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Mine Overburden Dump Failure: A Case Study

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DOI: 10.1007/s10706-013-9714-7

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Geotech Geol Eng
DOI 10.1007/s10706-013-9714-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Mine Overburden Dump Failure: A Case Study
Brett Poulsen • Manoj Khanal •
A. Manohar Rao • Deepak Adhikary •
Rao Balusu
Received: 26 August 2013 / Accepted: 19 November 2013
 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract In any open cast mine, the management of
stripped spoil during mining is crucial to the mine’s
successful operation. The improper management of
the overburden (OB) dump can result in stability
issues which may affect safety and production of the
mine. Various literatures have reported the failure of
open pit dumps and the consequences in loss of life,
production and impact on neighbouring amenities.
Recently, the failure of an out-of-pit OB dump at an
Indian Colliery was reported. The failed OB dump
displaced spoil approximately 70 m from the original
location of the dump toe and impacted on neighbour-
ing amenities. This paper back analyse material
properties and investigates the probable mechanism
of this OB failure. Well established tools including
limiting equilibrium and continuum numerical meth-
ods have been used to understand and identify the
failure kinematics of this dump. It has been found that
the residual friction angle of the material comprising
the dump structural unit dominates stability. Mobili-
sation of residual strength can occur by operational
induced strains and/or the presence of water. The shear
strength of the foundation was fully mobilised and
B. Poulsen  M. Khanal (&)  D. Adhikary  R. Balusu
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering,
1 Technology Court, Pullenvale, QLD 4069, Australia
e-mail: Manoj.Khanal@csiro.au
A. M. Rao
The Singareni Collieries Company Limited, Kothagudem,
Khammam District, Andhra Pradesh, India
provided a slip surface for the overlying dump
material. The resultant failure is manifest as a bilinear
wedge movement of two ridged blocks defined by
linear rupture planes.
Keywords Dump stability  Open pit 
Limiting equlibrium method  Computer
modelling  Foundation failure
1 Introduction
In any open cast mine, the management of stripped
spoil from mining is crucial to the mine’s successful
operation. The improper management of the overbur-
den (OB) dump can cause instability issues which may
affect safety and production of the mine, for example,
in-pit dumps minimise re-handling of OB material and
are efficient in utilisation of available land (Kainthola
et al. 2011; Richards et al. 1981), however dump
failure can halt mining operations, endanger personnel
and damage equipment (Richards et al. 1981). Exter-
nal OB dumps may be less efficient in material
handling and land use however they reduce conse-
quences to mine operations in the event of dump
failure although external dump failure may have greater
social and environmental consequences (Dawson
et al. 1998; Roberson 1985). At the time of writing
in August 2013 it is reported that the failure of an
Indian out-of-pit OB dump has resulted in the loss of
14 lives.
123

Dump failure may occur within the OB material
only or involve failure of the dump foundation.
Rosengren et al. (2010) have identified three modes
of OB dump failure as follows:
• superficial slumping of the dump face due to
inadequate spoil strength and over-steepening of
the dump face,
• large-scale instability of the dump due to inade-
quate spoil strength in the dump basal zone, and
• failure of the dump foundation resulting in floor
heave, translation on the foundation failure plane
and resulting large-scale dump failure. (Rosengren
et al. 2010)
Strength of the OB dump will vary from purely
frictional strength with initial emplacement, typically
from 35 to 40, to a material that is analogues to
rockfill with compaction from self-weight and the
dynamic movements of machinery. This compacted
material may be re-excavated to stable slopes of 40o to
45o (Rosengren et al. 2010) however with saturation of
the OB dump the frictional shear strength may reduce
to as low as 14 (Rosengren et al. 2010) in the
lowermost 5 m (Simmons 2013) and the stability of
this basal zone may control the overall large-scale
dump stability.
Saturation of the basal zone arises from the
difference in permeability of the spoil and the
Fig. 1 Result of monitoring
study identifying active and
passive wedges formed
during large scale OB dump
failures. Richards et al. 1981
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Geotech Geol Eng
foundation. Water in this zone may originate in situ
from pools prior to dumping or from springs but most
likely from rainwater ponding on the spoil pile,
filtering through the dump and possibly transporting
fines including free clays into this basal zone where the
compacted foundation impedes further vertical water
movement.
Failure of the foundation or failure of the dump
basal zone will have similar kinametics with horizon-
tal translation of a passive wedge and vertical
subsidence of an active wedge (illustrated in Fig. 1
after Richards et al. 1981). In vertical section, the
failure planes are bilinear with a steep release
escarpment plane and basal plane parallel or within
the foundation itself. OB dump failures viewed in plan
shows the escarpment plane to be slightly curved
(Richards et al. 1981). Differentiation between the two
failure modes of foundation failure or failure within
the dump basal zone may not be obvious, however
heave at the dump toe would suggest foundation
failure.
Richards et al. (1981) conducted an extensive
investigation of in-pit spoil pile failures at the
Goonyella mine in Queensland, Australia where
failures of both in-pit dumps and of the highwall itself
significantly impacted mining operations. It was
concluded that the dump failures occurred along
bi-linear planar surfaces where the material shear
Geotech Geol Eng
strength is exceeded resulting in the active/passive
wedge formation and mass movement of spoil.
Sensitivity to water of the spoil clay component was
observed in laboratory testing with residual friction
angles less than 5o. It was concluded that shear strain
in the presence of water prior to failure mobilised these
low residual strengths resulting in failure of the spoil
pile.
Failure of an external OB dump servicing a Greek
lignite mine resulted in a movement of approximately
40 Mm3 of material to a distance of 300 m and over
topped one earth dam constructed to halt the flow of spoil
(Steiakakis et al. 2009). In that example, it was
concluded that the failure was initiated from a build up
of pore pressures within the lower layers of the spoil that
resulted from spoil deposition over a spring. The
resulting mobilisation of low shear strength in the clayey
and marly components of the spoil became self sustain-
ing as the failure initiated and material flowed down hill.
In December 2009 the failure of an external OB
dump servicing ‘‘Mine A’’ from Singareni Colliery,
India was reported. At the time of failure in dump
number 1 the crest was at the designed maximum
height of 90 m and approximately 33.7 Mm3 of
material had been emplaced in the dump. Failure of
the dump resulted in the flow of material up to
approximately 70 m from the original toe location,
overwhelming local services (electricity and drainage
works) and encroaching on a road. Two other dumps
within the same area have been designed to similar
heights as dump number 1 and currently service Mine
A.
Generally failure within the unsaturated OB mate-
rial will involve a circular failure surface. Stability
analysis against circular shear failure is typically
undertaken using limiting equilibrium methods (LEM)
and the simplicity of such methods has led to wide use
of the technique (Aryal 2006; Hammah et al. 2005;
Fredlund and Krahn 1977; Yu et al. 1998). LEM with
non-circular failure paths may also be used to study
failure paths through the foundation if the full rock,
soil, OB rock profile is represented with appropriate
strengths (Aryal 2006).
Continuum and discontinuum methods are also
used in the geotechnical community but being rela-
tively expensive in time and computer resources, they
are not as widely used as the LEMs (Richards et al.
1981) for slope stability analysis. These methods
model the redistribution of stresses throughout the
domain and can consider complex loading paths and
non-linear stress–strain relationships. Discontinuum
methods allow the propagation and coalescing of
fractures along pre-defined joints however these
techniques are sensitive to inter-element joint stiffness
and strength properties.
This paper investigates the probable mechanism of
the OB dump failure at Mine A using several
numerical tools and identifies the kinematics of the
failure. As an initial study, a limiting equilibrium
model is performed by considering stability of the
dump number 1 against circular shear failure of the
spoil material based on the initial dump design study.
In light of the observed dump failure this model is then
extended to include a non-circular failure path through
the OB dump and dump foundation. A sensitivity
study of frictional and cohesive properties is under-
taken. With results from the limiting equilibrium
model a finite difference analysis is undertaken to
investigate the initiation and onset of the failure.
Given the serious implication of failure of external
OB dumps in proximity to infrastructure a run-out
analysis is also undertaken and calibrated by consid-
ering the flow distance of 70 m for the failed spoil
material from the toe of dump number 1. The
predictive calibrated flow model is required in order
to assess risk to infrastructure from other unstable
dumps at this locality. The ultimate aim of this study is
to estimate the stability and risk assessment of other
dumps at the colliery, although this will not be
discussed in this paper.
2 Description of the Mine A Dump Failure
Failure of Mine A external OB dump was reported on
2nd December 2009 with slumping of the crest and
translation of the face. The spoil was displaced 70 m
from the original location of the dump toe. At the time
of failure dump number 1 was at it’s designed
maximum elevation of 90 m as shown in Fig. 2 and
covered an area of approximately 78 hectares with
approximately 3.4 Mm3 of spoil.
Failure of dump number 1 directly impacted
services (a road, power lines and drainage), endan-
gered mine personnel and damage equipment. In
addition to the failure of the dump material it was
observed that the ground adjacent to the dump toe
‘‘heaved’’.
123

2.1 Mine Layout
Mine A is located in India and is worked by shovel
dumper with an annual targeted production of 3.0 Mt
and has 61 Mt of coal reserves. Three external OB
dumps are located to the south of the pit shown in Fig. 3.
The trend of underlying strata is NW–SE with NE dips
and consists of the Barren and Barakar formations from
the Lower Gondwana Group of Permian aged rocks.
Soils and alluvium occur to a maximum depth of 29 m,
Table 1. Mine A dump yard is immediately underlain by
‘‘black cotton soil’’ to a variable thickness from 8 to
13 m. These soils include swelling clays of medium to
high plasticity (Plasticity Index, PI, 19–29). These black
cotton soils are expansive showing a marked volume
change with changing moisture levels.
2.2 Geology, Spoil and Underlying Soil Properties
Dump number 1 comprises OB material, predomi-
nantly sandstones, from all the formations overlying
the mining seam in the Barakar group, Table 1. The
material was placed by edge dumping and the angle of
repose was estimated to be at 37o. From previous
design studies the dump material is estimated to have
the properties outlined in Table 2.
From a series of eight investigative boreholes
distributed over the dump yard, two holes are located
between dumps number 1 and 3 proximal to the
failure. These holes referred to as number 6 and
number 7 are clay dominated throughout their length.
Depth of the black cotton soil in holes number 6 and
number 7 is 10 and 9 m respectively. Samples from
Fig. 2 Profile of spoil dumps No 3 and No 1 with pre-failure profile. Black cotton soil in the foundation averages from 8 to 13 m
thickness
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Geotech Geol Eng
borehole number 4, located on the other side of dump
number 3, were subject to standard laboratory tests to
measure moisture, plasticity and constituent grain
size. It was determined that the plastic soils had a
plasticity index (PI) from 19 to 29 classifying them as
medium to high plasticity. Measured moisture content
as tested in borehole number 4 ranged from 10 to 20 %
NMC and grain size analysis ranged to 62 % silt and
clay sized grains. In contrast with boreholes number 6
and number 7 plastic soil units comprise only 33 % of
borehole number 4.
Although the descriptive name of the soil units in
holes number 6 and number 7 differs from those in the
test hole number 4 it is considered reasonable to
assume the clays of holes number 6 and number 7 have
a similar medium to high plasticity as tested in hole
number 4. Ortiz et al. (1986, see FLAC 2008) reports
the strength properties for medium to high plastic
clays as listed in Table 3.
For comparison, Richards et al. (1981) tested coal
OB dump samples believed to be representative of
spoil in the basal failure zone of Goonyella spoil
dumps. They reported cohesive peak strength of
15 kPa and friction angle 15–30 with residual
strengths of cohesion 50 kPa and friction angle 3–
5. These test values are generally consistent with the
values reported by Ortiz et al. (1986, see FLAC 2008).
Rosengren et al. (2010) report typical spoil friction
angles from 35–40 drained to 14 undrained and
foundations of sheared mudstone or claystone to have
zero cohesion and friction angles in the range of 12–
17. Foundations with a high percentage of montmo-
rillonite may have even lower strength to 7.
Geotech Geol Eng

Fig. 3 Open Cut Mine

showing spoil dumps 1, 2
and 3. Dump number 1
failed on 02/12/2009.
Foundation geotechnical
boreholes 6 and 7
highlighted

Table 1 Geology of the Permian aged Gondwana group. Mining in the Barakar formation (Singareni)
Age Group Formation General lithology Maximum thickness
(m)

Recent Soil cover and Alluvium 28.96

Permian Lower Barren Coarse to pebbly felspathic sandstones with clays 25.91?
Gondwana measures
Barakar Upper member 183.50?
Dominantly sandstone with 8 co relatable coal seams
Lower member 85.28?
Predominantly coarse grained while sandstone
Talchir Fine to medium grained pale Greenish sandstone and green 83.40?
shales

Parametric studies undertaken in the next section consistency in peak and residual friction angle
suggest that the dump stability is significantly more reported by Ortiz, Richards and Rosengren is
sensitive to friction angle than cohesion. Therefore the reassuring.

123
 Geotech Geol Eng

Table 2 Spoil properties of Mine A dump from previous 3 Limiting Equilibrium Analyses
studies
Density Cohesion Angle of Limiting equilibrium methods is a well known
(kg/m3) (kPa) friction numerical method for stability estimation of natural
() and man-made slopes. Using Mohr–Coulomb strength
Dump material property 2,070 27–48 to 0.0 34–25 expression, it calculates the shear strength along a
range sliding surface. The shear strength of the material is
Dump material 2,070 0.0 26 defined as the shear stress at failure. A state of limit
properties equilibrium exists when the mobilised shear stress is a
assumed in initial fraction of the shear strength (Aryal, 2006). In general,
studies
LEM can be related to a Factor of Safety (FoS), F and
is defined as,

Table 3 Clay properties from Ortiz et al. (1986) as reported in F ¼ sf =s ¼ ðc0 þ r0 tan /0 Þ=s ð1Þ
FLAC3D manual (2008)
where, s, sf, c0 , a0 and r0 are mobilised shear stress,
Unit Cohesion Friction angle Friction shear strength, cohesion, friction angle and normal
(kPa) () - Peak angle ()
- residual
stress of generated at the sliding surface, respectively.
(Fig. 4).
Medium plasticity 8.0 20 10 Several LEMs have been developed for slope
claya stability analyses since development of the ordinary
High plasticity 10.0 17 6 method in 1936. These developments include Bishops,
claya
Janbu, Morgenbstern-Price, Spencer and the General-
a
Ref Ortiz et al. 1986—FLAC3D manual (FLAC 2008) ised LE (GLE) method developed by Chugh (1986).

Fig. 4 Definitions of limit,

force and moment
equilibrium. (Abramson
et al. 2002)

123
Geotech Geol Eng

Fig. 5 Bishop’s simplified

LE method. Forces acting on
a single slice (left)
E = inter-slice normal
force, arrangement of slice
in a slope (right)

All LEMs are based on assumptions for the interslice 4 Numerical Analysis
normal and shear forces; however the basic difference
between the methods is in the way these forces are Various numerical tools such as LEM, continuum and
calculated. For example, Bishop’s simplified method discontinuum methods have been used to replicate the
(BSM) is widely used for circular slip surfaces, Fig. 5. dump and analyse the failure kinematics. A run-out
The method considers interslice normal forces but analysis has also been used to understand the failure
neglects interslice shear forces. It satisfies vertical mechanisms.
force equilibrium to determine effective force acting
on the base or failure surface as: 4.1 Initial Studies
X
N0 ¼ ð1=ma Þ ½Wðc0 l sin aÞ=Ful cos a ð2Þ As an initial study undertaken by external consultants
where with the LEM using BSM and properties outlined in
Table 2 a minimum FoS of 1.49 has been estimated for
ma ¼ cos að1 þ tan a tan /0 =FÞ ð3Þ the design of dump number 1, Fig. 6. As highlighted in
Fig. 6, the location of minimum stability is the dump
a = slice inclination
toe with a failure surface extending from the second
l = slice base length
bench to the toe. If the material properties estimated in
u = pore pressure
Table 2 were indeed representative of dump number 1,
The FoS is then calculated for a circular failure
a FoS of 1.49 would suggest an acceptable design for
surface by satisfying moment equilibrium as:
hX i X  medium to long term stability.
F¼ ðc0 l þ N0 tan /0 Þ = W sin a ð4Þ
4.1.1 Modelling of the Foundation
However, Bishops rigorous method considers both
interslice normal and shear forces and satisfies
The LE model is extended to study the dump,
moment equilibrium for each slice.
foundation and bedrock, and analysed in the program
Janbu’s simplified method is widely used for both
SLIDE (2003). A non-circular failure path is antici-
circular and non-circular failure surfaces with the FoS
pated but not prescribed and therefore the Janbu’s
determined by horizontal force equilibrium. Similar to
simplified method is used. With the non-unique
the BSM, this method also consider interslice normal
material properties outlined in Table 4 the predicted
force but neglects shear force. The base normal force
FoS is 1.0 and the failure surface daylighting the dump
is calculated from BSM using Eq. (2) but the FoS is
at estimated 43 m from the crest lip, Fig. 7.
calculated by:
The properties in Table 4 were back analysed
hX i
Ff ¼ ðc0 l þ ðNulÞ tan /0 Þ sec a = assuming the slope FoS was approximately equal to
hX X i ð5Þ one. In particular the FoS was found sensitive to the
W tan a þ DE properties of the Black Cotton soil foundation and in
particular to the friction angle of the foundation. The
where RDE = E2 - E1 = net interslice normal force. resultant friction angle of 6 is typical of the residual

123

Fig. 6 Initial design model for dump number 1 with FoS = 1.49 for BSM (density, friction angle and cohesion of 2070 kg/m3, 26o and
cohesion of 0.0 Pa, respectively)
friction angle of high plasticity clay as specified by
Ortiz et al. (1986, see FLAC 2008) and very close to
the laboratory measured residual friction angle of spoil
determined by Richards et al. (1981).
With mobilisation of failure in the basal zone or
foundation, undrained or partially drained conditions
could develop. In fully undrained conditions it would
be expected that the failure zone would exhibit no
frictional strength and apparent cohesion would pos-
sibly be slightly higher than measured in a drained
state. The LE model was tested with undrained
properties in the foundation and drained properties in
the spoil. Cohesive strength of the Black cotton soil in
these conditions determined to achieve a FoS = 1 is
100 kPa, Table 4.
4.1.2 Sensitivity Study
The sensitivity of the FoS to variation in foundation
friction and cohesion properties has been investigated,
Fig. 8. In this study, the cohesion has been varied from
0 to 16 kPa at 6 friction angle whereas the friction
angle has been varied from 0 to 12 at cohesion of
123
Geotech Geol Eng
8 kPa. It was found that variation in the friction angle
has a significantly greater influence on stability than
variation in cohesion.
4.2 Continuum Analysis
Continuum methods such as, finite element and finite
difference methods allow consideration of a variety of
factors that influence the distribution of stresses and
strains within the modelled domain. These include
excavation and construction forces, non-linear stress–
strain relationships including the failure in shear or
tension of the bulk material, strain localisation and
movement on joints or planes of weakness.
In this study the 2D (plane strain) explicit finite
difference code FLAC (2008) has been used. FLAC
solves Newton’s second law of motion to derive new
velocities and displacements from stresses and forces
with an explicit time stepping scheme. Using suitable
material constitutive behaviour, new stresses and
displacements are calculated for each element and
grid point. A built in failure criteria available in
FLAC, the softening Mohr–Coulomb model is suit-
able for the spoil and black cotton soil, with cohesion
Geotech Geol Eng

Table 4 Back analysed properties of LE model with founda- and friction reducing from peak to residual values over
tion represented a defined plastic strain increment as presented in
Unit weight Cohesion Cohesion Friction Table 5.
drained undrained angle () A numerical model of Mine A OB dump is created
(kPa) (kPa) and analysed under gravitational load with roller
Spoil 2,070 30 – 37 boundaries specified on the base and two sides, Fig. 9.
Black 1,700 8 100 6 The model is analysed in large strain mode updating
Cotton nodal positions with predicted deformations however
soil (9 m) eventually distortion of the numerical mesh results in
Bed rock 2,300 1,000 – 35 numerical instability. At this stage the model is
remeshed with existing stresses, velocities and

Fig. 7 Limiting equilibrium analysis of dump No 1 failure. Model with 9 m of clay with properties Coh = 8 kPa, / = 6, FoS = 1.0

123
 Geotech Geol Eng

Fig. 8 Sensitivity of FoS to

variations in foundation clay
cohesion and friction angle

Table 5 Strength properties for continuum analysis of Mine A

Unit Cohesion (kPa) Cohesion at initiation Peak friction Residual friction Friction angle at
of failure (kPa) angle () angle () initiation of failure ()

Spoil 30.0 23.0 32 27 25.5

Black cotton soil 10.0 7.5 17 6 12.5
Bedrock 1,000.0 35 35

displacements transferred to a new, regularised mesh
and the analysis is continued. This approach allows the
initial toe failure to develop and extend to the linear
rupture planes defining the active and passive wedges.
Results from the numerical modelling predict that
failure is initiated at the toe of the dump at the same
location as the minimum FoS predicted from the initial
circular LEM studies. With initial (peak) material
properties and the strength reduction method (FLAC
2008, for calculation of the FoS), the predicted
strength at initiation of failure in the foundation is
12.5 and 25.5 in the spoil as shown in the Table 5.
With failure and mobilisation of the toe, modelling
predicts that a linear zone of high shear strain develops
in the foundation and forming the escarpment plane of
the active failure block, Fig. 9. With further move-
ment of the failed spoil mass the model predicts the
development of the active and passive blocks
identified in Richards et al. (1981), Rosengren et al.
(2010) and Simmons (2013).
4.3 Run-out Analysis
Once the failure initiation method has been understood
from the above analysis, the post-failure motion of the
landslide is modelled by the program DAN-W (Hungr
et al. 2002 and Hungr 1995). The premise of this
analysis is that, as a result of sliding or other failure, a
pre-defined volume of soil or rock flows, following a
path of defined direction and width. The flow model
implements a one-dimensional Lagrangian solution of
the equations of motion using one of several alterna-
tive rheological relationships.
The basic material input to DAN-W is the basal
friction angle. For this study the passive wedge, where
the failure surface transects the OB dump, is specified

123
Geotech Geol Eng

Fig. 9 Evolving shear

strain with failure of the
dump. The ultimate
movement of the dump toe
was predicted to be 40 m
achieved with remeshing the
model to accommodate
large strains. Spoil friction
angle 32–27 (peak -
residual) and Clay friction
angle 17–6 (peak -
residual)

Fig. 10 Initial undeformed model created in DAN-W

with a friction angle of 26. The active wedge which is
defined by the black cotton soil foundation is specified
with a basal friction angle of 8. Internal friction in
both cases is specified as 36 although this property
has limited effect in the analysis. With these properties
the code estimates a run-out distance of approximately
70 m as shown in Figs. 10 and 11.
For alternative dumps on this site, the calibrated
properties of the foundation and OB material could be
expected to be similar and can be represented by basal
friction angles of 26 and 8 respectively. Studies are then
undertaken for the alternative built geometric attributes of
the dumps. Run-out distances are estimated and the risk to
existing infrastructure is thereby quantified.

123

Fig. 11 Final deformed model predicting a run-out distance of 70 m
Fig. 12 Postulated failure mechanics of dump No 1
5 Discussion of OB Dump Failure
The kinematics of OB dump number 1 failure at
Mine A in India is presented in Fig. 12. It is
observed that an active wedge is formed by a high
angle (app. 60) failure plane dipping in the same
direction as the dump free face. This failure plane
intersected the dump surface approximately 55 m
from the designed dump lip. A lower angle failure
plane dipping away from the face forms the active
wedge and separates the two blocks in motion. This
second failure plane intersects the face at the upper
(of three) benches. Translation of the passive block
is observed at a distance of approximately 30–40 m
with run-out extending the observed distance of
failed spoil to 70 m.
It is probable that sliding of the passive block
took place on the clay dominated black cotton soil.
The alternate possible failure plane is through the
material forming the base of the dump given the
123
Geotech Geol Eng
probability of swelling clays within the spoil.
However because of the observed foundation heave
at the dump toe, failure through the soil foundation
is considered more likely, but needs further inves-
tigation to be definitive.
Computer modelling suggests the failure may have
initiated towards the toe with a circular shear failure
daylighting at the second or third bench, Fig. 9. This
initial failure may have initiated the larger failure of
the eastern dump face, Fig. 9.
The modelling suggests that the stability of the dump
is sensitive to the properties of the Black Cotton soils
comprising the dump foundation. Similarly, sensitivity
studies suggest that the frictional strength of these soils is
critical and failure of the toe may initiate if the
foundation frictional angle reduced to 12.5. With
initiation of failure it is possible that bulk movement of
the spoil resulted in a build-up of pore pressures resulting
in a further reduction of frictional strength. Studies of the
fully undrained state (friction of 0) imply that the
Geotech Geol Eng
apparent cohesive strength of the foundation would need
to be greater than 100 kPa to maintain stability.
At the location of dump number 1 failure, the
foundation is 9–10 m thick of medium to high
plasticity clay dominated soils; however it is worth-
while to note that the thickness of the black cotton soil
could vary widely at the site. The OB dump failure
resulted in spoil sliding on this foundation due to the
low residual friction angle that was mobilised by strain
in the probable presence of moisture.
6 Conclusion
Open cast OB dumps may be located in pit or external
to direct mining operations. In either case the stability
analysis of the dumps are similar and must consider
the possibility of failure of both the dump and the
foundation. Clay rich soils and rocks are common in
sedimentary units and may be present in the dump
foundation or the dump itself.
Numerical methods including limiting equilibrium
and finite difference methods are used to give insights
into dump stability. It has been found that the residual
friction angle of the material comprising the dump
structural unit dominates stability. Mobilisation of
residual strength can occur by operational induced
strains and/or the presence of water.
This study of Mine A OB dump instability indicated
that first the shear strength of the foundation black
cotton soil was fully mobilised and provided a slip
surface for the overlying dump material. The resultant
failure is manifest as a bilinear wedge movement of
two ridged blocks defined by linear rupture planes.
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