Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
143
Copy 13 of 13
© 2000 New Zealand Institute for Crop & Food Research Limited
Contents
1 Executive summary 1
5 The future 21
5.1 Feeding the world in the twenty-first century 21
5.1.1 Protein quality improvement 22
5.1.2 Provitamin A 22
5.1.3 Disease and pest resistance 23
5.1.4 Minerals 23
5.2 Delivery of additional health benefits 24
5.2.1 Increased levels of phenolics and other antioxidants 24
5.2.2 Recombinant proteins/vaccines 26
6 Recommendations/future research 30
7 Acknowledgements 31
8 References 32
- a source of phenolics, compounds that may have an important role are often believed to
in health,
be a high energy food
- virtually free of fat, although they are easily turned into fatty foods,
- of low energy density - they ‘fill you up’ without providing many the way of nutrients.
calories,
This is simply not
- a source of high quality protein, although they are deficient in the
essential amino acid methionine,
true.
- readily digested but they also have a high water content so weight
for weight there is a relatively low impact on blood sugar.
♣ As new cultivars are developed with additional health benefits there will
be a need to re-evaluate the potential of potato wastes to better utilize
key components with the aim of improving human or animal health.
The global production of potatoes has been estimated at 350 million tones
per annum (Friedman & McDonald 1997). New Zealand’s share is
approximately 490 000 tonnes per annum, some of which is used for
domestic seed (Table 1). The countries with the largest production volumes
of potatoes are the USSR, China, Poland, US and Germany (Lisiska &
Leszcyski 1989). In addition to human consumption, a large proportion of
potatoes are used as stock feed.
The nutritional value of potatoes is also important. The higher the nutritional
quality the better the stock feed, lessening the requirement for potatoes to be
mixed with other higher value feeds. Considerable amounts of potatoes are
used for processing. Volumes have been increasing rapidly in the last couple
Page 2
of decades. Nutritional considerations are important when processing
potatoes. Some of the issues are different from those for the fresh market.
ϒ 6% of total fat was contributed from potatoes and kumara, for young
males (19-24 years) the contribution was 10%.
3.2 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates make up the greatest proportion of the dry weight of potato
tubers (Table 3). Carbohydrates are present in the form of starch, sugars and
non-starch polysaccharides (cell wall components, often termed dietary fibre).
Available carbohydrate values for New Zealand-grown potatoes are given in
Table 8 in Appendix I.
3.2.1 Starch
Starch is a major component of the potato tuber at approximately 17 g/100 g
FW or 75% of its dry weight (Tables 2 and 3). During the growing season
starch accumulates in the cells of tubers, forming single or complex granules.
Starch, being a carbohydrate, is an important energy source and can affect
quality. Potato starch is an important part of food products and is a raw
Page 5
material for industry. Starch occurs in a number of forms that differ in
molecular structure and their susceptibility to digestion. Starch may be
classified into digestible starch (DS) and resistant starch (RS). From a health
standpoint, susceptibility to digestion is important for several reasons.
2. Starch that cannot be digested before passing from the small intestine
is fermented by bacteria in the colon, with the production of short chain
fatty acids. The short chain fatty acids from starch fermentation
provide the body with about half as much energy as would have been
obtained from the starch if it had been digested in the small intestine.
3.2.2 Sugars
The sugar content of potatoes is very low at an average of 0.5% of the wet
weight or just over 2% of dry weight (Tables 2 and 3). However, sugar
content is highly variable, depending on the type, maturity and physiological
state of the potato. In free form the following sugars are found in potato
tubers: the monosaccharides glucose and fructose, which are reducing
sugars, and sucrose, a non-reducing disaccharide. A high sugar content
(especially reducing sugars) renders potato tubers unsuitable for use as raw
material for processing, especially for dehydrated and fried products.
Page 6
3.2.3 Dietary fibre (non-starch polysaccharides)
Dietary fibre consists mainly of the polysaccharides of plant cell walls. The
dietary fibre may “dilute” highly caloric components in food, stimulate
peristaltic movement and retard digestion of some other food components.
The essential non-starch polysaccharides in potatoes are cellulose,
hemicellulose, pentosans and pectic substances. Starch is also a
polysaccharide, but the sugars and the way they are bonded to one another
in cell walls and in starch are different.
The human gut produces enzymes to break down the structure of starch, but
they cannot attack cell wall polysaccharides, which therefore survive the
small intestine as non-digested “dietary fibre”. Potatoes contain a relatively
small proportion of dietary fibre because they are a storage organ in which
starch becomes the dominant constituent in the mature tuber. Most potatoes
contain about 1-3% dietary fibre compared with about 17% starch, on an
edible weight basis (Table 2 and New Zealand data in Table 8 in Appendix I).
One portion of the cell wall fraction of potatoes that might have a more
positive impact on health is the potato peel fraction, not because of the cell
walls per se but because they are impregnated with materials that provide the
potato with a resistant coating. The resistant, water proofing material of the
potato “coat” consists largely of suberin, which, because it is non-polar, has
the capacity to bind some of the most potent food carcinogens, the
heterocyclic amines (Harris 1999). Heterocyclic amines are produced during
cooking and charring of proteins, as occurs abundantly during barbecuing. So
eating a whole baked potato with barbequed food may help “mop-up” some of
those carcinogens. Other components of potato peel, such as phenolics, may
also have beneficial effects on human health (see Section 3.7).
Page 7
3.3 Nitrogen compounds
Nitrogen compounds are the second major component in potato tubers, after
carbohydrates. Their amount in conversion to total protein (N x 6.25) ranges
from 2.77 to 14.6% of dry weight (Table 3 and New Zealand data in Table 8
in Appendix I). The content of total nitrogen increases upon maturation.
Approximately 90% of the nitrogen present in potato tubers is in the form of
compounds that are soluble in water. Insoluble nitrogen compounds are
found mostly in the skin. About 50% of the total nitrogen from potatoes is
derived from proteins; the remaining nitrogen consists of free amino acids,
amide nitrogen associated with asparagines and glutamine, nitrogen of other
organic compounds, inorganic nitrogen and alkaloid nitrogen (Lisiska &
Leszcyski 1989).
3.3.1 Protein
The essential nitrogen fraction in a potato tuber is protein nitrogen. Potatoes
are commonly perceived as a carbohydrate source only, but they do contain
high quality protein. On a fresh weight basis they contain only about 2%
protein; the value increases to about 8% when examined on a dry weight
basis (Tables 2 and 3 and New Zealand data in Table 8 in Appendix I). That
makes potatoes comparable to cereals, such as rice or wheat (McCay et al.
1987). In countries where potato consumption is high this vegetable can
make a significant contribution to health as a protein source (Woolfe 1986).
Due to the dietary quality of tuber nitrogen, 100 g of boiled potatoes supplies
8-13% and 6-7% of the FAO-WHO recommended daily allowance of nitrogen
for children and adults, respectively (Horton & Sawyer 1985). The
contribution of protein nitrogen to total nitrogen depends on potato cultivar,
environmental conditions and cultural practices, especially nitrogen
fertilization application rates.
3. human feeding trials suggest that potato proteins are of a very high
quality, possibly higher than indicated by their amino acid composition.
This may be because protein utilization is enhanced by the high
content of free amino acids and other metabolites mentioned above.
Page 10
3.3.4 Glycoalkaloids
Members of the Solanaceae family, and the Solanum genus in particular,
synthesize a variety of alkaloidal compounds. The most frequently
encountered are the commonly named glycoalkaloids, which are nitrogen-
containing steroidal glycosides. Potato glycoalkaloids have been the subject
of an extensive recent review (Friedman & McDonald 1997). In commercial
potato cultivars the primary compounds are α-solanine and α-chaconine,
glycosides of the steroidal alkaloid solanidine. These and similar compounds
have toxic effects in humans (Friedman & McDonald 1997). This toxic effect
occurs only when glycoalkaloid intake is very high. At sublethal doses
(3-5 mg/kg body weight) for adults the amount of glycoalkaloid intake would
have to be 200-350 mg. The chances that such a quantity of glycoalkaloid
could be consumed in a potato meal are extremely remote. The
glycoalkaloids produce a tart astringent taste and larger quantities even
impart a sharp bitter taste, so it is a warning against consuming them. The
common current guideline for potatoes establishes an upper level of
20 mg/100 g FW of glycoalkaloids. However, the glycoalkaloid content of the
majority of potato cultivars is between 3 and 10 mg per 100 g of tubers.
3.4 Lipids
Lipids, also called crude fat, are present at very low levels in raw potatoes
(Tables 2 and 3) and they contain no cholesterol. Thus, the energy value
provided by potato fats and their effect on obesity are not important.
However, frying potatoes, roasting or adding milk and butter during mashing
can change this considerably (see details for potatoes cooked by different
methods in Table 8 in Appendix I).
3.5 Vitamins
Potatoes contain some vitamins in significant amounts and are a much better
source than other foods which may replace them in a meal (see Table 10 in
Appendix I). Of all the vitamins, potatoes contain vitamin C in the highest
quantity (Table 5). Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin and its main
component is ascorbic acid. However, dehydroascorbic acid has properties
similar to vitamin C if it is reduced to ascorbic acid in the organism. The total
amount of the two acids in potato tubers ranges from 1 to 54 mg per 100 g
Page 11
fresh weight, although most frequently it is between 10 and 25 mg/100 g. The
contribution of dehydroascorbic acid to total vitamin C content averages
12-15% (Lisiska & Leszcyski 1989). The highest concentration of vitamin
C is found in the vicinity of the vascular system and is lowest in the pith and
skin. There has been some breeding of potatoes to increase the levels of
vitamin C.
Content (µg/100 g)
Vitamin Substance Range Mean
Water soluble
C Ascorbic acid + dehydroascorbic
1000-54000 10000-25000
acid
B1 Thiamine 24-180 100
B2 Riboflavin 7-200 70
B6 Pyridoxine 9001 -
PP Niacin 360-3300 1000
Pantothenic acid 190-320 -
Folic acid 5-33 -
H Biotin 0.6 -
Fat soluble
Provitamin A 11-56 -
K1 Phytonadione 60-80 1 -
Page 12
1
In dry matter.
3.6 Minerals
Mineral substances, called ashes, average 1.1% in potato tubers (Table 2
and New Zealand data in Table 9 in Appendix I). Potassium is found as the
major cation in potato tubers. Higher concentrations of potassium are present
in the skin and directly beneath it than in the interior of the potato tuber.
Potassium content increases during the entire growing season. Potassium
plays an important role in water and ionic supply in humans. In several
disease (e.g. renal insufficiency) a potato diet is recommended due to its high
potassium content along with other desirable nutritional characteristics. Other
minerals present in moderate quantities include phosphorus, chlorine, sulphur
and magnesium. Calcium is present in small quantities, mostly in the skin and
the vascular system. Iron is also present in fairly low amounts but may make
a contribution to dietary intake (see Section 4). Iron, in association with
chlorogenic acid, causes after-cooking darkening of potatoes.
Page 13
3.7 Phenolic compounds
Potato tubers contain a number of phenolic compounds, but their percentage
is rather low (Table 2). Some of them appear in a free form while others are
bound. The phenolic compounds present in the tubers include polyphenols,
monohydric phenols, coumarins, anthocyanins, flavones, tannins and lignin.
Phenolic compounds are distributed mostly between the cortex and skin
(peel) tissues of the potato. There are about ten times as much phenolic
compounds in the peel as in the flesh of the potato (Lisiska & Leszcyski
1989). Some substances are only detected in the peel. Only tyrosine (a
monohydric phenol) is highest in the interior of the tuber and lowest in the
external layer. Tannins are mostly localized in the outer layers of the potato,
imparting a tan shade to the skin.
Polyphenols may have little dietary significance if they are destroyed during
processing (baking, boiling, frying, etc.). Destruction of chlorogenic acid is
least during microwaving but the fate of phenolics during processing has not
been fully studied. For components such as phenolics that are present in
much higher concentrations in the peel the amount of peel consumed is
important. The peel of baked or fried potatoes is the principal source of peel
in the human diet (Bushway et al. 1983; Friedman & Dao 1992).
Page 14
loss in nutritional quality and potentially in safety is attributed to the
destruction of essential amino acids, a decrease in digestibility, the inhibition
of proteolytic and glycolytic enzymes, interaction with metal ions and the
formation of antinutritional and toxic compounds. However, some browning
reaction products may have beneficial effects, including antimutagenic activity
since browning reactions lead to the formation of naturally occurring
antioxidants, antibiotic activity and antiallergenic properties (Friedman
1996b).
New Zealand studies (Lister & Podivinsky 1998; Lister 1999; Lister et al.
2000) have measured the antioxidant activity of New Zealand-grown
potatoes. Red Desiree ranked ninth out of 15 vegetables and Rua was
eleventh. Antioxidant activity was correlated with the phenolic content of the
vegetables, and the two potato cultivars ranked eighth and tenth respectively
when vegetables were compared on an equal weight basis. If the weight of
potato consumed per day is taken into consideration then potatoes move up
the rankings and are better than many vegetables. However, compared to
other rich sources of antioxidants (e.g. red wine, berry fruit) potatoes are a
small contributor to the potential daily intake of antioxidants. Peeling the
potato considerably reduced both the phenolic content and the antioxidant
activity. Other potato cultivars have higher phenolic contents (Lewis 1996)
and thus may have higher antioxidant activity.
Page 15
1. nitrites in food can react with secondary amines to form mutagenic and
carcinogenic nitrosamines. Chlorogenic acid and other polyphenols
are reported to block nitrosamine formation by competitively reacting
with the nitrite (Kikugawa et al. 1983),
Page 16
3.8 Plant pigments
The appearance of food is important to consumers and a major factor
determining appearance is colour. Plant colour is determined by three main
classes of pigments: carotenoids, chlorophylls and flavonoids (anthocyanins).
Some of these compounds have come under increasing scrutiny because of
their possible role in human health. Within potato cultivars there is a
considerable range of colour, including white, yellow, brown, pink, red, purple,
purple-blue to almost black. These colours are due mainly to carotenoids and
anthocyanins.
3.8.1 Carotenoids
The flesh of potato varieties is often tinged with yellow and this is mainly due
to the presence of carotenoids, a class of plastid pigments. The main
carotenoid constituents of potato tubers are the xanthophylls violaxanthin,
lutein and lutein-5,6-epoxide, with small amounts of neoxanthin and
neoxanthin-A present. β-Carotene, a common carotenoid in many other
plants and also present in the aerial parts of the potato plant is absent or
present in only trace amounts in the tubers (Burton 1989). There is a direct
correlation between yellow flesh colour and total carotenoid content, which is
a heritable characteristic. Typical “white” flesh potatoes contain 0.01-0.05 mg
of carotenoids per 100 g FW while varieties with “yellow” flesh contain
0.11-0.34 mg of carotenoids per 100 g FW (Gross 1991). Data on the
carotenoid content (∃-carotene equivalents) of New Zealand potatoes are
give in Table 10 in Appendix I. Even the yellow-fleshed potato varieties are
low compared to many kumara/sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.)
cultivars where typical carotenoid levels vary between 0.10 and 7.5 mg per
100 g FW, and some very dark orange cultivars even have up to 20 mg of
carotenoids per 100 g FW. It is thought that the tendency for a high
carotenoid content is determined by a single dominant gene, although there
are modifying genes (Brown et al. 1993).
3.8.2 Anthocyanins
The other major group of pigments which occur in some potato cultivars is the
anthocyanins. These have been studied comprehensively by Lewis (1996).
The anthocyanins are vacuolar pigments which give rise to the red to
purple/back colour of tuber skin and sometimes flesh. The degree of tuber
flesh pigmentation can vary considerably from just a slight pigmentation of
the vascular ring to a complete pigmentation of the entire tuber.
Page 17
those with only red skin. However, there have been no studies of these
aspects to date.
3.8.3 Others
Greening in potatoes is due to chlorophyll formation as a result of exposure to
light. It is usually accompanied by the production of the toxic glycoalkaloids
(see Section 3.3.4). Melanin formation as a result of injury may give rise to
grey or black discolorations, which are also undesirable.
Page 18
4 The health benefits of potatoes
There are numerous misconceptions about the nutritional value of the potato.
It is often believed that the potato is a high-energy food that provides little
else in the way of nutrients. This is partly due to the high satiety value of the
potato and its description in food composition tables and numerous
publications as a “starchy tuber”. It is sometimes regarded that potato should
not be classed as a vegetable in terms of contributing to the 5 plus fruit and
vegetables a day recommendations. However, in view of current
recommendations that the intake of fats in the diet should not exceed about
30% of energy, that free sugar intakes should be reduced, that about 55% or
more of our energy should be derived from carbohydrate, that energy intakes
overall should be reduced, potatoes are an excellent base to the diet. A daily
intake of 150-300 g of potatoes provides 4-8% of the calories required by a
human. Potatoes are a considerably richer source of nutrients than of energy.
1. they are virtually free of fat, although they are quite easily turned into
fatty foods,
6. they are a good source of several water soluble vitamins. They may
make a significant contribution to the daily intake of vitamin C
Page 19
(approximately 30% of the recommended daily intake). They also
contain important B group vitamins, especially thiamin, and folic acid,
8. potatoes contain high quality protein, although they are deficient in the
essential amino acid methionine,
5 The future
Much of the focus on potato breeding and development in the past has been
focused on increasing yields and developing pest and disease resistance. In
addition to generating new traits that enable the plant to grow better (input
traits), which are useful to farmers, plant breeding and genetic engineering
technology can also generate plants with improved nutritional features (output
traits). Although the nutritional value of the potato is fairly high there is still
plenty of room for improvement. Most other vegetables (e.g. broccoli,
tomatoes, carrots) are regarded as having some health benefits that
outweigh that of potatoes. However, it is much easier to get a child to eat a
potato than say a piece of broccoli. Therefore the question arises, “Can the
health benefits of broccoli be incorporated into potatoes?” Some manipulation
of nutritional characteristics is possible through traditional plant breeding and
cultural practices. However, genetic engineering presents greater
opportunities. Genetic modification of potatoes is relatively easy because
they are amenable to transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and
plantlets are readily regenerated and clonally propagated.
Page 21
5.1.1 Protein quality improvement
When diets are high in carbohydrates and low in protein over a long period,
essential amino acid deficiency results. Many foods, especially those of plant
origin, such as potatoes, have low levels of amino acids which limit their
nutritive value. Inadequacies in nutritional value of protein can be solved in at
least three ways: (a) combining protein sources to create mixtures with an
adequate amino acid balance, (b) fortification of the low quality proteins with
essential amino acids, and (c) developing high quality plant proteins by
breeding or molecular biology techniques. As discussed in Section 3.3.1,
although potatoes contain high quality protein they lack essential amino
acids. Small changes may be possible by selection. However, to make
significant differences strategies for manipulation by genetic engineering are
needed.
Tu et al. (1994) attempted to incorporate the Brazil nut 2S gene into potato.
This gene was expected to express a protein with elevated methionine and
cysteine, but the expression levels observed in tubers of engineered plants
were insufficient to increase their methionine content. With the knowledge
that amino acid synthesis in higher plants is controlled by feedback inhibition,
Widholm (1977) used the appropriate analogue for an amino acid to select
cell lines with relaxed feedback control of amino acid biosynthesis and to
overproduce the protein. For example, a carrot cell line accumulated 10 times
the normal level of free methionine. A similar protocol was used by Langille et
al. (1998) to select protoclones of Russet Burbank potatoes that had up to
three times the free methionine content of the control. It has not been
determined whether this trait remains stable in subsequent generations.
Genes that code for proteins with a high content of the essential amino acids
found to be most deficient in plant-derived proteins have been constructed
and expressed in bacteria (Jaynes et al. 1985). Since then, research has
been directed towards developing potato plants with these synthetic proteins.
There have been some problems with expression levels of the new proteins
(Destefano-Beltran et al. 1991). More recently a US patent has been filed
which describes the insertion of a gene responsible for producing a protein in
potatoes and rice that is relatively high in essential amino acids (Jaynes &
Derrick 1998). Theoretically, proteins could be specifically designed to
supplement any desired animal feed or human food. Insertion of lysine at
frequent intervals in synthetic proteins provides sites for proteolytic attack by
Trypsin (a digestive enzyme), increasing the bioavailability of the
supplemental protein (Destefano-Beltran et al. 1991).
5.1.2 Provitamin A
Vitamin A deficiency is one of the major vitamin deficiencies in developing
countries. A lack of vitamin A can lead to eye damage and even blindness
and also weaken the protective barriers to infection put up by the skin, the
mucous membranes and the immune system (Somer & West 1966). One of
the most exciting recent developments has been the introduction of genes
into rice that result in the production of the vitamin A precursor β-carotene in
the grain (Conway & Toenniessen 1999). β-carotene is a pigment required for
Page 22
photosynthesis and is synthesized in the green tissues of all plants, including
rice and potatoes. However, it is not always present in non-photosynthetic
tissue such as seeds and tubers. No rice mutants have been found that
produce β-carotene in the grain so traditional breeding is not an option.
Therefore, genes encoding for β-carotene synthesis were incorporated into
rice by genetic engineering. The grain has a light golden-yellow colour and
contains sufficient β-carotene to meet human vitamin A requirements.
Although some potato cultivars are yellow they do not produce much
β-carotene and thus have no or low provitamin A content. Strategy will be
different that that used for rice need to alter composition of carotenoids.
Problems with consumer acceptance of yellow potato however those parts of
the world where food is a major doesn’t matter.
5.1.4 Minerals
Levander (1990) has discussed the possibilities for developing fruit and
vegetables with altered mineral composition. Fruits and vegetables contribute
relatively little selenium or molybdenum to the total dietary intake. Selenium
may play a protective role against certain human cancers. Should it prove
desirable to increase dietary intake of selenium, vegetables could be an
important component of such a strategy. A variety of vegetables (potato,
tomato, carrots, cabbage, and onion) grown in seleniferous soils may contain
two to three orders of magnitude more selenium than those grown in
nonseleniferous soils. New Zealand tends to have low selenium levels in its
produce because of the low levels in its soils. Currently, potatoes are a very
poor source of selenium; they contain on average 0.63 μg/100 g. A 180 g
serving of potatoes only contributes about 1.5% of the recommended daily
intake of selenium. The desirability of increasing selenium in the food supply
in general is still uncertain. Under some experimental conditions, elevated
intakes of selenium actually increased rather than decreased the incidence of
chemically induced cancer in laboratory animals. Thus, in certain situations
selenium may not only be ineffective, but also harmful. However, the levels
that have adverse effects are far higher than those that may be achieved
from a high intake of fruit and vegetables. Public health authorities in various
countries must exercise caution when deciding whether or not to add
selenium to their national food supplies.
Nutrient elements in other crops have been manipulated. For example, genes
have been added to rice to increase the grain’s available iron content
(Conway & Toenniessen 1999). Such approaches could be applied to
Page 23
potatoes. Potatoes are a significant source of iron in the New Zealand diet.
However, some females do not have adequate iron intake so there is room
for improvement. On the other hand, iron plays a role in after-cooking
darkening so it may not be desirable to increase the level.
There has been some traditional breeding of potatoes for increased vitamin C
content. Through an understanding of the biosynthesis of ascorbic acid it may
also be possible to manipulate the levels through genetic engineering. While
the vitamin C content of potatoes is quite reasonable the levels required to
have other beneficial effects on health are likely to be much greater than
those required to avoid vitamin deficiency. High doses probably should be
avoided although any excess of water-soluble vitamins is simply excreted in
urine. Intakes of vitamin C of 1 gram per day have had no adverse effects.
However, it is now thought that the best health benefits, particularly those
from antioxidants, are gained from consuming a range of different
antioxidants rather than large doses of a single compound. Therefore, a
better approach may be to manipulate the levels of other natural antioxidants.
Page 24
increasing their levels may have undesirable effects on flavour. Thus, these
factors will need to be carefully balanced.
7. Carry out animal and human feeding studies with high phenolic
potatoes to assess whether beneficial effects of chlorogenic acid, and
other phenolics, observed in vitro are confirmed in vivo.
The other group of antioxidants that could be manipulated in potatoes are the
carotenoids. The manipulation of carotenoids has already been discussed in
Section 5.1.2 regarding provitamin A activity. The same principal could be
used to increase total carotenoids (not necessarily just ∃-carotene) in
potatoes for their antioxidant properties. In many European countries yellow
potatoes are quite acceptable and in fact often preferred, but in other
countries, such as New Zealand, a white potato is usually the norm.
Page 25
5.2.2 Recombinant proteins/vaccines
A large number of recombinant proteins are being developed for
pharmaceutical purposes and will have to be produced on a large scale for
clinical studies and pharmaceutical applications. Protein farming in transgenic
plants offers great flexibility at very low primary cost as expensive technical
cell culture facilities are not required (Artsaenko et al. 1998). Furthermore,
contamination of the product by mammalian viruses or bacterial endotoxins is
excluded. Therefore, transgenic plant-based production systems are a
competitive alternative to bacterial or mammalian cell culture-based systems
(Goddijn & Pen 1995). Potato tubers have great potential in biofarming
because those storage organs can be used to accumulate large amounts of
protein.
5.2.4 Other
A gene encoding the human milk protein beta-casein has been introduced
into potato, and expression of human milk beta-casein was demonstrated in
both leaf and tuber tissues (Chong et al. 1997). These findings open the way
for reconstitution of human milk in edible plants to replace bovine milk in baby
foods for general improvement of infant nutrition and to prevent gastric and
intestinal diseases in children.
The gene for human epidermal growth factor (hEGF) was chemically
synthesized and has been successfully expressed in transgenic potato
(Salmanian et al. 1996).
Other strategies for reducing fat intake include modification of starch genes to
produce potatoes with a higher dry matter (Anon. 1992). This results in less
water for oil to replace in processing and thus results in a “healthier” fried
food. Increased solids contents through genetic modification have already
been reported (Fraley 1991; Fraley et al. 1991) and there is potential for
further increases.
ϒ specialty potato products (e.g. potato mash, flakes and granules for use
in potato novelties or extruded foodstuffs),
6 Recommendations/future research
This review identifies a number of potential areas for future research.
Genetic engineering offers huge potential for manipulating many different
aspects of nutritional quality and introducing additional health benefits. In
light of the current debate, and a possible moratorium on genetic engineering,
these will need careful consideration. However, the public may be more likely
to accept a genetically engineered vegetable when they can see a personal
benefit. Despite this there is still considerable scope for improvements
through traditional plant breeding and/or changes in agronomic and
postharvest handling procedures.
Page 30
Future projects could include:
♣ producing higher dry matter potatoes for processing to reduce the fat
content of fried products,
♣ as new cultivars are developed with additional health benefits there will
be a need to re-evaluate the potential of potato wastes to better utilize
the key components either for improvement of human or animal health,
ϒ developing new potato cultivars with clearly defined nutritional and health
benefits opens up potential for the development of tailored products for
specific sectors of the population (e.g. diabetics, the elderly, athletes).
Market opportunities and potential product development to meet
changing New Zealand and world demands (e.g. as a result of the aging
population) will need to be considered.
7 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr Karen Silvers and Emmeline Taptiklis for
the nutritional information, and Dr Tony Conner for information and literature
on genetic engineering opportunities for potatoes.
Page 31
8 References
Adams, J.B. 1994: Green colour development in potato cooking water. Food
Chemistry 49: 295-298.
Al-Saikhan, M.S.; Howard, L.R.; Miller, J.C. 1995: Antioxidant activity and
total phenolics in different genotypes of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.).
Journal of Food Science 60: 341-343.
Artsaenko, O.; Kettig, B.; Fielder, U.; Conrad, U.; During, K. 1998: Potato
tubers as a biofactory for recombinant antibodies. Molecular Breeding 4: 313-
319.
Bickoff, E.M.; Booth, A.N.; de Fremery, D.; Edwards, R.H.; Knuckles, B.E.;
Miller, R.E.; Saunders, R.M.; Kohler, G.O. 1973: Nutritional evaluation of
alfalfa leaf protein concentrate. In: Protein Nutritional Quality of Foods and
Feeds, Vol 2. Friedman, M., Ed. Dekker, New York. Pp. 319-340.
Bird, A.R. 1999: Prebiotics: A role for dietary fibre and resistant starch? Asia
Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 8(Suppl.): S32-S36.
Brown, C.R.; Edwards, C.G.; Yang, C.-P.; Dean, B.B. 1993: Orange flesh trait
in potato: inheritance and carotenoid content. Journal of the American
Society for Horticultural Science 118: 145-150.
Burlingame, B.A.; Milligan, G.C.; Spriggs, T.W.; Athar, N. 1997: The Concise
New Zealand Food Composition Tables 3rd Edition. New Zealand Institute for
Crop & Food Research Ltd.
Burton, W.G. 1989: The potato, 3 rd Edition, Longman Scientific and Technical,
Harlow, Essex, UK.
Camire, M.E.; Zhao, J.; Dougherty, M.P.; Bushway, R.J. 1995: In vitro binding
of benzo[α]pyrene by extruded potato peel. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 43: 970-973.
Chong, D.K.X.; Roberts, W.; Arakawa, T.; Illes, K.; Bagi, G.; Slattery, C.W.;
Langridge, W.H.R. 1997: Expression of the human milk protein beta-casein in
transgenic potato plants. Transgenic Research 6: 289-296.
Page 32
Conway, G.; Toenniessen, G. 1999: Feeding the world in the twenty-first
century. Nature 402 (Supp): C55-C58.
Destefano-Beltran, L.; Nagpala, P.G.; Kim, J.; Dodds, J.H.; Jaynes, J.M.
1991: Use of synthetic genes to enhance nutritional quality and disease
resistance in plants: application to potato. In: Molecular Methods for Potato
Improvement. Report of the Planning Conference on “Application of
Molecular Techniques to Potato Germplasm Enhancement”. Pp. 49-59.
Duffey, S.S.; Stout, M.J. 1996: Antinutritive and toxic component of plant
defense against insects. Archives of Insect Biochemistry 32: 3-37.
Fillion, L.; Henry, C.J. 1998: Nutrient losses and gains during frying: a review.
International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 49: 157-168.
Fraley, R.T.; Perlak, F.J.; Fischoff, D.A.; Tumer, N.; Stark, D.; Barry, G.;
Kishore, G. 1991: Improving potato processing and pest control through gene
transfer. Abstracts of the 2nd International Potato Molecular Biology
Symposium, p. 28. St Andrews, Scotland.
Page 33
Friedman, M.; Fitch, T.E.; Levin, C.E.; Yokoyama, W.H. 1997: Reduction of
dietary cholesterol in hamsters fed tomatine. Presented at the National
Meeting of the American Chemical Society. Abstract AGFD 81.
Harris, P.H. 1999: Dietary fibre and the prevention of colorectal cancer. Third
Australasian Dietary Fibre Workshop, 21-23 March, 1999.
Hasegawa, D.; Johnson, R.M.; Gould, W.A. 1966: Effect of cold storage on
chlorogenic acid content of potatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 14: 165-169.
Heyes, J; Genet, R.; Brash, D.; Doens, C. 1997: Opportunities for alternate
uses of potatoes in New Zealand. CropInfo Confidential Report No. 450.
Prepared for NZ Vegetable & Potato Growers Federation Inc.
Horton, D.; Sawyer, R.L. 1985: The potato as a world food crop, with special
reference to developing areas. In: Potato physiology. Li, P.H. Ed. Academic
Press, Orlando. Pp. 1-34.
Jaswal, A.S. 1973: Effects of various processing methods on free and bound
amino acid contents of potatoes. American Potato Journal 50: 86-95.
Jaynes, J.M.; Langridge, P.; Anderson, K.; Bond, C.; Newman, C.W. 1985:
Construction and expression of synthetic DNA fragments coding for
polypeptides with elevated levels of essential amino acids. Applied
Microbiology and Biotechnology 21: 200-205.
Page 34
Lang, S.L. 1992: Potato skins found to have chemical residues. Cornell
Focus 1: 30.
Lister, C.E.; Wilson, P.E.; Vile, G.F.; Sutton, K.H.; Simmonds, H.J. 2000:
Pigments: not just a pretty face. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of New
Zealand 24: 34-39.
Liu, M.A. 1999: Vaccines in the 21 st century. British Medical Journal 319:
1301.
Ma, S.W.; Zhao, D.L.; Yin, Z.Q.; Mukherjee, R.; Singh, B.; Qin, H.Y.; Stiller,
C.R.; Jevnikar, A.M. 1997: Transgenic plants expressing autoantigens fed to
mice to induce oral immune tolerance. Nature Medicine 3: 793-796.
McCay, C.M.; McCay, J.B.; Smith, O. 1987: The nutritive value of potatoes In:
Potato Processing, Talburt, W.F.; Smith, O. (Ed.) Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York. Pp. 287-331.
Markakis, P. 1975: The nutritive value of potato protein In: Protein nutritional
quality of foods and feeds, Part 2; Friedman, M., Ed. Dekker, New York. Pp.
471-487.
Mason, H.S.; Haq, T.A.; Clements, J.D.; Arntzen, C.J. 1998: Edible vaccine
protects mice against Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LT): potatoes
expressing a synthetic LT-B gene. Vaccine 16: 1336-1343.
Miller, D.L.; Castellanos, V.H.; Shide, D.J.; Peters, J.C.; Rolls, B.J. 1998:
Effect of fat-free potato chips with and without nutrition labels on fat and
energy intakes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68: 282-290.
Oste, K. 1989: Impact damage, gangrene and dry rot in potato – important
biochemical factors in screening for resistance and quality in breeding
material. PhD Thesis. The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Svalov.
Pirie, N.W. 1973: The effects of processing conditions on the quality of leaf
protein. In: Protein nutritional quality of foods, Vol. 2; Friedman, M. Ed.
Dekker, New York. Pp. 341-354.
Raben, A.; Andersen, K.; Karberg, M.A.; Holst, J.J.; Astrup, A. 1997:
Acetylation of or beta-cyclodextrin addition to potato beneficial effect on
glucose metabolism and appetite sensations. American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition 66: 304-314.
Rodriguez de Sotillo, D.; Hadley, M.; Wolf-Hall, C. 1998: Potato peel extract a
nonmutagenic antioxidant with potential antimicrobial activity. Journal of Food
Science 63: 907-910.
Salunkhe, D.K.; Wu, M.T.; Jadhav, S.J. 1972: Effects of light and temperature
on the formation of solanine in potato slices. Journal of Food Science 37:
969-970.
Page 36
Smith, G.; Walmsley, A.; Polkinghorne, I. 1997: Plant-derived
immunocontraceptive vaccines. Reproduction, Fertilisation and Development
9: 85-89.
Soh, N.L., Brand-Miller, J 1999: The glycaemic index of potatoes: the effect of
variety, cooking method, and maturity. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition
53: 249-254.
Somer, A.; West, K.P. 1966: Vitamin A deficiency: health, survival and vision.
Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford.
Spencer, C.M.; Cal, Y.; Martin, R.; Gaffney, S.H.; Goulding, P.N.; Magnolato,
D.; Lilley, T.H.; Haslam, E. 1988: Polyphenol complexation – some thoughts
and observations. Phytochemistry 27: 2397-2409.
Stark, J.C.; Corsini, D.L.; Hurley, P.J.; Dwelle, R.B. 1985: Biochemical
characteristics of potato clones differing in blackspot susceptibility. American
Potato Journal 62: 657-666.
Tacket, C.O.; Mason, H.S.; Losonsky, G.; Clements, J.D.; Levine, M.M.;
Arntzen, C.J. 1998: Immunogenicity in humans of a recombinant bacterial
antigen delivered in a transgenic potato. Nature Medicine 4:607-9.
Thompson, L.U.; Yoon, J.H.; Jenkins, D.J.A.; Wolwer, J.; Jenkins, A.L. 1983:
Relationship between polyphenol intake and blood glucose response of
normal and diabetic individuals. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 39:
745-751.
Toma, R.B.; Augustin, J.; Orr, P.H.; True, R.H.; Hogan, J.M.; Shaw, R.L.
1978: Changes in the nutrient composition of potatoes during home
preparation: I. Proximate composition. American Potato Journal 55: 639-645.
True, R.H.; Hogan, J.M.; Augustin, J.; Johnson, S.R.; Teitzel, C.; Toma, R.B.;
Orr, P. 1979: Changes in the nutrient composition of potatoes during home
preparation: III. Minerals. American Potato Journal 56: 339-350.
Tu, H.M.; Godfrey, L.W.; Sun, S.M. 1994: Expression of the Brazil nut
methionine-rich protein in transgenic potato plants. In: The molecular and cell
biology of the potato. 2nd ed. Belnap, W.R.; Vayda, M.E.; Park, W.D., Eds.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Pp. 209-220.
Vinson, J.A.; Hao, Y.; Su, X.; Zubik, L. 1998: Phenol antioxidant quantity and
quality in foods: vegetables. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 46:
3630-3634.
Vinson, J.A.; Jan, J.; Dabbagh, Y.A.; Serry, M.M.; Cai, S. 1995: Plant
polyphenols exhibit lipoprotein-bound antioxidant activity using an in vitro
Page 37
oxidation model for heart disease. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
43: 2687-2689.
Woolfe, J.A. 1986: The potato in the human diet. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK. Pp. 58-82.
Page 38
Appendix I - the chemical
composition of New Zealand-grown
potatoes, raw and cooked by a
variety of method
Other foods that may replace potatoes in a meal are also included for
comparison. For details of analytical methods refer to The Concise New
Zealand Food Composition Tables (Burlingame et al. 1997).
Page 39
Table 8: Proximate composition.
Carbohydrate, available
Energy
Water
Ash
g kcal kJ g g g g g
POTATOES
Combined cultivars, flesh and skin, raw 78.54 72 299 2.36 0.11 15.5 1.3 1.15
Combined cultivars, flesh, raw 78.17 70 291 2.06 0.06 15.4 1.4 0.97
Fries, fried in beef dripping, salt added 56.44 186 773 3.77 6.26 28.7 1.4 1.69
Fries, fried in butter, salt added 63.33 159 660 2.92 4.71 26.3 1.4 1.65
Fries, fried in peanut oil, salt added 58.18 174 723 3.46 5.34 28.1 1.4 1.35
Fries, frozen, uncooked 73.1 107 445 2.2 3 17.9 1.3 0.6
Fries, independent shops, ready to eat 52.9 241 1002 3.8 14 24.9 1.6 2
Ilam Hardy, flesh, raw 79.07 68 279 1.97 0.05 14.8 1.63 0.93
In skin, microwaved 77.9 74 305 1.94 0.07 16.34 2.7 1.05
Instant powder, prepared with water 79.4 69 283 2 0.2 14.7 1.2 1.1
Red King, flesh and skin, raw 81 72 297 2.36 0.06 15.5 1.3 1.15
Red King, flesh, raw 79.6 70 291 2.06 0.06 15.4 1.2 0.97
Rua, flesh, baked, salt added 75.36 88 366 2.58 0.15 19.2 1.99 1.28
Rua, flesh, boiled, drained 77.06 83 342 2.1 0.17 18.2 1.73 0.88
Rua, flesh, boiled, mashed with milk, butter and salt added 79.33 95 394 1.84 3.29 14.5 1.7 0.73
Rua, flesh, boiled, salt added 77.06 83 342 2.1 0.17 18.2 1.73 0.88
Rua, flesh, microwaved, salt added 72.39 95 394 2.48 0.13 21.1 2.3 1.34
Rua, flesh, raw 79.91 70 291 1.78 0.15 15.5 1.56 0.79
Rua, flesh, roasted in beef dripping, salt added 71.82 105 433 2.46 0.64 22.3 1.42 1.43
Page 40
Protein (Nitrogen x 6.25)
Carbohydrate, available
Energy
Water
Ash
g kcal kJ g g g g g
Whole, with skin, fried 78.3 73.2 306 2.38 0.111 15.7 1.31 1.16
OTHER
Bread, white, sliced 39 216 904 7.3 0.9 43.4 2.8
Bread, wholemeal 45 198 829 8.1 1.4 37.1 5.7
Macaroni, boiled 78 86 359 3 0.5 16.8 0.9
Rice, brown, boiled 66 141 589 2.6 1.1 29.2 1.8
Rice, white, polished, boiled 70 123 513 2.2 0.3 26.9 1.3
Spaghetti, boiled 74 100 420 3.6 0.3 20.1 1.2
Page 41
Table 9: Nutrient elements.
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Manganese
Potassium
Selenium
Chloride
Calcium
Sulphur
Sodium
Copper
Zinc
Iron
mg mg mg mg mg mg mg µg mg mg mg µg
Combined cultivars, flesh and skin, raw 4 17 33 35 55 444 3 115 0.6 0.093 0.29 1.05
Combined cultivars, flesh, raw 2.54 22.9 46.1 32 55 484 4.39 106 0.57 0.186 0.2 0.27
Fries, fried in beef dripping, salt added 145 33 69 76 223 881 7 235 1.3 0.25 0.6 0.35
POTATOES
Fries, fried in butter, salt added 158 27 57 60 244 776 8 176 0.7 0.19 0.4 1.2
Fries, fried in peanut oil, salt added 179 31 69 70 276 770 6 238 1 0.27 0.6 0.35
Fries, frozen, uncooked 25 21 61 32 45 420 8 169 0.7 0.11 0.3 0.27
Fries, independent shops, ready to eat 250 27 70 40 65 650 11 146 1.3 0.12 0.6 0.35
Ilam Hardy, flesh, raw 2.43 21.9 44.2 30.7 52.8 464 4.21 161 0.55 0.209 0.39 0.27
In skin, microwaved 1.6 23 48 42 - 510 6.7 220 0.83 0.12 0.27 T
Instant powder, prepared with water 260 15 48 6 380 340 20 79 0.5 0.08 0.2 0.27
Red King, flesh and skin, raw 3 17 5 32 55 484 4 116 0.57 0.086 0.23 0.25
Red King, flesh, raw 3 17 4.6 32 55 484 4 68.2 0.57 0.131 0.22 0.249
Rua, flesh, baked, salt added 104 18 41 40 160 543 4 116 0.3 0.14 0.3 0.98
Rua, flesh, boiled, drained 4 15 32 35 26 332 4 102 0.5 0.15 0.2 0.47
Rua, flesh, boiled, mashed with milk, butter and salt added 130 12 39 30 265 282 21 70 0.3 0.13 0.3 0.4
Rua, flesh, boiled, salt added 127 15 32 35 318 332 4 102 0.5 0.15 0.2 0.47
Rua, flesh, microwaved, salt added 119 22 47 46 183 610 4 134 0.5 0.18 0.4 0.98
Rua, flesh, raw 4 17 33 35 55 444 3 120 0.57 0.14 0.3 0.27
Rua, flesh, roasted in beef dripping, salt added 124 22 44 47 191 589 6 138 0.6 0.17 0.3 0.35
Whole, with skin, fried 4.04 17.2 33.3 - - 448 3.03 120 0.606 0.0939 0.293 1.1
Page 42
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Manganese
Potassium
Selenium
Chloride
Calcium
Sulphur
Sodium
Copper
Zinc
Iron
mg mg mg mg mg mg mg µg mg mg mg µg
OTHER
Bread, white, sliced 666 162 40 1 0.8 4
Bread, wholemeal 641 227 33 1.7 1.3 3.2
Macaroni, boiled 1 25 5 0.4 0.5 0.3
Rice, brown, boiled 1 99 4 0.5 0.7 2.3
Rice, white, polished, boiled 2 38 1 0.2 0.1 2.6
Spaghetti, boiled T 24 5 0.4 0.5 T
Page 43
Table 10: Vitamin composition.
Alpha-tocopherol
Pantothenate
Vitamin B12
Folate, total
Vitamin B6
Riboflavin
Vitamin D
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Thiamin
Retinol
Niacin
Biotin
µg µg µg mg mg mg mg mg µg µg µg mg µg mg mg
POTATOES
Combined cultivars, flesh and skin, raw 0 6 1 0.09 0.04 1.474 0.07 0.38 0.1 15 0 19 0 0.07 0.08
Combined cultivars, flesh, raw 0 6 1 0.086 0.003 0.887 0.025 0.38 0.1 14 0 12.4 0 0.073 0.083
Fries, fried in beef dripping, salt added T 34 6 0.13 0.1 0.9 0.15 0.2 0.4 10 T 11 0 0.1 0.1
Fries, fried in butter, salt added T 71 12 0.13 0.04 0.4 0.13 0.34 0.09 13 T 10 0.03 - 0.2
Fries, fried in peanut oil, salt added 0 23 4 0.14 0.05 0.5 0.14 0.487 0.4 11 0 4 0 0.1 0.1
Fries, frozen, uncooked 0 T T 0.08 0.01 1.6 0.28 0.42 0.1 12 0 6 0 0.073 0.083
Fries, independent shops, ready to eat 0 0 0 0.1 0.03 1.1 0.27 0.498 0.4 16 0 9 0 - 0.36
Ilam Hardy, flesh, raw 0 0 0 0.082 0.003 0.85 0.024 0.39 0.1 14 0 11.9 0 0.07 0.08
In skin, microwaved 0 T T 0.04 T 1.04 0.1 0.46 0.46 44 0 1.5 0 - 0.11
Instant powder, prepared with water 0 54 9 0.01 0.03 1.2 0.18 0.2 0.3 5 0 3 0 0.02 0.021
Red King, flesh and skin, raw 0 6 1 0.086 0.03 0.89 0.025 0.38 0.1 15 0 12 0 0.073 0.083
Red King, flesh, raw 0 6 1 0.086 0.03 0.89 0.025 0.39 0.1 14 0 12 0 0.073 0.083
Rua, flesh, baked, salt added 0 7 1 0.09 0.04 0.5 0.09 0.34 0.09 13 0 10 0 0.073 0.083
Rua, flesh, boiled, drained 0 7 1 0.07 0.04 0.3 0.07 0.34 0.07 13 0 9 0 0.073 0.083
Rua, flesh, boiled, mashed with milk, butter and salt added 5 39 11.5 0.05 0.05 0.5 0.07 0.33 0.25 12 0.01 8 0.01 0.09 0.1
Rua, flesh, boiled, salt added 0 7 1 0.07 0.04 0.3 0.07 0.34 0.07 13 0 9 0 0.073 0.083
Rua, flesh, microwaved, salt added 0 13 2 0.09 0.05 0.3 0.1 0.34 0.09 13 0 10 0 0.073 0.083
Rua, flesh, raw 0 6 1 0.07 0.04 0.4 0.07 0.38 0.1 14 0 12 0 0.073 0.083
Page 44
Total vitamin A equivalents
Beta-carotene equivalents
Alpha-tocopherol
Pantothenate
Vitamin B12
Folate, total
Vitamin B6
Riboflavin
Vitamin D
Vitamin C
Vitamin E
Thiamin
Retinol
Niacin
Biotin
µg µg µg mg mg mg mg mg µg µg µg mg µg mg mg
Rua, flesh, roasted in beef dripping, salt added T 10 2 0.11 0.04 0.8 0.11 0.34 0.09 13 0 10 0 0.075 0.085
Whole, with skin, fried 0 6.1 1 0.073 0.038 1.4 0.067 - - 11 0 19 0 - 0.081
OTHER
Bread, white, sliced 0 0 0.33 0.09 3.3 0.02 28 0 0
Bread, wholemeal 0 0 0.66 0.16 3.9 0.04 36 0 0
Macaroni, boiled 0 0 0.06 0.02 0.7 0.01 3 0 0
Rice, brown, boiled 0 0 0.14 0.02 1.9 0.19 10 0 0
Rice, white, polished, boiled 0 0 0.01 0.01 0.8 0.05 3 0 0
Spaghetti, boiled 0 0 0.02 0.01 0.8 0.02 4 0 0
Page 45
Table 11: Amino acid composition (g per 100 g FW).
Phenylalanine
Glutamic acid
Aspartic acid
Tryptophan
Methionine
Isoleucine
Threonine
Histidine
Cysteine
Tyrosine
Arginine
Leucine
Alanine
Glycine
Proline
Lysine
Valine
Serine
POTATOES
Combined cultivars, flesh and skin, raw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Combined cultivars, flesh, raw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Fries, fried in beef dripping, salt added 0.158 0.227 0.208 0.06 0.048 0.168 0.119 0.148 0.054 0.198 0.188 0.072 0.139 0.693 0.484 0.129 0.148 0.158
Fries, fried in butter, salt added - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Fries, fried in peanut oil, salt added 0.15 0.207 0.184 0.055 0.044 0.15 0.105 0.138 0.05 0.173 0.173 0.067 0.127 0.634 0.438 0.115 0.138 0.15
Fries, frozen, uncooked 0.091 0.13 0.12 0.035 0.028 0.095 0.067 0.084 0.032 0.11 0.11 0.042 0.081 0.4 0.28 0.074 0.084 0.091
Fries, independent shops, ready to eat - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ilam Hardy, flesh, raw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
In skin, microwaved - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Instant powder, prepared with water 0.083 0.12 0.11 0.032 0.026 0.086 0.061 0.077 0.029 0.1 0.099 0.038 0.074 0.37 0.26 0.067 0.077 0.083
Red King, flesh and skin, raw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Red King, flesh, raw - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Rua, flesh, baked, salt added 0.11 0.161 0.141 0.041 0.043 0.111 0.078 0.099 0.037 0.131 0.131 0.05 0.095 0.473 0.332 0.087 0.099 0.111
Rua, flesh, boiled, drained 0.088 0.127 0.114 0.034 0.026 0.091 0.064 0.08 0.031 0.108 0.104 0.041 0.077 0.395 0.263 0.07 0.08 0.088
Rua, flesh, boiled, mashed with milk, butter and salt added 0.076 0.111 0.1 0.029 0.023 0.08 0.056 0.071 0.027 0.094 0.09 0.036 0.067 0.343 0.233 0.061 0.071 0.076
Rua, flesh, boiled, salt added 0.087 0.128 0.114 0.034 0.027 0.091 0.065 0.081 0.031 0.108 0.105 0.04 0.078 0.39 0.269 0.071 0.081 0.087
Rua, flesh, microwaved, salt added - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Rua, flesh, raw 0.074 0.109 0.1 0.028 0.022 0.077 0.054 0.069 0.026 0.092 0.092 0.034 0.065 0.326 0.226 0.059 0.069 0.074
Rua, flesh, roasted in beef dripping, salt added 0.105 0.149 0.131 0.039 0.032 0.105 0.075 0.096 0.036 0.122 0.122 0.047 0.087 0.455 0.315 0.083 0.096 0.105
Whole, with skin, fried - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Page 46
Table 12: Common serving sizes and edible portions.
Common Measure
Common Measure
Edible portion
W eight
W eight
g g %
POTATOES
Combined cultivars, flesh and skin, raw 1 potato 150 96
Combined cultivars, flesh, raw 1 potato 117 1 cup, diced 158 84
Fries, fried in beef dripping, salt added 1 cup 60 10 chips 45 100
Fries, fried in butter, salt added 1 cup 60 10 chips 45 100
Fries, fried in peanut oil, salt added 1 cup 60 10 chips 45 100
Fries, frozen, uncooked 10 chips 65 100
Fries, independent shops, ready to eat 1 cup 100 100
Ilam Hardy, flesh, raw 1 potato 117 85
In skin, microwaved
Instant powder, prepared with water 1 cup 241 100
Red King, flesh and skin, raw 1 potato 150 99
Red King, flesh, raw 1 potato 117 88
Rua, flesh, baked, salt added 1 potato 90 1 cup 128 100
Rua, flesh, boiled, drained 1 potato 114 1 cup 164 100
Rua, flesh, boiled, mashed with milk, butter and salt added 1 cup 209 100
Rua, flesh, boiled, salt added 1 potato 114 1 cup 164 100
Rua, flesh, microwaved, salt added 1 potato 90 1 cup 128
Rua, flesh, raw 1 potato 117 84
Rua, flesh, roasted in beef dripping, salt added 1 potato 95 1 cup 130 100
Whole, with skin, fried 1 potato 97 1 cup 134
OTHER
1 medium
Bread, white, sliced slice 26 1 thick slice 36 100
1 medium
Bread, wholemeal slice 28
Macaroni, boiled 1 cup 149
Rice, brown, boiled 1 cup 206
Rice, white, polished, boiled 1 cup 216
Spaghetti, boiled 1 cup 148
Page 47