protons and 18 electrons. Because electrons carry a 1- charge, the net charge
on the chloride ion from the extra electron is 1-. It has become an anion, or a negatively charged ion.

Note: When neutral atoms gain electron(s) to form anions, they are typically named with an -ide suffix. For
example, Cl^-−start superscript, minus, end superscript is chloride, Br^-−start superscript, minus, end
superscript is bromide, O^{2-}2−start superscript, 2, minus, end superscript is oxide, N^{3-}3−start
superscript, 3, minus, end superscript is nitride, etc.

Ionic bonds
In the last section, we looked separately at how sodium can lose an electron to form the cation Na^++start
superscript, plus, end superscript and at how chlorine can gain an electron to form the anion Cl^-−start
superscript, minus, end superscript. In reality, however, this process can occur all in one step when sodium
gives its electron away to chlorine! We can illustrate this as follows:
 Oxidation and reduction of sodium and chlorine.
Sodium donates its electron to chlorine to form Na^++start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl^-−start superscript, minus, end superscript. Image
credit: Boundless Learning, CC BY-SA 4.0

Here, we can see how an electron is transferred from sodium to chlorine in order to form the ions
Na^++start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl^-−start superscript, minus, end superscript. Once these
ions are formed, there is a strong electrostatic attraction between them, which leads to the formation of an
ionic bond. We can see that one of the major distinguishing factors between ionic bonds and covalent
bonds is that in ionic bonds, electrons are completely transferred, whereas in covalent bonds, electrons are
shared.
[Why is the electron transferred from sodium to chlorine, and not the other way around?]

Note: As you learn more about bonding, you will see that in actuality, the difference between covalent and
ionic bonds is not black and white and that the two types of bonds are actually more like the two ends of a
common spectrum. We can think of a pure ionic bond as having a perfectly unequal sharing of electrons,
whereas a pure covalent bond has a perfectly equal sharing of electrons. In reality, however, most chemical
bonds lie somewhere in between these two cases.

Drawing ionic bonds

We will now consider the different ways we can draw or depict ionic bonds. We will continue looking at
the most commonly known ionic compound—sodium chloride, which is best known as table salt. A single
ionic bond in sodium chloride can be shown as follows:

A sodium chloride ionic bond.

A structural drawing showing an ionic bond between a sodium cation, Na^++start superscript, plus, end superscript, and a chloride anion, Cl^-−start
superscript, minus, end superscript. Note that there is no single line connecting the two ions because that would indicate shared electrons in a covalent
bond. Here, electrons have been transferred completely, and the bond is purely ionic. Image credit: Wikispaces, CC BY-SA 3.0

The positively charged sodium cation and the negatively charged chloride anion like to position themselves
next to each other due to their mutual electrostatic attraction. Because no electrons are shared, we don’t
depict an ionic bond with a line as we do for covalent bonds. We simply recognize that the attraction is
there due to the opposite charge signs on the ions.

The above diagram, however, is just a model. In nature, sodium chloride does not exist as a single sodium
cation bonded with a single chloride anion. As we mentioned earlier, sodium chloride is table salt—and if
we were able to use a super-powered microscope that could examine table salt at the atomic level, we
would see something like the following structure:
 A diagram of the crystal lattice structure for sodium chloride.
If we were to examine a crystal of sodium chloride at the atomic level, we would see sodium ions and chloride ions evenly positioned next to one another
in space. The orderly, stable structure is due to the strong ionic bonds between Na^++start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl ^-−start superscript,
minus, end superscript. Image credit: Introduction to Chemistry: General, Organic, and Biological, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

We can see from this diagram that the Na^++start superscript, plus, end superscript and Cl^-−start
superscript, minus, end superscript ions naturally position themselves next to one another in space due to
the shared electrostatic attractions between them. The ions are then held in place by their very strong ionic
bonds. The above structure is known as a crystal lattice, and sodium chloride—like most ionic
compounds—is a crystalline solid. You will learn more about this in future lessons on the different types of
solids.

Covalent vs. ionic compounds: molecules vs. formula units

Now that we’ve discussed the basics of both covalent and ionic bonding, we need to draw a few necessary
distinctions. We know that a group of atoms joined by only covalent bonds is known as a molecule. It
should be noted, however, that the word molecule should only be used in reference to covalent compounds.
In an ionic compound, such as sodium chloride, there is no such thing as a single molecule of sodium
chloride since, in reality, sodium chloride is actually made up of multiple sodium and chloride ions joined
together in a large crystal lattice—as we saw in the previous diagram. As such, we refer to one piece of
NaCl not as a molecule but as a formula unit. Keep in mind that single formula units, unlike single
molecules, largely do not exist in nature—we simply rely on formula units for ease of reference and
convenience.

Concept check: Which type of compounds are composed of molecules—ionic or covalent?

[Show answer.]

Conclusion
All chemical bonding is due to electrostatic attraction. When atoms combine through chemical bonding,
they form compounds—unique structures composed of two or more atoms. The basic composition of a
compound can be indicated using a chemical formula. A chemical formula uses symbols from the periodic
table to indicate the types of elements present in a particular compound while using subscripts to represent
the number of each type of element present.

Compounds can be covalent or ionic. In covalent compounds, atoms form covalent bonds that consist of
electron pairs shared between two adjacent atomic nuclei. An example of a covalent compound is
ammonia. The chemical formula of ammonia is NH_33start subscript, 3, end subscript, which tells us that
in a single molecule of ammonia, there is one nitrogen atom, and three hydrogen atoms. The structure of a
covalent compound can be depicted through space-filling models as well as ball-and-stick models.

In ionic compounds, electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another so that a cation—
positively charged ion—and an anion—negatively charged ion—form. The strong electrostatic attraction
between adjacent cations and anions is known as an ionic bond. The most common example of an ionic
compound is sodium chloride NaCl, better known as table salt. Unlike covalent compounds, there is no
such thing as a molecule of an ionic compound. This is because in nature NaCl does not exist in individual
units, but in crystal lattice structures that are composed of multiple Na^++start superscript, plus, end
superscript and Cl^-−start superscript, minus, end superscript ions alternating in space. The chemical
formula NaCl specifies one formula unit of this compound.
[Attributions and references]