Quantum physics

Need for Quantum Physics

•Problems remained from classical mechanics that
the special theory of relativity didn’t explain.
•Attempts to apply the laws of classical physics to
explain the behavior of matter on the atomic scale
were consistently unsuccessful.
•Problems included:
– Blackbody radiation
• The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a heated object
– Photoelectric effect
• Emission of electrons by an illuminated metal

Introduction
 Quantum Mechanics Revolution
•Between 1900 and 1930, another revolution
took place in physics.
•A new theory called quantum mechanics was
successful in explaining the behavior of particles
of microscopic size.
•The first explanation using quantum theory was
introduced by Max Planck.
– Many other physicists were involved in other
subsequent developments

Introduction
 Blackbody Radiation
•An object at any temperature is known to emit thermal
radiation.
– Characteristics depend on the temperature and surface
properties.
– The thermal radiation consists of a continuous distribution
of wavelengths from all portions of the em spectrum.
•At room temperature, the wavelengths of the thermal
radiation are mainly in the infrared region.
•As the surface temperature increases, the wavelength
changes.
– It will glow red and eventually white.

Section 40.1
 Blackbody Radiation, cont.
•The basic problem was in understanding the
observed distribution in the radiation emitted by
a black body.
– Classical physics didn’t adequately describe the
observed distribution.
•A black body is an ideal system that absorbs all
radiation incident on it.
•The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a
black body is called blackbody radiation.

Section 40.1
 Blackbody Approximation
•A good approximation of a
black body is a small hole
leading to the inside of a
hollow object.
•The hole acts as a perfect
absorber.
•The nature of the
radiation leaving the cavity
through the hole depends
only on the temperature of
the cavity.
Section 40.1
 Blackbody Experiment Results
•The total power of the emitted radiation increases
with temperature.
– Stefan’s law (from Chapter 20):
P = s A e T4
– The emissivity, e, of a black body is 1, exactly
•The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to
shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases.
– Wien’s displacement law
– lmaxT = 2.898 x 10-3 m . K
Section 40.1
 Intensity of Blackbody Radiation,
Summary
•The intensity increases
with increasing
temperature.
•The amount of
radiation emitted
increases with
increasing temperature.
– The area under the
curve
•The peak wavelength
decreases with
increasing temperature.

Section 40.1
 Rayleigh-Jeans Law
•An early classical attempt to explain blackbody
radiation was the Rayleigh-Jeans law.
2π c kBT
I  λ,T  
λ4
•At long wavelengths, the law matched
experimental results fairly well.

Section 40.1
 Rayleigh-Jeans Law, cont.
•At short wavelengths,
there was a major
disagreement between the
Rayleigh-Jeans law and
experiment.
•This mismatch became
known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe.
– You would have infinite
energy as the
wavelength approaches
zero.

Section 40.1
 Max Planck
•1858 – 1847
•German physicist
•Introduced the concept
of “quantum of action”
•In 1918 he was
awarded the Nobel Prize
for the discovery of the
quantized nature of
energy.

Section 40.1
Planck’s Theory of Blackbody Radiation
•In 1900 Planck developed a theory of
blackbody radiation that leads to an equation
for the intensity of the radiation.
•This equation is in complete agreement with
experimental observations.
•He assumed the cavity radiation came from
atomic oscillations in the cavity walls.
•Planck made two assumptions about the nature
of the oscillators in the cavity walls.
Section 40.1
 Planck’s Assumption, 1
•The energy of an oscillator can have only certain
discrete values En.
– En = n h ƒ
• n is a positive integer called the quantum number
• ƒ is the frequency of oscillation
• h is Planck’s constant
– This says the energy is quantized.
– Each discrete energy value corresponds to a different
quantum state.
• Each quantum state is represented by the quantum number,
n.

Section 40.1
 Planck’s Assumption, 2
•The oscillators emit or absorb energy when
making a transition from one quantum state to
another.
– The entire energy difference between the initial
and final states in the transition is emitted or
absorbed as a single quantum of radiation.
– An oscillator emits or absorbs energy only when it
changes quantum states.
– The energy carried by the quantum of radiation is
E = h ƒ.
Section 40.1
 Energy-Level Diagram
•An energy-level diagram
shows the quantized
energy levels and allowed
transitions.
•Energy is on the vertical
axis.
•Horizontal lines represent
the allowed energy levels.
•The double-headed
arrows indicate allowed
transitions.

Section 40.1
 More About Planck’s Model
•The average energy of a wave is the average
energy difference between levels of the
oscillator, weighted according to the probability
E kBT
e
of the wave being emitted.
•This weighting is described by the Boltzmann
distribution law and gives the probability of a
state being occupied as being proportional to
where E is the energy of the state.

Section 40.1
Planck’s Model, Graph

Section 40.1
 Planck’s Wavelength Distribution
Function
•Planck generated a theoretical expression for the
wavelength distribution.
2πhc 2
I  λ,T   5 hc λk T

λ e B 1 
– h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s
– h is a fundamental constant of nature.
•At long wavelengths, Planck’s equation reduces to the
Rayleigh-Jeans expression.
•At short wavelengths, it predicts an exponential
decrease in intensity with decreasing wavelength.
– This is in agreement with experimental results.

Section 40.1
 Einstein and Planck’s Results
•Einstein rederived Planck’s results by assuming
the oscillations of the electromagnetic field
were themselves quantized.
•In other words, Einstein proposed that
quantization is a fundamental property of light
and other electromagnetic radiation.
•This led to the concept of photons.

Section 40.1
 Photoelectric Effect
•The photoelectric effect occurs when light
incident on certain metallic surfaces causes
electrons to be emitted from those surfaces.
– The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.
• They are no different than other electrons.
• The name is given because of their ejection from a
metal by light in the photoelectric effect

Section 40.2
 Photoelectric Effect Apparatus
•When the tube is kept in
the dark, the ammeter
reads zero.
•When plate E is
illuminated by light having
an appropriate wavelength,
a current is detected by the
ammeter.
•The current arises from
photoelectrons emitted
from the negative plate and
collected at the positive
plate.

Section 40.2
 Photoelectric Effect, Results
•At large values of DV, the
current reaches a
maximum value.
– All the electrons emitted
at E are collected at C.
•The maximum current
increases as the intensity of
the incident light increases.
•When DV is negative, the
current drops.
•When DV is equal to or
more negative than DVs,
the current is zero.
 Photoelectric Effect Feature 1
•Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on
light intensity
– Classical Prediction
• Electrons should absorb energy continually from the electromagnetic
waves.
• As the light intensity incident on the metal is increased, the electrons
should be ejected with more kinetic energy.
– Experimental Result
• The maximum kinetic energy is independent of light intensity.
• The maximum kinetic energy is proportional to the stopping potential
(DVs).

Section 40.2
 Photoelectric Effect Feature 2
•Time interval between incidence of light and
ejection of photoelectrons
– Classical Prediction
• At low light intensities, a measurable time interval should pass between
the instant the light is turned on and the time an electron is ejected from
the metal.
• This time interval is required for the electron to absorb the incident
radiation before it acquires enough energy to escape from the metal.
– Experimental Result
• Electrons are emitted almost instantaneously, even at very low light
intensities.

Section 40.2
 Photoelectric Effect Feature 3
•Dependence of ejection of electrons on light
frequency
– Classical Prediction
• Electrons should be ejected at any frequency as long as the light intensity
is high enough.
– Experimental Result
• No electrons are emitted if the incident light falls below some cutoff
frequency, ƒc.
• The cutoff frequency is characteristic of the material being illuminated.
• No electrons are ejected below the cutoff frequency regardless of
intensity.

Section 40.2
 Photoelectric Effect Feature 4
•Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on
light frequency
– Classical Prediction
• There should be no relationship between the frequency
of the light and the electric kinetic energy.
• The kinetic energy should be related to the intensity of
the light.
– Experimental Result
• The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
increases with increasing light frequency.
Section 40.2
 Photoelectric Effect Features,
Summary
•The experimental results contradict all four
classical predictions.
•Einstein extended Planck’s concept of quantization
to electromagnetic waves.
•All electromagnetic radiation of frequency ƒ from
any source can be considered a stream of quanta,
now called photons.
•Each photon has an energy E and moves at the
speed of light in a vacuum.
– E = hƒ
•A photon of incident light gives all its energy to a
single electron in the metal.
Section 40.2
Photoelectric Effect, Work Function
•Electrons ejected from the surface of the metal
and not making collisions with other metal
atoms before escaping possess the maximum
kinetic energy Kmax.
•Kmax = hƒ – φ
– φ is called the work function of the metal.
– The work function represents the minimum
energy with which an electron is bound in the
metal.
Section 40.2
Some Work Function Values

Section 40.2
 Wave-Particle Duality: Light

Does light consist of particles or waves? When one focuses upon the different types of phenomena
observed with light, a strong case can be built for a wave picture:

Can be explained in terms of Can be explained in terms of

Phenomenon
waves. particles.
Reflection

Refraction

Interference

Diffraction

Polarization

Photoelectric effect

Compton scattering

Most commonly observed phenomena with light can be explained by waves. But the photoelectric
effect and the Compton scatering suggested a particle nature for light. Then electrons too were
found to exhibit dual natures.
 Failures of the Bohr Model (old quantum theory)
While the Bohr model was a major step toward understanding the quantum theory of
the atom, it is not in fact a correct description of the nature of electron orbits. Some
of the shortcomings of the model are:
1. It fails to provide any understanding of why certain spectral lines are brighter than
others. There is no mechanism for the calculation of transition probabilities.
2. The Bohr model treats the electron as if it were a miniature planet, with definite
radius and momentum. This is in direct violation of the uncertainty principle which
dictates that position and momentum cannot be simultaneously determined.
The Bohr model gives us a basic conceptual model of electrons orbits and energies.
The precise details of spectra and charge distribution must be left to quantum
mechanical calculations, as with the Schrödinger equation.
Movement of the Electron around the
Nucleus
Wavefunction Properties
 Schrödinger Equation
The Schrödinger equation plays the role of Newton's laws and conservation of energy in classical
mechanics - i.e., it predicts the future behavior of a dynamic system. It is a wave equation in terms of
the wavefunction which predicts analytically and precisely the probability of events or outcome. The
detailed outcome is not strictly determined, but given a large number of events, the Schrödinger
equation will predict the distribution of results.

The kinetic and potential energies are transformed into the Hamiltonian which acts upon the
wavefunction to generate the evolution of the wavefunction in time and space. The Schrödinger
equation gives the quantized energies of the system and gives the form of the wavefunction so that
other properties may be calculated.
 Time-independent Schrödinger Equation
For a generic potential energy U the 1-dimensional time-independent Schrodinger equation is

In three dimensions, it takes the form

for cartesian coordinates. This can be written in a more compact form by making use of the Laplacian
operator

The Schrodinger equation can then be written:

HΨ = EΨ
 Time Dependent Schrödinger Equation

The time dependent Schrödinger equation for one spatial dimension is of the form

For a free particle where U(x) =0 the wavefunction solution can be put in the form of
a plane wave

2 2 2π 2
k  p   2  E
l h T h

For other problems, the potential U(x) serves to set boundary conditions on the spatial part
of the wavefunction and it is helpful to separate the equation into the time-independent
Schrödinger equation and the relationship for time evolution of the wavefunction
• Schrödinger reduced the problem of the energy
states in an atom to a so-called eigenvalue problem
• He was able to give a complete description of the
spectral lines in the hydrogen atom, reproducing the
Balmer formula.
• He thought his wave mechanics was a return to
classical physics of continuum processes undisturbed
by sudden jumps; he was proposing an essentially
classical thy of matter waves that would stand to
mechanics as Maxwell’s thy EM waves stood to
optics.
• He even doubted the existence of particles and
instead assumed that they really are wave groups
with small dimensions in every direction (= “wave
packet”)
 Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- What is Quantum Mechanics? -
• Quantum Mechanics is nothing more but
linear algebra and Hilbert spaces
• What makes quantum mechanics quantum
mechanics is the physical interpretation of the
results that are obtained
 Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- First Postulate of Quantum
Mechanics -
Quantum physicists are interested in all kinds of physical systems
(photons, conduction electrons in metals and semiconductors, atoms,
etc.). State of these rather diverse systems are represented by the same
type of functions  STATE FUNCTIONS.

First postulate of Quantum mechanics:

Every physically-realizable state of the system is described in quantum
mechanics by a state function  that contains all accessible physical
information about the system in that state.

– Physically realizable states  states that can be studied in laboratory

– Accesible information  the information we can extract from the
wavefunction
– State function  function of position, momentum, energy that is spatially
localized.
 Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- First Postulate of Quantum
Mechanics -
If  and  represent two physically-realizable states of the system, then
1 2
the linear combination
  c11  c2  2
where c1 and c2 are arbitrary complex constants, represents a third
physically realizable state of the system.

Note:
Wavefunction (x,t)  position and time probability amplitude

Quantum mechanics describes the outcome of an ensemble of

measurements, where an ensemble of measurements consists of a very
large number of identical experiments performed on identical non-
interacting systems, all of which have been identically prepared so as to be
in the same state.
 Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- Second Postulate of Quantum
Mechanics -
If a system is in a quantum state represented by a wavefunction , then
2
PdV   dV
is the probability that in a position measurement at time t the particle will
be detected in the infinitesimal volume dV.

Note:
2  position and time probability density
 ( x, t )
The importance of normalization follows from the Born interpretation of
the state function as a position probability amplitude. According to the
second postulate of quantum mechanics, the integrated probability
density can be interpreted as a probability that in a position measurement
at time t, we will find the particle anywhere in space.
 Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- Second Postulate of Quantum
Mechanics -
Therefore, the normalization condition for the
wavefunction is:
2 *
 PdV    ( x, y , z ) dV   ( x, y, z )( x, y, z )dV  1

Limitations on the wavefunction:
– Only normalizable functions can represent a quantum
state and these are called physically admissible functions.
– State function must be continuous and single valued
function.
– State function must be a smoothly-varying function
(continuous derivative).
 Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- Third Postulate of Quantum
Third Postulate:
Mechanics -

Every observable in quantum mechanics is represented by an operator which is used to

obtain physical information about the observable from the state function. For an
observable that is represented in classical physics by a function Q(x,p), the corresponding
 
operator is Q( x, p) .
Observable Operator

Position x
Momentum   
p
i x
Energy 
p2  2 2
E  V ( x)    V ( x)
2m 2m x 2
Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- More on Operators -

 An operator is an instruction, a symbol which tells us to perform one or more

mathematical acts on a function, say f(x). The essential point is that they act on a
function.
 Operators act on everything to the right, unless the action is constrained by brackets.
 Addition and subtraction rule for operators:

 
  
Q1  Q2 f ( x)  Q1 f ( x)  Q2 f ( x)
 The product of two operators implies succesive operation:
   

Q1Q2 f ( x)  Q1 Q2 f ( x) 
 The product of two operators is a third operator:
  
Q3  Q1Q2
 Two operators commute if they obey the simple operator expression:
 
 
     
Q1, Q2  Q1Q2  Q2Q1  0  Q1Q2  Q2Q1
 
 Operator
• Example. Apply the following operators on the
given functions:
• (a) Operator d/dx and function x2.
• (b) Operator d2/dx2 and function 4x2.
• (c) Operator (∂/∂y)x and function xy2.
• (d) Operator −iћd/dx and function exp(−ikx).
• (e) Operator −ћ2d2/dx2 and function exp(−ikx).
 Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- More on Operators -
The requirement for two operators to be commuting
operators is a very important one in quantum mechanics and
it means that we can simultaneously measure the observables
represented with these two operators. The non-commutivity
of the position and the momentum operators (the inability to
simultaneously determine particles position and its
momentum) is represented with the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle, which in mathematical form is expressed as:

 1  
Dx  Dp   x, p
2 2
and can be generalized for any pair of observables.
Basics of Quantum Mechanics
- Fourth Postulate of Quantum
Mechanics -
1926 Erwin Schrödinger proposed an equation that describes the evolution of a quantum-
mechanical system  SWE which represents quantum equations of motion, and is of the
form:
 2  2  2 2  
  V ( x)( x, t )    V ( x)( x, t )  i
2m x 2  2m x 2  t
This work of Schrödinger was stimulated by a 1925 paper by Einstein on the quantum
theory of ideal gas, and the de Broglie theory of matter waves.

Note:
Examining the time-dependent SWE, one can also define the following operator for the
total energy:
 
E  i
t

Fourth (Fundamental) postulate of Quantum mechanics:

The time development of the state functions of an isolated quantum system is governed
   
by the time-dependent SWE H  i / t , where H  T  V is the Hamiltonian of the
system.

Note on isolated system:

The TDSWE describes the evolution of a state provided that no observations are made.
An observation alters the state of the observed system, and as it is, the TDSWE can not
describe such changes.
 Basics of Quantum Mechanics
Examining the time-dependent SWE, one can also define the following operator for the
total energy:
- Fourth Postulate of Quantum
 
E  i
Mechanics - t

Fourth (Fundamental) postulate of Quantum mechanics:

The time development of the state functions of an isolated quantum system is governed
   
by the time-dependent SWE H  i / t , where H  T  V is the Hamiltonian of the
system.

Note on isolated system:

The TDSWE describes the evolution of a state provided that no observations are made.
An observation alters the state of the observed system, and as it is, the TDSWE can not
describe such changes.
 The Uncertainty Principle

The position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously measured with

arbitrarily high precision. There is a minimum for the product of the uncertainties of these
two measurements. There is likewise a minimum for the product of the uncertainties of
the energy and time
By Planck’s law E = hc/λ, a photon with a short
wavelength has a large energy
Thus, it would impart a large ‘kick’ to the electron
But to determine its momentum accurately,
electron must only be given a small kick
Use light with short wavelength:
accurate measurement of position but not
momentum.
Use light with long wavelength:
accurate measurement of momentum but not
position.
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

No two electrons in an atom can have identical quantum numbers. This is an example
of a general principle which applies not only to electrons but also to other particles of
half-integer spin (fermions). It does not apply to particles of integer spin (bosons).

The nature of the Pauli exclusion principle can be illustrated by supposing that electrons
1 and 2 are in states a and b respectively. The wavefunction for the two electron system
would be

but this wavefunction is unacceptable

because the electrons are identical and
indistinguishable. To account for this we
must use a linear combination of the two
possibilities since the determination of
which electron is in which state is not
possible to determine.
 The wavefunction for the state in which both states "a" and "b" are occupied
by the electrons can be written

The Pauli exclusion principle is part of one of our most basic observations of nature:
particles of half-integer spin must have antisymmetric wavefunctions, and particles of
integer spin must have symmetric wavefunctions. The minus sign in the above
relationship forces the wavefunction to vanish identically if both states are "a" or "b",
implying that it is impossible for both electrons to occupy the same state.
 Periodic Table of the Elements

The quantum numbers associated with the atomic electrons along with the Pauli
exclusion principle provide insight into the building up of atomic structures and the
periodic properties observed.

For a given principal number n there are n2 different possible states.

The order of filling of electron energy states is dictated by energy, with the lowest
available state consistent with the Pauli principle being the next to be filled. The labeling
of the levels follows the scheme of the spectroscopic notation
Order of Filling of Electron States

As the periodic table of the elements is built up by adding

the necessary electrons to match the atomic number, the
electrons will take the lowest energy consistent with the
Pauli exclusion principle. The maximum population of each
shell is determined by the quantum numbers and the
diagram at left is one way to illustrate the order of filling of
the electron energy states.
For a single electron, the energy is determined by the
principal quantum number n and that quantum number is
used to indicate the "shell" in which the electrons reside.
For a given shell in multi-electron atoms, those electrons
with lower orbital quantum number l will be lower in energy
because of greater penetration of the shielding cloud of
electrons in inner shells. These energy levels are specified
by the principal and orbital quantum numbers using the
spectroscopic notation. When you reach the 4s level, the
dependence upon orbital quantum number is so large that
the 4s is lower than the 3d. Although there are minor
exceptions, the level crossing follows the scheme indicated
in the diagram, with the arrows indicating the points at
which one moves to the next shell rather than proceeding to
higher orbital quantum number in the same shell
The division into main shells encourages a kind of "planetary model" for the
electrons, and while this is not at all accurate as a description of the electrons, it
has a certain mnemonic value for keeping track of the buildup of heavier elements.
 Example

What is a quantum computer?

 A quantum computer is a machine that

performs calculations based on the laws
of quantum mechanics, which is the
behavior of particles at the sub-atomic
level.
 Representation of Data - Qubits
A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of
two states denoted by |0> and |1>. A single bit of this form is
known as a qubit
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two
energy levels of an atom. An excited state representing |1>
and a ground state representing |0>.
Light pulse of
frequency l for
Excited time interval t
State

Nucleus
Ground
State
Electron
State |0> State |1>
 Particle in a 1-Dimensional Box
Time Dependent Schrödinger Equation
  2 d 2
2
 V ( x)  E
2m dx
Region I Region II Region III
KE PE TE
Wave function is dependent on time and position
function:
V(x)=∞ V(x)=0 V(x)=∞ 1
( x, t )  f (t ) ( x)

Time Independent Schrödinger Equation

0 L x
V(x)=0 for L>x>0   2 d 2 ( x)
2
 V ( x)  E
V(x)=∞ for x≥L, x≤0 2m dx

Classical Physics: The Applying boundary conditions:

Region I and III:
particle can exist anywhere
  2 d 2 ( x)
  *  E  0
2
in the box and follow a path
2
in accordance to Newton’s 2m dx
Laws. Region II:
  2 d 2 ( x)
 E
Quantum Physics: The 2m dx2
 Finding the Wave Function
  2 d 2 ( x) d 2 ( x) 2m
Our new wave function:
 E   2 E nx
2m dx2 dx2   II  A sin But what is ‘A’?
L
This is similar to the general differential equation: Normalizing wave function:
L
d 2 ( x)   A sin kx  B cos kx  ( A sin kx) dx  1
2
 2
 k 2
dx 0
So we can start applying boundary conditions: L
x=0 ψ=0  x sin 2kx 
A   1
2
0  A sin 0k  B cos 0k 0  0  B *1 B  0
 2 4 k 
0
x=L ψ=0  n 
0  Asin kL A0 kL  n where n= * sin 2 L
2L L
A   1
2 n 
Calculating Energy Levels:  4 
 L 
2mE k 2 2 k 2h2
k  2
2
E E Since n= *
 2m 2m4 2 2 L  2
h A   1 A
 2 L
2
Our normalized wave function is:
n 2 2 h 2 n2h2
E 2 E 2 nx
L 2m4 2 8mL2  II  sin
L L
 Particle in a 1-Dimensional Box

nx 2  nx 
2
2 Applying the
 II   II   sin
2
sin 
L L Born Interpretation L L 

n=4 n=4

E n=3 E n=3

n=2 n=2

n=1 n=1

x/L x/L
 Tunneling
• Now we consider the situation where classically the particle does not have enough
energy to surmount the potential barrier, E < V0.

• The quantum mechanical result, however, is one of the most remarkable features of
modern physics, and there is ample experimental proof of its existence. There is a small,
but finite, probability that the particle can penetrate the barrier and even emerge on the
other side.
• The wave function in region II becomes

73
 Analogy with Wave Optics
• If light passing through a glass prism reflects from an
internal surface with an angle greater than the critical
angle, total internal reflection occurs. However, the
electromagnetic field is not exactly zero just outside the
prism. If we bring another prism very close to the first one,
experiments show that the electromagnetic wave (light)
appears in the second prism The situation is analogous to
the tunneling described here. This effect was observed by
Newton and can be demonstrated with two prisms and a
laser. The intensity of the second light beam decreases
exponentially as the distance between the two prisms
increases.

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Example questions .
Why black body radiation experiment is an important stepping stone in history of quantum
mechanics. explain how the radiation emanating from the body is measured and what are
the assumptions which describes the properties of a black body.

How the wavelength of the radiation will vary with respect to temperature explain
graphically. For example you are star watching through a telescope in the night some star
appear red and some star appear orange and some stars appear blue which according to you
is hottest.

What are the mathematical formalisms proposed by Raleigh –Jean and Wien separately to
understand black body radiation. Explain each formalism and where it does it agree with the
black body radiation curve.

Why do you think the mathematical formalism proposed by Max planck agrees perfectly with
black body radiation curve and explain the basic assumption of maxplanck revolutionary
theory.
What were the basic assumption of atomic theory (old quantum theory )that disagrees with
Schrodinger wave equation elaborate it .

What are the properties of wave function. Why this properties has been imparted to the
wave function.

Explain and derive the time independent Schrodinger equation .

Explain and derive the time dependent Schrodinger equation .

What are different operators in quantum mechanics and explain any two postulate using
operators

Explain and derive solution for particle in one-diemensional box using Schrodinger equation.

Explain and illustrate why the Heisenberg uncertainty principle is negligible and not applicable
to macroscopic scale and its important phenomenon at atomic scale.

Explain electron tunnelling and illustrate one application of electron tunnelling.