Basic Machine Tools Course Contents and Cutting Tool Fundamentals

BASIC MACHINE TOOLS
Course Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of cutting tools
1.3 Orthogonal & oblique cutting
1.4 Mechanics of chip formation
1.5 Types of chip
1.6 Chip breakers
1.7 Cutting tool nomenclature
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

1. Basic Machine Tools Manufacturing Processes I (2131903)
1.1 Introduction
− In the metal working industry workpieces of most different shapes and dimensions
and of different materials are worked.
− The various working processes fall into two groups, the group of non - cutting
shaping, e.g. forging, pressing, drawing etc. and that of cutting shaping by which
finish surface of desired shape and dimension is obtained by separating a layer from
the parent workpiece in the form of chips, e.g. turning, drilling, milling, etc.
1.2 Types of cutting tools

− A cutting tool may be used either for cutting apart, as with a knife, or for removing
chips. Parts are produced by removing metal mostly in the form of small chips.
− Chips removal in the metal cutting process may be performed either by cutting tools
having distinct cutting edges or by abrasives used in grinding wheel, abrasive sticks,
abrasive cloth, etc.
− These abrasives have a very large number if hard grains with sharp edges which
remove metal from the workpiece surface in such operations as grinding.
− All cutting tools can be divided into groups.
1. Single point tools
2. Multi point tools
− Single point cutting tools having a wedge like action find a wide application on
lathes, and slotting machines.
− Multi point cutting tools are merely two or more single point cutting tools arranged
as a unit. The milling cutter and broaching tool are good example of this type.
− The simplest form of cutting tool is the single point tool. The cutting process as
performed by multi point tools closely resembles machining as performed by single
point tools.
1.3 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

− The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool are the orthogonal
or two - dimensional, and the oblique or three - dimensional.
− Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tool is 90o to the line of
action or path of tool. If, however, the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than
90o to the path of tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.
− Orthogonal and oblique cutting action are illustrated in Fig 1.1, which shows two
bars receiving identical cuts.
Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 1.2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Manufacturing Processes I (2131903
2131903) 1. Basic Machine Tools
− The depth of cut is the same in both cases, and so is the feed, but the force which
cuts or shears the metal acts on a larger area in the case of the oblique tool.
Fig 1.1 Orthogonal and oblique cutting
− The oblique tool will,

ll, thus, have a longer life as the heat developed per unit area due
to friction along the tool - workpiece interface is considerably small.
− Alternatively, the oblique tool will remove the more metal in the same life as an
orthogonal tool.
− In orthogonal cutting, where the cutting edge of the tool is at right angle to the
direction of the work, the chip coils in a tight, flat spiral while in oblique cutting,
where the cutting edge of the tool is inclined at the angle the chip flows sideways in
a long curl.
− Orthogonal cutting in the machine shop is confined mainly to such operations as

knife turning, broaching and slotting, the bulk of machining being done by oblique
cutting.
1.4 Mechanics of chip formation

− As shown in Fig 1.2 the tool is considered stationary, and the workpiece moves to
the right. The metal is severely compressed in the area in front of the cutting tool.
− This causes high temperature shear and plastic flow if the metal is ductile.
− When the stress in the workpiece just ahead of the cutting tool reaches
reaches a value
exceeding the ultimate strength of the metal
metal,, particles will shear to form a chip
element which moves up along the face of work.
− The outward or shearing movement of each successive element is arrested by work

hardening and the movement transferred to the next element.
− The process is repetitive and a continuous chip is formed having a highly compressed
and burnished underside, a minutely serrated top side caused by the shearing action.

− The place along which the element shears is called th

the shear plane.
Fig 1.2 Shear plane in metal cutting
− Thus the chip is formed by plastic deformation of the grain structure of the metal
along the shear plane as shown in Fig. 1.2.
1.5 Types of chip
− The form and dimension of a chip in metal machining indicateindicatess the nature and
quality of a particular machining process, but the type of chip formed is greatly
influenced by the properties of material cut and various cutting conditions.
− In engineering manufacture particularly in metal machining processes hard brittle

metals have a very limited use, and ductile metals are mostly used. Chips of ductile
metals are removed by varying proportions of tear, shear and flow. This results in
three general types of shapes.
1. The discontinuous or segmental form.
2. The continuous
us or ribbon type.
3. The continuous with built - up edge.
− Discontinuous or segmental chips consist of elements fractured into fairly small

pieces ahead of the cutting tool.
1 – Shear plane
Fig 1.3 Basic chip forms

Manufacturing Processes I (2131903) 1. Basic Machine Tools
− This type of chip is obtained in machining most brittle material, such as cast iron and
bronze. These materials rupture during plastic deformation, and form chips as
separate small pieces.
− As these chips are produced, the cutting edge smoothes over the irregularities and
fairly good surface finish is obtained. Tool life is also reasonably good and power
consumption is low.
− Discontinuous chips can also be formed on some ductile metals only under certain
conditions particularly at very low speeds and if the coefficient of friction is low.
With ductile metals, however the surface finish is bad and the tool life is short.
− Conditions tending to promote its formation include: brittle metal, greater depth of
cut, low cutting speed and small rake angle.
− Continuous chips consist of element bonded firmly together without being

fractured.
− Underside of continuous chip has small notches while the lower side, which slides
over the tool face, is smooth and shiny.
− The continuous form is considered most desirable for low friction at the tool chip
interface, lower power consumption, long tool life and good surface finish.
− Factor favorable to its formation are: ductile metal, such as mild steel, copper, etc.,
fine feed, high cutting speed, large rake angle, keen cutting edge, smooth tool face
and an efficient lubrication system.
− The term built up edge implies the building up of a ridge of metal on the top surface
of the tool and above the cutting edge.
− It appears that, when the cut is started in ductile metals, a pile of compressed and
highly stressed metal forms at the extreme edge of the tool.
− Owing to the high heat and pressure generated there, this piled up metal is welded
to the cutting tip and forms a ‘false’ cutting edge to the tool.
− This is usually referred to as the ‘built up edge’.
− Conditions tending to promote the formation of built up edges include: low cutting
speed, low rake angle, high feed, lack of cutting fluid and large depth of cut.
1.6 Chip breakers
− A continuous type chip form a long cut is usually quite troublesome.

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.5
− Such chips foul the tools; cl

clutter
utter up the machine and workplace, besides being
extremely difficult to remove from the swarf tray.
− They should be broken into comparatively small pieces for ease of handling and to
prevent it from becoming a work hazard, hence the chip breakers are used to reduce
the swarf into small pieces as they are formed.
− The fact that the metal is already work hardened helps the chip breaker to perform
effectively.
− Various types of chip breakers are made, but all of them consist mainly of a step or
groove ground into the leading edge of the tool or a piece of cutting tool material
clamped on top of the cutting tool.
Fig 1.4 Chip breakers
− In normal shop practice common methods of breaking the chips are summarized as
follows:
1. By clamping a piece of sheet metal in the path of the coil.
2. By a stepped type breaker in which a step is ground on the face of the tool along
the cutting edge.
3. By a groove type breaker in whic
which
h a small groove is ground behind the cutting
edge.
4. By a clamp type breaker in which a thin carbide plate or clamp is brazed or
screwed on the face of the tool.
1.7 Cutting tool nomenclature

− Cutting tool nomenclature means systematic naming of the various parts
part and angles
of a cutting tool. The surfaces on the point of a tool bear definite relationship to
each other that are defined by angles.
− The complete nomenclatures of the various parts of a single point tool are: shank,
face, flank, heel, nose, base, back rake, side rake, side clearance, end cutting edge,
wide cutting edge and lip angle. These elements define the shape of the tool.
− The shank is that portion of the tool bit which is not ground to form cutting edges
and is rectangular in cross - section.

2131903) 1. Basic Machine Tools
− The face of the cutting tool is that surface against which the chip sides upward.
− The flank of a cutting tool is that surface which faces the workpiece.
− The heel of a single point tool is the lowest portion of the side cutting edges.
− The nose of a tool is the conjunction of the side and end cutting edges. A nose radius
increases the tool life and improves surface finish.
− The base of a tool is the underside of the shank.
Fig 1.5 Tool nomenclature and tool angles

− The rake is the slope of the top away from the cutting edge. Back rake indicates that
the plane which forms the face or top of a tool has been ground back at an angle
sloping from the nose.
− Side rake indicates that the plane that forms the face or top of a tool h
has been
ground back at an angel sloping from the side cutting edge. Side rake is more
important than back rake for turning operations.
− The side clearance or side relief indicates that the plane that forms the flank or side
of a tool has been ground back at an angel sloping down form the side cutting edge.
− The end clearance or end relief indicates that the nose or end of a tool has been
ground back at an angle sloping dow
down from the end cutting edges.
− The end cutting edge angle indicates that the plane which forms the end of a tool
has been ground back at an angle sloping form the nose to the side of the shank.

− The side cutting edge angle indicates that the plane which forms the flank or side for
a tool has been ground back at an angle to the side of the shank. In the main, chips
are removed by this cutting edge.
− The lip or cutting angle is the included angle when the tool has been ground wedge
shaped.
− The tool signature is a sequence of numbers listing the various angles, in degrees and
size of the nose radius. This numerical method of identification has been
standardized by the American Standard Association.
− The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting tools are
always stated in the following order: back rake angle and nose radius. Thus a tool
with a shape specified as
8 - 14 - 6 - 6 - 6 - 15 - 4
− 8o back rake, 14o side rake, 6o end relief, 6o side relief, 6o end cutting edge and
15o side cutting edge angles, and 4 mm nose radius.

THE LATHE MACHINE
Course Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Function of lathe
2.3 Types of lathe
2.4 Size of lathe
2.5 Construction of lathe
2.6 Lathe accessories
2.7 Lathe Operations
2.8 Alignment of lathe
2.9 Difference between center
lathe and turret lathe
2.10 Difference between Capstan
lathe and turret lathe
2.11 Turret indexing mechanism
2.12 Bar feeding mechanism
Department
nt of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya
2. The Lathe Manufacturing Processes - I (2131903)
2.1 Introduction
− The Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the
world. It is commonly known as the mother of all the machine tool.
− In the year 1797 Henry Maudslay, an Englishman, designed the first screw cutting lathe
which is forerunner of the present day high speed, heavy duty production lathe, a
machine tool which has practically given shape to our present day by building
machines and industries.
2.2 Function of lathe

− The main function of lathe is to remove material from the workpiece to give it the
required shape and size.
− This is accomplished by holding the workpiece securely on the machine and then
turning it against the tool which will remove the material from the workpiece.
− To cut the material properly the tool should be harder than the workpiece material,
should be rigidly held on the machine and should be fed in a definite way relative to
the workpiece.
2.3 Types of lathe

− Lathes are manufactured in a variety of types and sizes, from very small bench
lathesused for precision work to huge lathes used for turning large steel shafts. But the
principleof operation and function of all types of lathes is same.
− The different types of lathes are:
1. Speed Lathe 3. Bench lathe
A. Wood working 4. Tool room lathe
B. Centering 5. Capstan & Turret lathe
C. Polishing 6. Special purpose lathe
D. spinning A. Wheel lathe
2. Engine Lathe B. Gap bed lathe
A. Belt drive C. T – lathe
B. Individual motor drive D. Duplicating lathe
C. Gear drive 7. Automatic lathe
2.3.1 Speed lathe

− Speed lathe is the simplest type of lathe. It consists of bed, headstock, tailstock and
tool post. There is no feed box, lead screw or carriage.

Manufacturing Processes - I (2131903) 2.The Lathe
− Tool is mounted on the tool post and is fed into work purely by hand control.Due to
this characteristic of lathe enables the designer to give high speeds range from 1200 to
3600 r.p.m.
− The headstock construction is very simple and only two or three speeds are available.
− The “speed lathe” has been so named because of the very high speed of the spindle
speed.It is mainly used for wood working, spinning, centering and polishing etc.
2.3.2 Engine lathe
− It is the most common types of lathe and is widely used in workshop.
− Similar to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has got all the basic parts, e.g. bed,
headstock and tailstock. But the headstock of an engine lathe is much more robust in
construction and it contains mechanism for multiple speeds.
− The cutting tool may be fed both in cross and longitudinal direction with reference to
the lathe axis with the help of carriage.
− Engine lathes are classified according to the method of power transmission to the
machine.
2.3.3 Bench lathe
− It is usually mounted on a bench.
− It has practically all the parts of an engine lathe and it performs all the operations, its
only difference being in the size. This is used for small and precise work.
2.3.4 Tool room lathe
− A tool room lathe having features similar to anengine lathe and is much more accurate
and has wide range of speed from vary low to 2500 r.p.m.
− It is used for manufacturing precision components, dies, tools, jigs etc. and hence it is
called as tool rom lathe.
2.3.5 Capstan & Turret lathe
− These lathes have provision to hold a number of tools and can be used for performing
wider range of operations.
− These are particularly suitable for mass production of identical parts in minimum time.
2.3.6 Special purpose lathe
− They are used for special purposes and for jobs which cannot be accommodated or
conveniently machined on a standard lathe.
− Wheel lathe is used to produce locomotive wheels.
− Gap bed lathe is used for machining extra-large diameter workpiece.

− T – Lathe is used for machining of rotors for jet engines.

− Duplicating lathe is used for duplicating the shape of a flat or round template on to
the workpiece.
2.3.7 Automatic lathe
− These are high speed, heavy duty, mass production lathes with complete automatic
control. Once the tools are set and the machine is started it performs all the
operations to finish the job.
− The changing of tools, speeds and feeds are also done automatically.
2.4 Size of lathe

− The size of a lathe is expressed by the following items and shown in Fig 2.1:
A – Swing over bed, B – Distance between centers, C – Gap

Fig 2.1 Lathe size
− The height of the centersmeasured from the lathe bed.
− The swing diameter over bed is the largest diameter of workpiece that will revolve
withouttouching the bed and is twice the height of the center measured from the bed
of the lathe.
− The length between centers is the maximum length of the workpiece that can be
mounted between two centers.
− The swing diameter over carriage is the largest diameter of workpiece that will
revolve over the saddle, and is always less than the swing diameter over bed.
− The maximum bar diameter is the maximum diameter of bar stock that will pass
through hole of the headstock spindle.
− The length of bed indicates the approximate floor space occupied by the lathe.
− Other important particulars to specify the lathe are width of the bed, depth of the
bed, depth and width of gap if gap bed lathe, swing over gap. Spindle nose diameter,
center taper, Morse number and range of spindle speeds, number of feeds pitch of
lead screw etc.

2.5 Construction of lathe

− Fig. 2.2 illustrates the basic parts of a center lathe
Fig 2.2 Lathe parts

− Following are the principal parts of center lathe:
1. Bed 4. Carriage
2. Headstock 5. Feed mechanism
3. Tailstock 6. Screw cutting mechanism
2.5.1 The Bed

− The lathe bed forms the base of the machine. The headstock and the tailstock are
mounted on lathe bed and the carriage rests over the lathe bed.
− For accurate machining work, must satisfy the following conditions:
A. It should be sufficiently rigid to prevent deflection under tremendous cutting
pressure transmitted through the tool-post and carriage to the lathe bed.
B. It must be massive with sufficient depth and width to absorbvibration.
C. It must resist the twisting stress set updue to the resultant of two forces- the
downward cutting force on the tooland the force tending to move thetool away
from the workpiece in ahorizontal direction.
D. The bed should be seasoned naturally to avoid distortion or warp that maydevelop
when it is cooled after thebed is cast.

− On the top of the bed there are two sets of slides or guideways.
A. Outer guideways
B. Inner guideways
− Outer guideways provide bearing and sliding surfaces for the carriage, and the Inner
guideways for the tailstock.
1 – Inverted – V bedways, 2 – Flat bedways, 3 – Rack, 4 – Box section, 5 – flat bedways for
saddle
Fig 2.3 Types of lathe bedways
1 – Diagonal rib, 2 – Bedways

Fig 2.4 Lathe bed diagonal ribs
− The guideways of the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V having an included angle of
90o.
− The wide flat guideways provide a large bearing surface. This bearing surface requires
particular care and attention to keep it clean and perfectly smooth.
− The inverted V type guideways provide better guide for carriage and tailstock, ensure
accurate alignment and are unaffected by wear.
− Both V and flatways are more commonly used to combine the advantages of both the
types.
− The bed material should have high compressive strength, should be wear resistant and
absorb vibration.
− Material: Cast iron, Cast iron with nickel and chromium.

2.5.2 TheHeadstock
1 –Threaded end,2 – Taper sleeve, 3 – Live center, 4 – Threaded nose, 5 – Spindle hole
Fig 2.5 Headstock spindle
− The headstock is permanently mounted on the innerways at the left side of the lathe
bed. It provides the rotating of workpiece at multiple speeds.
− The headstock spindle is shown in Fig 2.5, is made of carbon or nickel chrome steel.
This is usually of a large diameter to avoid bending and it should be perfectly aligned
for accurate machining.
− The long bar or work holding devices to pass through, the headstock spindle is made
hollow.
− There are common two types of spindle noses: Threaded nosewhich carries the chuck,
driving plate and face plate, and Flanged nosewhich enable them to be directly
attached. The lathe most commonly used has a threaded spindle nose.
2.5.3 Tailstock
Fig 2.6 Tailstock of center lathe

− The tailstock is located on the iinerways at right hand end of the bed.
− Main uses of tailstock:
A. It supports the other end of workpiece when it is being machined between two
centers.
B. It holds atool for performing operations like drilling, reaming, tapping etc.

− The tailstock may be adjusted as length of workpiece is different or vary by clamping

of bolts.
− Upper casting of body can be moved away from the operator by means of offseting
the tailstock for taper turning.
− The body is bored to act as the barrel which carries tailstock spindle which can be
moves in and out of barrel by means of handwheel.
− The front of the spindle has taper hole into which dead center or tools are mounted.
− Other features of tailstock are graduated spindles and micrometer dials on handwheel
for accurate length setting.
2.5.4 Carriage
− The carriage of lathe has several parts that to support, move and control the cutting
tool.
− It consists of the following parts:
A. Saddle D. Tool post
B. Cross slide E. Apron
C. Compound slide
A. Saddle
− The saddle is an H – shaped casting that fits over the bed and slides along the ways.
− It carries the cross slide and tool post. Some attachments are generally provided for
locking the saddle to prevent any movement when surfacing operations are carried
out.
B. Cross slide
− Cross slide is a casting and attached to the saddle and carries tool post and compound
slide.
− Cross slide is attached to the saddle at right angles to the center axis of the lathe.
− When taper turning attachment is used, the binder screw is opened to disconnect the
cross slide from the cross feed screw.
− Micrometer dials may be fitted on cross slide so that a known amount of feed can be
applied.
C. Compound slide
− The compound rest or compound slide is mounted on the top of cross slide and has a
circular base in degrees.
− It is used for obtaining angular cuts and short tapers.

− By loosening of two set screws, rest may be swiveled to any angle within circle.
− There is no power feed to the compound rest and it is hand operated.
− The compound slide handle is also equipped with micrometer dial to determining the
depth of cut.
1 – Tool post screw, 2 – Tool post, 3 – Rocker, 4 – Tool, 5 – Concave ring, 6 – Compound rest
swivel base, 7 – Cross feed screw, 8 – Binder screw, 9 – Cross slide, 10 – Cross slide nut, 11 –
Saddle, 12 – Pinion on Cross feed screw for automatic feed, 13 – Cross slide hand wheel, 14 –
Compound slide hand wheel, 15 – Compoundslide feed screw, 16 – Compound rest, 17 –
Compound slide nut.
Fig 2.7 Carriage
D. Tool post
− This is located on the top of compound rest to hold the tool and able to be adjusted to
a convenient working position.
− The type and mounting of tool post depends on the class of work for which it is to be
used.
− Following are the common types of tool post:
1. Single screw tool post 3. Open side tool post
2. Four bolt tool post 4. Four way tool post
A. Single screw tool post

− This tool post consists of a round bar with slotted hole in the center for fixing the tool
by means of set screw.
− The height can be adjusted by tightening of rocker and clamping it in bye set screw.
− The tool post is not rigid enough for heavy work as only one clamping screw is used to
clamp the tool. The tool post can be swiveled about the vertical axis.

1 – Toolpost screw, 2 – Toolpost body, 3 – Tool, 4 – Convex rocker, 5 – Concave ring

Fig 2.8 Single screw tool post
B. Four bolt tool post
− The tool is held in position by two straps and four bolts.
− Loose coil springs are fitted to each bolt to keep the straps in place and greatly
facilitate the setting up of the tools.
− Adjustment for tool height can be made by using parallel packing strips under the
tools.
1 – Tool, 2 – Coil spring, 3 – Strap, 4 – Fulcrum block

Fig 2.9 Four bolt tool post
− This type of tool post is support for either single or double tool setup.
− The tool post does not swivel itself and setting of tool in any angle is effected by
adjustment of compound slide.
C. Open side tool post
− Tool is held quite independent of main fixing bolt and clamped in position by two set
screws.
− The height of cutting point can be adjusted by using parallel packing strips.
− Tool post slide can be swiveled to any desired position after loosening of central bolt.

1 – Set screw, 2 – Central clamping bolt, 3 – Clamping bolt handle, 4 – Tool

Fig 2.10 Open side tool post
D. Four way tool post
− In this type of tool post four sides are open to accommodate four tools at a time.
− The tool is held in position by separate screws and locking bolt is located at the
centers.
1 – Clamping handle, 2 – Central locking bolt, 3 – Set screws, 4 – Tool

Fig 2.11 Four way tool post
− Tools are fitted in proper sequence of operation ant by indexing the tool post through
90oany one of tools may be fed into the work.
− This type of tool post is used in moderately heavy lathes and suitable for repetition
work.
E. Apron
− Apron is located to saddle and hangs over the front of bed.
− It contains gears, clutches and levers for operating by hand and power feeds. Friction
clutch is useful for automatic feeds.
− Split nut, which engage when cutting of internal or external threads.

2.5.5 Feed Mechanism

− It is employed for imparting various feeds (longitudinal, cross and angular) to the
cutting tool.
− It consists of feed reverse lever, reversing mechanism, change gears, feed gear box,
quick change gear box, lead screw, feed rod, apron mechanism and half nut
mechanism.
2.5.6 Screw Cutting Mechanism
1 – Cam slot, 2 – Frame, 3 – Lead screw, 4 – Hand lever, 5 – Pin, 6 – Circular plate,
7 – Half nuts
Fig 2.12 Half nut mechanism
− The rotation of the lead screw is used to transverse the tool along the work to
produce screw thread.
− The half-nut mechanism makes the carriage to engage or disengage with the lead
screw. It comprises a pair of half nuts capable of moving in or out of mesh with the
lead screw.
− The two halves of the nut are connected in the cam slots in a circular disc by two pins.
When the disc is rotated by a hand lever attached to it, the pins being guided in the
cam slots serve to open or close the split nuts and thus engages or disengages with
the lead screw.

2.6 Lathe accessories and attachments

− Lathe accessories include centers, catch plates and carriers, chucks, collets, face plates,
angle plates, mandrels and rests.
− They are used either for holding and supporting the work or for holding the tool.
− Attachments are additional equipment used for specific purpose. They include taper
turning, milling, grinding, gear cutting attachments etc.
2.6.1 Lathe centers
− Most common method of holding the workpiece in lathe is between the two centers –
Live center and Dead center.
− These centers take up thrust due to metal cutting and entire load of the workpiece on
small bearing surface. So they are made of very hard materials to resist deflection and
wear.
− The included angle of center is usually 60o for general purpose and 75o for heavy work.
Shank of the centers are machined to Morse (0 to 6) or Metric (4 and 6) standard
taper.
A – Ordinary center, B – Ball center, C – frictionless center 1 – Insert type center 2

– Nut 3 – Roller bearing 4 – Thrust Bearing 5 – Housing, D – Half center, E – Tipped
center 1 – Brazed tip, F – Insert type center 1 – Insert, G – Pipe center, H – Use of half
center 1 –Half center 2 – Facing tool
Fig 2.13 Lathe centers
− Ordinary centeris the type used for most general work.

− Tipped center, the point consists of hard alloy tip brazed into ordinary steel shank. This
is more expensive type of center, which will give excellent service against wear and
strain.
− Ball centeris used to minimize wear and strain.
− Half center,this construction facilitate facing of bar without removal of center.
− Insert type center is used for reasons of economy as only the high speed steel “insert”
can be replaced instead of replacing the whole center.
− Frictionless center is always used in tailstock for supporting heavy workpiece revolving
at high speed.
− Pipe center is used for supporting open end pipes, shells, etc. for thread cutting or
turning on lathe.
2.6.2 Carriers and catch plates
− Carriers and catch plates are used to drive a workpiece when it is held between two
centers.
− Carriers or driving dogs are attached to the end of workpiece by a set screw, and catch
plates are either screwed or bolted to the nose of the head stock spindle.
2.6.3 Chucks
− A chuck is one of the most important device for holding and rotating a workpiece in a
lathe.
− Workpieces of short length and large diameter or irregular shape which cannot be
conveniently mounted between centers are held quickly and rigidly in a chuck.
− A chuck is attached to the lathe spindle by means of bolts with back plate screwed to
the spindle nose.
− The different types of chucks are:
A. Four jaw independent chuck E. Collet chuck
B. Three jaw universal chuck F. Air or hydraulic operated chuck
C. Combination chuck G. Drill chuck
D. Magnetic chuck
A. Four jaw independent chuck
− Four jaw independent chuck has four jaws which may be made to slide within the slots
provided in the body of chuck for gripping different size of the workpiece.
− Each jaw may be moved independently by rotating the screw.
− Each jaw made of tough steel has three inner and one outer gripping surface. Outer
gripping surface is used for holding large size workpiece by reversing of the jaw.

− This chuck is particularly used in setting up of heavy and irregular shaped workpiece.
The diameter of the body specifies the size of the chuck.
1 – Concentric circle, 2 – Chuck body, 3 – Jaw screw, 4 – jaw, 5 – Gripping surface, 6

– Recess for back plate
Fig 2.14 Four jaw independent chuck
B. Universal or self-centering chuck
1 –Bevel pinion, 2 – Scroll disk, 3 – Bevel teeth on scroll disc, 4 – Chuck body, 5 – Jaw
Fig 2.15 Universal chuck
− In three jaw universal chuck all the jaws may be made to slide simultaneously by an
equal amount within the slots provide on body.
− By rotating any one of them pinion which meshes with teeth cut on underside of the
scroll disk. When the disc is rotate by any one of pinions, all the jaws move backward
or forward by equal amount.
− The chuck is suitable for holding round, hexagonal and any other similar shaped
workpieces and the job is centered automatically.
− It has less gripping capacity as only three jaws are used and centering accuracy is soon
lost due to wear.

C. Combination chuck
1 – Chuck body, 2 – Frame, 3 – Screw, 4 – Jaw, 5 - Scroll

Fig 2.16 Combination chuck
− As the name implies a combination chuck may be used both as a self
self-centering
centering and
independent chuck to take advantages of both the types.
− The jaws may be operated individually by separate screws or simultaneously by scroll
disc.
− The screwss mounted on frame have teeth cut on its underside which meshes with
scroll and all the jaws move radially.
D. Magnetic chuck
1 – Workpiece, 2 – Nonmagn
Nonmagnetic material, 3 – Keepers, 4 –Face
Face plate, 5 - Magnet
Fig 2.17 Principle of magnetic chuck
− The chuck is used for holding a very thin workpiece made of magnetic material which
cannot be held in an ordinary chuck.
− It is also used where any distortion of the workpiece due to high pressure of jaws is
undesirable.
− The holding power is developed by magnetic flux radiating either from electromagnets
or from the permanent magnets within the chuck.

− In the ON position the flux passes through the workpiece and grips it. In OFF position
“keepers” short circuit the path of flux and cannot pass through the workpiece.
E. Collet chuck
1 – Bearing, 2 – Spindle, 3 – Nut, 4 – Key, 5 – Chuck, 6 – Collet

Fig 2.18 Collet chuck
− Collet chucks are used for holding bar stock in production
work where quick setting and accurate centering is needed.
− The chuck is attached to the spindle by a nut consists of thin
cylindrical bushing known as “collet”.
− The inside bore of collet may be cylindrical, hexagonal, square
etc. depending on the shape of the workpiece.
− The outside surface of collet which is tapered fir in taper hole on
the body of chuck.
− Different sizes of collets are used for holding different size of
bar stock.
F. Air or hydraulic operated chuck
− This type of chuck is used in mass production work for its fast and effective gripping
capacity.
− In mechanism, a hydraulic cylinder is mounted at the back end of headstock spindle
and rotates with it.
− The movement of piston is transmitted to the jaws by a connecting rod and links and
the jaws grip the workpiece securely.

1 – Cylinder, 2 – Air Passage, 3 – Headstock spindle, 4 – Piston, 5 – Valves, 6 – Piston

rod, 7 – Link, 8 – Jaw, 9 – Guide, 10 – sliding unit
Fig 2.19 Air operated chuck
G. Drill chuck
− Drill chuck is sometimes used in a lathe for holding straight
shank drill, reamer and tap for drilling, reaming and tapping
operation.
− The chuck may be held either in headstock or tailstock spindle.
− It has self-centering jaws which may be operated by a rotating
key.
2.6.4 Face plate
− Face plate consists of a circular bored out and threaded to fit the nose of lathe spindle.
− This has radial, plain and T – slots for holding workpiece by bolts and clamps.
Fig 2.20 Face plate

− Face plates are used for holding workpieces which cannot be conveniently held
between centers and by chuck.
2.6.5 Angle plate
− This is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to make them absolutely at right
angles to each other.

1 – Face plate, 2 – Balance weight, 3 – Elbow pipe, 4 – Clamping nut for elbow pipe, 5 –
Angle plate, 6 – clamping nut for angle plate
Fig 2.21Angle plate
− Holes and slots are provided on both faces so that it may be clamped on a faceplate
and can hold the workpiece.
− Angle plates are used in conjunction with a face plate when the holding surface of
workpiece should keep horizontal.
− When eccentric job are bolted to face plate, a balanced weight is to be added.
2.6.6 Mandrels
− A mandrel is adevicefor holding and rotating a hollow workpiece that has been
previously drilled or bored.
− The workpiece revolves with mandrel which is mounted between two centers.
− To avoid distortion and wear it is made of high speed steel.
− The ends of mandrels are slightly smaller in diameter and flattened to provide
effective gripping surface.
− Different types of mandrels are used for specific requirement.
A. Plain mandrel
− This type of mandrel is most commonly used in shops and finds wide application
where a large number of identical pieces having standard size holes are required to be
mounted on it.
− The body of mandrel is slightly tapered, the difference in diameter being 1 to 2 mm
per 100 mm length.
− Length varies from 55 to 430 mm.

1 – Flattened end
Fig 2.22 Plain Mandrel
− The taper is provided for proper gripping of the workpiece.
− This type of mandrel is suitable for only one size of bore.
− For different sizes of holes in workpiece different mandrels are used.
B. Step mandrel
Fig 2.23 Step Mandrel

− A step mandrel having steps of different diameter may be employed to drive different
diameter sizes of hole without replacing the mandrel every time.
− This type of mandrel is suitable for turning collars, washers and odd sized jobs.
C. Collar mandrel
Fig 2.24 Collar Mandrel

− A collar mandrel having solid collars used for turning workpiece having holes of larger
diameter usually above 100 mm.
− This construction reduces weight and fits better than solid mandrel of equal size.
D. Screwed mandrel
− A screwed mandrel is threaded at one end with a collar.

Fig 2.25 Screwed Mandrel

− A workpiece having internal threads are screwed on to it against collar for machining.
− The size and type of thread used on the mandrel depends on the internal thread of
workpiece.
E. Cone mandrel
1 – Solid cone, 2 – Sliding cone, 3 – Nut

Fig 2.26 Cone Mandrel
− Cone mandrel consists of a solid
attached to the one end of body and
a sliding one which can be adjust by
turning a nut at a threaded end.
− This type of mandrel is suitable for
holding workpiece having different
hole diameter.
− Forcing the cone to much tightly open the workpiece may spoil its outer edge.
F. Gang mandrel
− This has a fixed collar at one end and a movable collar at the threaded end which may
be adjust to the position by a nut.
− This mandrel is used to set of hollow workpiece between to collars by tightly of nut.

1 – Fixed collar, 2 – Hollow workpieces, 3 – Moveable collar, 4 – Nut

Fig 2.27 Gang Mandrel
G. Expansion mandrel
− There are different types of expansion mandrels. The mandrel shown in figure 2.28
consists of tapered pin which is driven into sleeve that parallel outside and tapered
inside.
1 – Sleeve, 2 – Tapered pin

Fig 2.28 Expansion Mandrel
− The sleeve has three longitudinal slots, two of which are cut nearly through and third
splits completely.
− This construction is used to grip various workpiece with different hole diameter within
a limit and cannot held by an ordinary mandrel.
2.6.7 Rests
− Rest is a mechanical device which supports a long workpiece and putted in between
some intermediate point to prevent bending of workpiece due to its own weight and
vibrations.
− Rest should always use when length is 10 to 12 times the diameter of the workpiece.
− Rests provide great accuracy and permits heavy depth of cut on the workpiece.
− There are two types of rests
A. Steady rest B. Follower rest
A. Steady rest
− This consists of a cast iron base which may be made to slide on lathe bedways and
clamped to any position.

− This is so designed that the upper portion is hinged at one end which facilitate setting
and removal of workpiece without disturbing the rest.
Fig 2.29 Steady rest

− Three jaws on the steady rest, two on lower base and one on upper frame, may be
adjusted individually by the screw.
− The main function of steady rest is to provide support to long workpiece. For this
purpose more than one steady rest may be used to support the free end of the
workpiece.
− This is also used to support free end of long workpiece for drilling, boring, tapping etc.
− The carriage cannot be fed to full length of workpiece when steady rest is used.
B. Follower rest
Fig 2.30 Follower rest

− A follower rest consists of a ‘c’ like casting having two adjustable jaws which support
the workpiece.
− The rest is bolted to the back end of the carriage and move with it.

− Before setting the follower rest, the end of the workpiece is machined slightly wider
than jaw to provide the true bearing surface.
− The tool is fed slightly advanced then jaws as tool fed longitudinally by the carriage,
jaws follow the tool giving continuous support to the workpiece.
− This rest id useful where entire length of the workpiece is required to be turned
without disturbing the setting.
2.7 Lathe Operations

− In order to perform operations in lathe, workpiece may be supported and driven by
any one of the following methods.
1. Held between centers and driven by carriers and catch plates.
2. Held on mandrel which is supported between centers and driven by carriers and
catch plates.
3. Held and driven by chuck with the other end supported on the tailstock center.
4. Held and driven by a chuck or faceplate or an angle plate.
− Operation performed by holding the workpiece between centers or by chucks are:
1. Straight turning 8. Taper turning

2. Shoulder turning 9. Eccentric turning
3. Chamfering 10. Polishing
4. Thread turning 11. Grooving
5. Facing 12. Spinning
6. Knurling 13. Spring winding
7. Filing 14. Forming
− Operation performed by holding the workpiece by a chuck or a faceplate or an angle
plate are:
1. Drilling 6. Internal thread cutting
2. Reaming 7. Tapping
3. Boring 8. Undercutting
4. Counter boring 9. Parting off
5. Taper boring
− Operations performed by using special attachments are:
1. Grinding 2. Milling

2.7.1 Centering
− When work is required to be turned between centers or between a chuck and center,
conical shaped holes must be provided at the ends of the workpiece to provide
bearing surface for lathe centers.
− To prepare a cylindrical workpiece for centering, it is first necessary to locate the
center hole.
− Center holes are produced by using combined drill and counter shank tool.This is held
on drill chuck and may be mounted on headstock or in tail stock.
− The included angle of the hole should be exactly 60o to fit 60o point angle of lathe
center.
2.7.2 Turning
− Turning in a lathe is to remove excess amount of material from workpiece to produce
a cone shaped or a cylindrical surface.
− Rough turning is the process of removal of excess material from the workpiece in a
minimum time by applying high rate of feed and heavy depth of cut.
− The depth of cut for rough turning operation in average machine shop work is from 2
to 5 mm and rate of feed from 0.3 to 1.5 mm per revolution of workpiece.
Fig 2.31 rough turning Fig 2.32 Finish turning

− Finish turning operation requires high cutting speed, small feed, and a very small
depth of cut to generate a smooth surface.
− In finish turning operation depth of cut ranges from 0.5 to 1 mm and feed from 0.1 to
0.3 mm per revolution of the workpiece.
Fig 2.33 Shoulder turning

− When a workpiece having different diameters is turned, the surface forming the step
from one diameter to other is called shoulder, and a machining this part of the
workpiece is called shoulder turning.
− There are four kinds of shoulder: 1 – square shoulder, 2 – angular or beveled shoulder,
3 – radius shoulder and 4 – under cut shoulder.
− For square or beveled shoulder a right cut facing tool is used to finish the shoulder, a
round nose tool will produce radius shoulder and undercut shoulder may be
machining by using a parting tool.
2.7.3 Taper turning
− A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of workpiece
measured along its length.
− Where, D – Large diameter of taper
d – Small diameter of taper
l – Length of taper
α – Half angle of taper
Fig 2.34 Taper elements

− In a lathe taper turning means produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in
diameter.
− Tapering of part has wide application in construction of the machine. Almost all
machine spindles have taper holes which receive taper shank of various tool and work
holding devices.
− The amount of taper in the workpiece is usually specified by the ratio of the difference
in diameter of taper to its length. This is termed as conicity and is designated by ‘K’.
‫ܦ‬−݀
‫=ܭ‬
݈
− From fig 2.34, BC is drawn parallel to the axis and in the right angle triangle ABC.
‫ܦ‬−݀
‫= ܤܣ‬ & ‫݈ = ܥܤ‬
2
஺஻ ஽ିௗ ௄
Hence, ‫= ∝ ݊ܽݐ‬ = =
஻஼ ଶ௟ ଶ
Taper Turning Methods
− A taper may be produced in lathe by feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation
of the workpiece. There are basic five methods of taper turning as under.

A. By a broad nose form tool

B. By setting over the tailstock center
C. By swiveling the compound rest
D. By a taper turning attachment
E. By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe
A. Taper turning by a form tool
− A broad nose tool having straight cutting edge is set on to the workpiece at half taper
angle, end fed straight to the workpiece to generate tapered surface.
Fig 2.35 Taper turning by a form tool

− In this method the tool angle should be properly checked before use.
− This method is limited to turn short length of taper only.
− This is due to reason that the metal is removed by the entire cutting edge, and any
increase in length of taper will necessitate the use of wider cutting edge.
− This will require high cutting pressure, which may distort the workpiece due to
vibration and spoil the work surface.
B. Taper turning by setting over tail stock
− The principle of turning taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation of the
workpiece at an angle to the lathe axis, and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis.
− The angle at which the axis of rotation of the workpiece is shifted is equal to half taper
angle.
− This is done when the body of tailstock is made to slide on the base towards or away
from operator by setover screw.
− The amount of setover being limited, so this method is suitable for turning small taper
on the long workpiece.
− The main disadvantage of this method is that live and dead centers are not equally
stressed and wear is not uniform.

D – Large diameter of taper

d – Small diameter of taper
L – Length of workpiece
l – Length of taper
S – Setover
Fig 2.36 Taper turning by setover method

− The amount of setover required to machine a particular taper may be calculated as,
from the right angle triangle ABC in fig2.36
‫ܥܤ‬
‫= ∝ ݊݅ݏ‬
‫ܤܣ‬
‫ݐ݃݊݁ܮ = ܮ = ܤܣ & ݎ݁ݒ݋ݐ݁ܵ = ܵ = ܥܤ‬ℎ ‫ݐ ݂݋‬ℎ݁ ‫݁ܿ݁݅݌݇ݎ݋ݓ‬
ܵ
‫= ∝ ݊݅ݏ‬ ‫∝ ݊݅ݏ ܮ = ܵ ݎ݋‬
‫ܮ‬
− If the angle α, the angle of taper is very small, for all practical purpose, ‫∝ ݊ܽݐ = ∝ ݊݅ݏ‬
‫ܦ‬−݀
ܵ݁‫× ܮ = ∝ ݊ܽݐ ܮ = ݎ݁ݒ݋ݐ‬
2݈
− If the taper is turned on the entire length of the workpiece, then ݈ = ‫ܮ‬, and the
equation becomes,
‫ܦ‬−݀ ‫ܦ‬−݀
ܵ݁‫× ܮ = ݎ݁ݒ݋ݐ‬ =
2‫ܮ‬ 2
஽ିௗ
− being termed as the conicity or amount of taper, so now setover may be write as
௟
݁݊‫ݐ݈݃݊݁ ݁ݎ݅ݐ‬ℎ ‫ݐ ݂݋‬ℎ݁ ‫ݕݐ݅ܿ݅݊݋ܿ × ݁ܿ݁݅݌݇ݎ݋ݓ‬
ܵ݁‫= ݎ݁ݒ݋ݐ‬
2
C. Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest
− This method employs the principle of turning taper by rotating the workpiece on lathe
axis and feeding the tool at an angle of axis of rotation of the workpiece.
− Tool may be attached to circular base in graduated degree, which may be swiveled and
clamped at any desired angle.
− Once the compound rest is set at the desired half taper angle, rotation of compound
slide screw will cause the tool to be fed at that angle and generate a corresponding
taper.


Fig 2.37 Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest
− This method is limited to turn a short taper to the limited movement of compound
rest.
− The movement of tool in this method being purely controlled by hand, this gives a low
production capacity and poorer surface finish.
− The setting of the compound rest is done by swiveling the rest at half angle, if this is
already known.
D. Taper turning by taper turning attachment
1 – Bracket or Frame, 2 – Guide block, 3 – Guide bar, 4 – Cross slide, 5 – Binder screw
Fig 2.38 Taper turning attachment

− The principle of turning taper by a taper turning attachment is to guide the tool in
straight path set at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece, while workpiece
is being revolved between centers aligned to the lathe axis.
− Taper turning attachment is attached to the rear end of lathe bed and supports a guide
bar pivoted at center.
− The bar having graduation in degrees may be swiveled on either side of zero
graduation and is set at the desired angle with lathe axis.
− When taper attachment is used, cross slide is first made free from the lead screw by
removing the binder screw.
− When longitudinal feed is engaged, the tool mounted on cross slide will follow the
angular path, as guide block will slide on guide bar set an angle to the lathe axis.
− Required depth of cut is given by compound slide which is placed right angle to the
lathe axis.
− The maximum angle through which the guide bar may be swiveled is 10o to 12o on
either side of center.
஽ିௗ
− If diameters ‘D’ and ‘d’ and length ‘l’ of the taper is known,‫= ∝ ݊ܽݐ‬
ଶ௟
Advantages:
− Alignment of live and dead centers being not disturbed.
− Once taper is set, any length of workpiece may be taper within its limit.
− Accurate taper on a large number of workpiece may be turned.
− Internal tapers may be turned with ease.
E. Taper turning by combining feeds
Fig 2.39 Taper turning by combining feed

− This is more specialization method of turning taper.
− In certain lathe both longitudinal and cross feeds may be engaged simultaneously
causing the tool to follow diagonal path which is the resultant of the magnitude of two
feed.

− The direction of resultant may be changed by varying the rate of feeds by change
gears provided inside apron.
2.7.4 Facing
Fig 2.40 Facing operation

− Facing is operation of machining the ends of the workpiece to produce a flat surface.
− This is also used to cut the workpiece to the required length.
− The operation involves feeding of the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the
workpiece.
− A properly ground facing tool is mounted in a tool holder in the tool post. A regular
turning tool may also be used for facing a large workpiece.
− The surface is finished to size by giving usual roughing and finishing cuts. For roughing
the average of cross feed from 0.3 to 0.7 mm per revolution and depth of cut 2 to 5
mm. For finishing the average of cross feed from 0.1 to 0.3 mm per revolution and
depth of cut 0.7 to 1 mm.
2.7.5 Knurling
− Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on a surface of the
workpiece.
1 – First set of knurl, 2 – Knurl holder, 3 – Second set of knurl

Fig 2.41 Revolving knurl holder

− The purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a workpiece to

prevent it from slipping when operated by hand.
− In some press fit work knurling is done to increase the diameter of a shaft.
− The operation is performed by a special knurling tool which consists of 1 set of
hardened steel rollers in a holder with the teeth cut on their surface in a definite
pattern.
− When single roller is used to generate parallel grooves, but when two rollers are used,
one right hand and one left hand to generate the diamond shaped pattern.
− Knurls are available in coarse, medium and fine pitches.
− Three set of knurls are available in tool as shown in fig 2.41, any one set may be
brought into operation by revolving the unit.
− Knurling is done at slowest speed available in lathe. Usually speed is reduced to ¼ th
that of turning and some amount of oil is required. Speed varies from 1 to 2 mm per
revolution.
− If surface to be knurled is wider than rollers automatic feed may be engaged.
2.7.6 Filing
− Filing is the finishing operation performed
after turning. This is done in a lathe to
remove burrs, sharp corners and feed marks
on the workpiece and also to bring it to size
by removing very small amount of metal.
− The operation consists of passing a flat single
cut file over the workpiece which revolves at
very high speed.
− The file handle is gripped by the left hand and the tip of the file by the right hand to
avoid accidents.
2.7.7 Polishing
− Polishing is performed after filing to
improve the surface quality of the
workpiece.
− Polishing with successively finer
grades of emery cloth after filing
results in very smooth and bright
surfaces.
− The lathe is run at high speeds from 1500 to 1800 r.p.m. and used on emery cloth.

2.7.8 Grooving
A – Square groove, B – Round groove, C – Beveled groove

Fig 2.42 Grooving operation
− Grooving is the process of reducing the diameter of the workpiece over a very narrow
surface. It is often done at the end of thread to leave a small margin.
− The work is revolved at half the speed of turning and a grooving tool of required shape
is fed straight to the workpiece.
− A grooving tool is similar to a parting – off tool.
2.7.9 Spinning
− Spinning is the process of forming a thin sheet of metal by revolving the job at high
speed and pressing it against former attached to the headstock.
1 – Former, 2 – Sheet of metal, 3 – Forming tool

Fig 2.43 Spinning operation
− A support is also given from the tailstock end. The pressure is gradually applied to the
revolving sheet metal by a long round nose forming tool.
2.7.10 Spring winding
− Spring winding is the process of making a coiled spring by passing the wire around a
mandrel which is revolved on a chuck or between centers.

− A small hole is provided on a steel bar which is

supported on a tool post and wire is allowed to pass
through it.
− The diameter of mandrel should be less than the
desired spring diameter as all spring expands in
diameter after they are taken out of the mandrel.
2.7.11 Forming
− Forming is the process of turning a convex, concave or any irregular shape. Form
turning may be accomplished by following three methods:
1. Using a form tool
2. Combining cross land longitudinal feed
3. Tracing or copying a template
1 – Work, 2 – Straight forming tool, 3 – Circular forming tool

Fig 2.44 Forming operation
− For turning a small length of formed surface, a forming tool having cutting edges
conforming to the shape required is fed straight to the workpiece.
− Forming tools are not supposed to remove much material and is used mainly for
finishing and formed surface.
− Usually two types of forming tools are used --- straight and circular
− Straight type is used for wider surfaces and circular type for narrower surfaces.
− The cross feed ranges from 0.01 to 0.08 mm per revolution and the cutting speed is
slightly less than that of the straight turning.
− When the length of the formed surface is sufficiently high, the required shape may be
obtained by using straight turning tool, which may be fed into the workpiece using
both longitudinal and cross feed simultaneously by hand.

Manufacturing Processes - I (2131903)
2131903) 2.The Lathe
− When a large number of wide, formed surface are to be turned, a template having the
required shape is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and cross slide is attached
to the guide block.
− With longitudinal travel of carriage the tool will reproduce the contoured surface of
the template as guide block will trace the curved path.
2.7.12 Eccentric turning
− If a cylindrical workpiece has two separate axis of rotation one being out of center to
the other, the workpiece is termed eccentric and turning of different surface of
workpiece is known as eccentric turning.
Fig 2.45 Crankshaft turning

− Crankshaft turning in a lathe is a common
example of eccentric turning.
− The shaft is first mounted on its true center and
the forming the journal is turned.
− The job is then remounted on the offset center
and the eccentric surfaces are machined.
− In eccentric turning counter balance weights are mounted on the faceplate to get
uniform turning.
2.7.13 Chamfering
− Chamfering is the operation of beveling the extreme end of the workpiece.
Fig 2.46 Chamfering operation

− This is done to remove the burrs, to protect the end of workpiece from being damaged
and to have better look.

− The operation may be performed after knurling, rough turning, boring and drilling.
− Chamfering is an essential operation after thread cutting so that nut may pass freely
on the threaded workpiece.
2.7.14 Thread cutting
− Thread
read cutting is one of the most important opera
operation
tion performed in a lathe.
− The principle of thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical or conical
surface by feeding the tool longitudinally when the job is revolved between centers or
by a chuck.
1 – Headstock spindle, 2 – Carriage, 3 – Lead screw, 4 – Change gears

Fig 2.47 Principle of thread cutting
− The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of thread to be cut per revolution.
− The definite ratio between longitudinal feed and speed of la lathe
the there for be found so
that the relative speeds of rotation of the workpiece and
the lead screw will result in cutting of a screw of the desired
pitch.
− A chaser is a multipoint threading tool having the same
form and pitch of thread to be chased.
− A chaser is used to finish a partly cut thread to the size and
shape required.
− Thread chasing is done at 1/3 or 1/2 of the speed of turning.
2.7.15 Drilling
− Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a workpiece by rotating
cutting edge of cutter known as drill.
− Drilling can be performed by a lathe any one of following methods.

1. The workpiece is revolved in a chuck or face

plate and drill is held in tailstock drill holder
feeding is effected by feeding of tailstock
spindle.
2. The drill is held and revolved by drill chuck
attached to the headstock spindle and
workpiece is held and supported of tailstock spindle when workpiece is irregular in
shape.
2.7.16 Reaming
− Reaming is the operation of finishing and sizing a
hole which has been previously drille
drilled or bored.
− The tool is called
alled the reamer, which has multiple
cutting edges.
− Reamer is held in tailstock and is held stationary
while work is revolved at very slow speed. Speed varies from0.5 to 2 mm per
revolution.
2.7.17 Boring
− Boring is the operation of enlarging and truing a hole produced by drilling, punching,
casting or forging.
1 – Workpiece, 2 – Boring bar, 3 – Boring tool

Fig 2.48 Boring operation
− Boring can not originate the hole. Boring is similar to external turning operation can be
performed inn lathe by following methods:
1. The workpiece is revolved in a chuck and tool is fitted to the tool post is fed into
the workpiece. This method is suited for boring small sized work.
2. The workpiece is clamped on carriage and boring bar holding the tool is sup
supported
between centers and made to revolve. Longitudinal movement of carriage
provides feeding movement and depth of cut is given by adjusting of tool insert.

2.7.18 Counter boring

− Counter boring is the operation of enlarging a hole
through a certain distance from one end instead of
enlarging the whole drilled surface.
− It is similar to a shoulder work in external turning.
− The operation is similar to boring and a plain boring too
tool
or a counter bore may be used.
2.7.19 Taper boring
− The principle of turning taper hole is similar to the external taper turning operation
and is accomplished by rotating the workpiece on chuck and feeding the tool at an
angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
− Taper boring can be performed by following methods.
1. A boring tool is mounte
mounted d on tool post and by swiveling the compound rest to
desired angle; a short taper hole may be machined.
2. Taper turning attachment may be used to guide the boring tool at an angle to the
axis by disengaging the cross slide.
3. Standard small tapers may be bored by using taper reamers on tail stock.
2.7.20 Internal thread cutting
− The principle of cutting internal thread is similar to that an external thread, the only
difference being in tool used.
Fig 2.49 Internal thread cutting operation

− The tool is similar to a boring tool with cutting edge ground to the shape conforming
to the type of thread to be cut. The hole is first bored to the root diameter of the
thread.
2.7.21 Tapping
− Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads of small diameter using a
multipoint cutting tool called the tap.

− In a lathe, workpiece is mounted on chuck and revolved at

very low speed.
− A tap of required size held on special fixture and it will
automatically feed into the work with the help of special
fixture.
2.7.22 Undercutting
− Undercutting is similar to grooving operation when performed inside the hole.
− It is process of boring a groove at a distance from end of a hole this is similar to boring
operation.
1 – Undercut
Fig 2.50 Undercutting operation
− Undercutting is done at the end of inter
internal
nal thread to provide clearance for tool.
2.7.23 Parting off
− Parting off is the operation of cutting a workpiece after it has been machined to the
desired shape and size.
1 – Workpiece, 2 – Parting off tool

Fig 2.51 Parting off operation
− The process involves rotating the workpiece on a chuck at half speed that of turning
and feeding by narrow parting off tool perpendicular to the lathe axis.
− The feed varies from 0.07 to 0.15 mm per revolution and depth of cut which is equal
to width of tool range from 3 to 10 mm.

2.7.24 Milling
− Milling is the operation of removing metal by feeding the workpiece against the
rotating cutter having multiple cutting edges.
− It is performed in a lathe by any one of the following methods:
1. For cutting keyways or grooves, the workpiece is supported on the cross slide by a
special attachment and fed against a rotating milling cutter held by a chuck.
The depth of cut is given by vertical adjustment of the workpiece provided by the
attachment.
2. The workpiece may be supported between centers and held stationary. The
attachment mounted on the carriage drives the cutter from an individual motor.
The feeding movement is provided by the carriage and the vertical movement of
the cutter is arranged in attachment.
The number of grooves on the periphery of the workpiece may be cut by rotating
the work by a fixed amount and machining it against the cutter.
The gear wheel may be cut on a lathe by fixing universal dividing head at the rear
end of the headstock spindle. This permits dividing the periphery of the work by an
equal amount.
2.7.25 Grinding
− Grinding is the operation of removing metal in the form of minute chips by feeding the
work against a rotating abrasive wheel known as the grinding wheel.
− Both internal and external surfaces of the workpiece may be ground by using a special
attachment mounted on the cross slide.
2.8 Alignment test of lathe

2.8.1 Test for level of installation
− Measuring Instruments: Spirit level, gauge block to suit the guide ways of the lathe
bed.
− Procedure: The gauge block with the spirit
level is placed on the bed ways on the front
position, back position and in the cross
wise direction. The position of the bubble
in the spirit level is checked and the readings are taken.
− Permissible error: Front guide ways. 0.02 mm/metre convex only. Rear guide ways,
0.01 to 0.02 convexity. Bed level in cross-wise direction ± 0.02/metres. Straightness of
slide ways Tailstock guide ways parallel with movement of carriage 0.02 mm/m.
Notwist is permitted.

2.8.2 Straightness of Saddle in horizontal plane.

− Measuring Instruments:: Cylindrical test mandrel (600 mm long), dial indicator.
− Procedure: The mandrel is held between centers. The dial indicator is mounted on the
saddle. The spindle of the dial indicator is
allowed to touch the mandrel. The saddle is
then moved longitudinally along the length
of the mandrel. Readings are taken at
different places.
− Permissible error: 0.02 mm over length of
mandrel.
2.8.3 Alignmentt of both the centers in the vertical plane
ylindrical mandrel 600 mm long, dial gauge.
− Measuring Instruments:Cylindrical
− Procedure: The test mandrel is held between centers. The dial indicator is mounted on
the saddle in vertical plane as shown in
figure. Then the saddle along with the
dial gauge is travelled longitudinally
along the bed ways, over the entire
length of the mandrel and the readings
are taken at different places.
− Permissible error: 0.02 mm over 600 mm length of the mandrel.
2.8.4 True
ue running of taper socket in main spindle
Test mandrel with taper shank and 300 mm Iong cylindrical
− Measuring Instruments:Test
measuring part, dial gauge.
The test mandrel is held with its
− Procedure:The
taper shank in a head stock spindle socket.
The dial gauge is mounted on the saddle.
The dial gauge spindle is made to touch with
the mandrel. The saddle is then travelled
longitudinally along the bed ways and readings are taken at the points A and B as
shown in figure.
− Permissible error: Position A - 0.01 mm, position B - 0.02 mm.
2.8.5 Parallelism of main spindle to saddle movement
Test mandrel with taper shank and 300 mm Iong cylindrical
− Measuring Instruments:Test

The
− Procedure:The dial gauge is
mounted on the saddle. The dial
gauge spindle is made to touch the
mandrel and the saddle is moved to
and fro. It is checked in vertical as
well as in horizontal plane.
− Permissible errors: 0.02/300 m mm
mandrel rising towards free end
only. 0.02/300 mm mandrel inclined at free end towards tool pressure only.
2.8.6 Movement of upper slide para
parallel with main spindle in vertical plane
− Measuring Instruments: Test mandrel with taper shank and 300 mm Iong cylindrical
− Procedure: The test mandrel is fitted
into the spindle and a dial gauge
clamped to the upper slide. The slide
is,traversed along with the dial gauge
plunger on the top of the stationary
mandrel.
0.02 mm over the
− Permissible errors:0.02
total movement of the slide.
2.8.7 Truee running of locating cylinder of main spindle
Dial gauge
− Measuring Instrument:Dial
− Procedure: The dial gauge is mounted on the bed, touching at
a point on main spindle. The main spindle is rotated by hand
and readings of dial gauge are taken.
− Permissible errors:0.01 mm
2.8.8 True
ue running of head stock center
Dial gauge
− Measuring Instrument:Dial
The live center is held in the tail stock spindle
− Procedure:The
and it is rotated. Its trueness is checked by means of a dial
gauge.
0.01 mm
− Permissible errors:0.01

2.8.9 Parallelism of tailstock sleeve to saddle movement

− Measuring Instrument:Dial indicator
− Procedure:Tailstocksleeve is fed outwards. The dial
gauge is mounted on the saddle. Its spindle is
touched to the sleeve at one end and then saddle is
moved to and fro, it is checked in H.P. and V.P.
also.
− Permissible errors: (A) 0.01/100 mm(Tailstock
sleeve inclined towards tool pressure only) (B)0.01/100 mm (Tailstock sleeve rising
towards free end only)
2.8.10 Parallelism of tailstock sleeve taper socket to saddle movement in V. P & in H. P.
− Measuring Instrument:The mandrel
with taper shank and a cylindrical
measuring part of 300 mm length, dial
gauge.
− Procedure:Test mandrel is held with its
taper shank in a tails stock sleeve taper
socket. The dial gauge is mounted on spindle. The dial gauge spindle is made to touch
with the mandrel. The saddle is then traversed longitudinally along the bed and
readings are taken.
− Permissible errors: (A)0.03/300 mm (Mandrels rising towards free end only) (B)
0.03/300 mm (Mandrels inclined towards tool pressure only)
2.9 Difference between center lathe and turret lathe

Sr. No. Aspects Center lathe Turret lathe
1 Nature of production Primarily used for Adapted to quantity
work miscellaneous jobbing, production work.
tool room or single
operation work.
2 Construction difference It has a tail stock. It has hexagonal turret.
(No tailstock)
3 No. of tools that can be One tool cuts at a time. Can hold a number of
handled at a time tools at a time; the
tools can operate on
the job simultaneously.
4 Set up of tools No such provision is Tools may be
available in a center permanently set up in
lathe. turret in the sequence
in which they need be
used.

5 Provision of rigidity in No special provision Extreme rigidity to

the holding of work and available. permit multiple and
tools combined cuts.
6 Machining time and Consume more time Consume less time
handling time comparatively. comparatively.
7 Lead screw Always provided to the Thread cutting is
center lathe to enable generally performed by
thread cutting by a taps and die heads.
single point cutting tool.
8 Degree of automation Very simple Semi-automatic
9 Rate of production Lower Higher
10 Labour cost Higher, because of Lower, because of after
highly skilled operator setting the tools and
required. machine the operations
can be performed by
unskilled or semi-skilled
operators.
11 Cost Higher than center Comparatively lower.
lathe.
2.10 Difference between capstan lathe and turret lathe

Sr. No. Aspects Capstan lathe Turret lathe
1 Turret position Turret is mounted Turret is mounted on an
directly on the saddle. auxiliary slide, which
moves on the
guideways provided on
the saddle.
2 Feeding of tools For feeding the tools The saddle is fixed at a
entire saddle moved. convenient distance
from the work and the
tools are fed by moving
the slide.
3 Extent of rigidity Very high rigidity Because of the
because all the cutting overhung of the slide or
forces are transferred to ram, the tool support
the lathe load. unit is subjected to
bending and deflection,
resulting in vibrations.
4 Capability to handle Can handle heavier jobs. Can handle lighter jobs.
jobs
5 Maximum bar size that Upto 200 mm diameter. Upto 60 mm diameter.
can be handled
6 Tool travel Almost full length of the Limited tool travel.
bed.
7 Rate of tool feeding Relatively slower. Relatively faster.

8 Type of carriage Reach over type or side Usually equipped with

hung type. the reach over type only
since it is employed for
relatively smaller jobs
and therefore, does not
require a large swing
over bed.
9 Other provision Heavier designs are These lathes do not
usually provided with have such provisions.
pneumatic or hydraulic
chucks to ensure a
firmer grip over heavy
jobs.
2.11 Turret indexing mechanism
1 – Hexagonal turret, 2 – Index plate, 3 – Beveled gear, 4 – Indexing ratchet, 5 – Turret

spindle, 6 – Beveled pinion, 7 – Indexing pawl, 8 – Screw stop rods, 9 – Lathe bed,
10 – Plunger actuating cam, 11 – Pinion shaft, 12 – Stop, 13 – Plunger pin,
14 – Plunger, 15 – Plunger spring
Fig 2.52 Turret indexing mechanism
− Simple line sketch is as shown in fig 2.52.
− The turret is mounted on the spindle which is rest on bearing on turret saddle.
− The index plate, bevel gear and indexing ratchet is keyed to spindle.
− The plunger fitted within the housing and mounted on saddle locks the index plate by
spring pressure and prevents the rotary movement of turret as the tool feed into the
workpiece.
− An actuating cam and indexing pawl attached to the lathe bed at desired position and
both are spring loaded.

− As the turret reaches the backward position, actuating can lifts the plunger and
moves out of the groove in index plate.
− Due to riding of the plunger pin now index plate id free to rotate.
− At this time spring loaded pawl engages with ratchet to rotate the turret.
− When index plate rotates one sixth of revolution the pin and plunger drops out of can
and plunger locks the index plate at next groove.
− Turret is thus indexed one sixth of revolution and again locked into new position
automatically.
− The bevel pinion meshes with bevel gear mounted on turret spindle.
− The extension of pinion shaft carries a plate holding six adjustable stop rods.
− As the turret rotates one sixth revolution the bevel gear causes the plate to rotate.
2.12 Bar feeding mechanism
1 –Chuck bush, 2 – Sliding bracket body, 3 – Bar chuck, 4 – Weight, 5 – Bar chuck set screw, 6
– Bar, 7 & 11 – Pulley, 8 – Chain, 9 – Pin on the sliding bracket, 10 – Sliding bracket
Fig 2.53 Bar feeding mechanism
− The capstan and turret lathe while working on bar work require some mechanism for
bar feeding.
− The long bar which is out of the head stock spindle require to be fed through the
spindle up to bar stop after first piece is completed and collet chuck is opened.

− In simple bar may be pushed by hand but it will take unnecessary time. Therefore bar
feeding mechanism is designed which push the bar forward immediately after the
workpiece is released in chuck without stopping the machine.
− Bar is passed through bar chuck and spindle of machine and then through the collet
chuck.
− Bar chuck rotates in sliding bracket body which is mounted on a long slide bar.
− Bar chuck grips the bar centrally by two set screws and rotates with bar in sliding
bracket body.
− Now one end of the chain is connected to the pin fitted on sliding bracket and other
end supports a weight.
− The chain running over two fixed pulleys mounted on slide bar. The weight constantly
exerts end thrust on the bar chuck while it is revolves on the sliding bracket and
forces the bar through the spindle.
− The moment the collet chuck is released; bar is feeding without stopping the
machine.

GTU PAPER ANALYSIS
MARCH – 10
JUNE – 13
JUNE – 14
MAY – 11
MAY – 12
DEC – 09
DEC – 10
DEC – 11
DEC – 12
DEC – 13
Sr. QUESTIONS
1 Explain different taper turning methods. Explain any 5 7 7 3 7 7 7

two of them.
2 Explain different operations performed with the help 4 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
of a lathe.
3 Write short note on different type of chucks used in a 5 7
lathe.
4 Explain alignment tests for lathe in brief with neat 5 7 7 7 7 7
sketch. 7
5 Explain parts of engine lathe.List main parts of it and 7 7
state functions of each part.
6 What is a mandrel? Explain different types of 7 7
mandrels.
7 Explain in brief different types of Lathe-centers used 4 3
on tailstock side of a lathe machine
8 Explain various work holding devices of lathe machine. 7 7
9 Explain in detail various types of a lathe. 7
10 Why different spindle speeds are provided on an 7

engine Lathe? Explain.
11 What are the essential differences between steady 4
rest and follow rest.
12 With a neat sketch explain working of back gear 7
arrangement on the lathe machine.
13 Explain tumbler gear mechanism used in lathe with 7
neat sketch.
14 Explain the turret indexing mechanism and bar feeding 7
mechanism used in capstan lathe. 7
15 Explain the difference between Capstan & Turret 7 7 7 7 7
lathe.
16 What are the difference between Engine lathe and 7
Turret lathe?

DRILLING MACHINE
Course Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Drilling Machine
3.3 Size of Drilling Machine
3.4 Work Holding Devices
3.5 Drill Tool Nomenclature
3.6 Drilling Machine Operations

3. Drilling Machine Manufacturing Processes I (2131903)
3.1 Introduction
− The drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. As
regards its important is second only to the lathe.
− It was primarily designed to originate a hole; it can perform a number of similar

operations.
− In drilling machine, holes may be drilled quickly and at a low cost. The hole is
generated by rotating edge of a cutting tool known as ‘drill’, which exerts large force
on the work clamped to the table.
3.2 Types of Drilling Machine

− Drilling machines are made in many different types and sizes, each designed to
handle a class of work or specific jobs to the best advantages.
− The different types of drilling machines are:
1. Portable drilling machine 5. Gang drilling machine
2. Sensitive drilling machine 6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
A. Bench mounting 7. Automatic drilling machine
B. Floor mounting 8. Deep hole drilling machine
3. Upright drilling machine A. Vertical
A. Round column section B. Horizontal
B. Box column section
4. Radial drilling machine
A. Plain
B. Semi universal
C. Universal
3.2.1 Portable drilling machine

− As the name implies this type of drilling machine can be operated with ease
anywhere in the workshop and is used for drilling holes in workshop in any position
which cannot be drilled in a standard drilling machine.
− Some of portable machine are operated by hand power but some of the machine are
driven by individual motor.
− The maximum size of hole it can accommodate is not more than 12 to 18 mm.
3.2.2 Sensitive drilling machine
− Sensitive drilling machine is a small machine designed for drilling small holes at a
high speed in light jobs.

2131903) 3. Drilling Machine
− The base of machine may be mounted on a bench or on a floor.
1 – Table, 2 – Vertical drill spindle

spindle, 3 – Sleeve, 4 – Cone pulley, 5 – V Belt, 6 – Head, 7–
Driving motor, 8 – Vertical column, 9 – Base
Fig 3.1 Sensitive Drilling Machine
− It consists of a vertical column, horizontal table, a head supporting motor and driving
mechanism for driving and rotating the drill.
− There is no automatic feed of drill spindle.
− Drill is fed to the work by purely hand control.
− Hand feed permits the operator to feel or sense the progress of the drill into work,
so that if the drill becomes worn out or jams on any account, the pressure on the
drill may be released immediately to prevent it from breaking.
− Sensitive drilling machine are capable of rotating drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5
mm.
− Supersensitive drillimg machine designed to drill holes as small as 0.35 mm in
diameter and rotates at a high speed of 2000
20000 rpm or above.
3.2.3 Upright drilling machine
− The upright drilling machine is designed for handling medium sized workpiece.
− Its construction is very similar to a sensitive drilling machine for having a vertical
column mounted upon the base.
− But this is larger and heavier than sensitive drilling machine and is supplied with
power feed arrangement.
Department
artment of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya
− In an upright drilling machine a large number of spindle speeds and feeds may be
available for drilling different types of work.
− There are two types of upright drillin
drilling machines.
1. Round column section or pillar drilling machine
2. Box column section
1 – Bevel gear drive to spindle

spindle, 2 – Spindle, 3 – Over head shaft, 4 – Back stay,
5 – Cointer shaft cone pulley
pulley, 6 – Fast and loose pulley, 7 – Table elevating
handle, 8 – Foot padel
padel, 9 – Base, 10 – Rack on column, 11 – Table elevating
clamp handle, 12 – Table clamp, 13 – Table, 14 – Column, 15 – Hand wheel for
quick hand feed, 16 – Hand wheel for sensitive hand feed
Fig 3.2 Upright Pillar Drilling Machine
− Round column section or pillar drilling machine consists of a round column that
rises from the base which rests on the floor, an arm and a round table assembly and
a drill head assembly.
− The arm and the table have three adjustments for locating workpiece under spindle.
spindle
1. Arm and table may be moved up and down on the column.
2. Arm and table may be moved in arc up to 180o around the column.
3. The table may be rotated 360o about its own center.
− The construction of machine being not very rigid so useful for lighter work.
− The maximum size of holes that the machine can drill is not more than 50 mm.

− Upright drilling machine with box column section has the square table fitted on the
slides at the front face of the machine column.
− Heavy box column gives the machine strength and rig
rigidity.
− The table is raised or lowered by an elevating screw that gives additional support to
the table.
− This special feature permits machine to work with heavier workpiece and holes more
than 50 mm diameter can be drilled by it.
3.2.4 Radial drilling machine
− The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling medium to large and heavy
workpieces.
− The machine consists of a heavy, round, vertical column mounted on large base.
− The column supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered and may be
swing around to any position over the work bed.
− The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted on
a radial arm and can be moved horizontally on the guide ways.
1 – Base, 2 – Column
Column, 3 – Radial arm, 4 – Motor for elevating the arm,
5 – Elevating screw
screw, 6 – Guide ways,7 – Motor for driving the drill spindle,
spindle
8 – Drill head, 9 – Drill spindle, 10 – Table
Fig 3.3 Radial Drilling Machine
Department
− These movements are useful to locate drill at any desired position.

− When several holes are drilled on a large workpiece the position of arm and the drill
may be moved from one position to other after drilling first hole without altering the
setting of the workpiece.
− In a Plain radial drilling machine, provisions are made for vertical adjustment of the
arm, horizontal movement of the drill head along with the arm and circular
movement of the arm in horizontal plane about the vertical column.
− In a Semi universal drilling machine, in addition to the above three movement, the
drill head can be swung about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the arm. This fourth
movement of the drill head permits drilling hole at an angle to the horizontal plane
other than the normal position.
− In a Universal drilling machine, in addition to the above four movements, the arm
holding the drill head may be rotated on a horizontal axis. All these five movements
in a universal drilling machine enable it to drill on a workpiece at any angle.
3.2.5 Gang drilling machine
− When a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side by side on
a common worktable, machine is known as the gang drilling machine.
− The speed and feed of the spindle may be controlled individually.
− This type of machine is specially adapted for production work.
− A series of operations may be performed on the work by simply shifting the work
from on to other position on the work table.
3.2.6 Multiple spindle drilling machine
− The function of a multiple spindle drilling machine is to drill a number of holes in a
piece of work simultaneously and to produce the same pattern of holes in a number
of identical pieces in a mass production work.
− The spindles are so constructed that their center distance may be adjusted in any
position as per requirement of various jobs.
3.2.7 Automatic drilling machine
− Automatic machine can perform a series of machining operations at successive units
and transfer the work from one unit to the other automatically.
− Once the work is loaded at first machine then this will move from one machine to
the other where different operations may be performed and finished product comes
out at last without any manual handling.

Manufacturing Processes I (2131903) 3. Drilling Machine
3.2.8 Deep hole drilling machine

− Special machined and drills are required for drilling deep holes in rifle barrels, crank
shaft, long shafts etc.
− The machine is operated at high speed and low feed.
− For that work is usually rotated while drill is fed into work and sometimes both work
and drill are rotated.
− The machine may be horizontal and vertical type.
3.3 Size of Drilling Machine

− The size of a drilling machine varies with the type of machine being considered.
− A portable drilling machine is specified by maximum diameter of the drill that it can
hold.
− The sensitive and upright drilling machines are specified by the diameter of the
largest piece that can be centered under the spindle.
− To specify a drilling machine fully further particulars such as the maximum size of
drill that the machine can operate, table diameter, the maximum spindle travel,
numbers of spindle speed and feeds available, Morse taper number of the drill
spindle, power input, floor space required, net weight of the machine, etc. are all
needed.
− The size of the radial drilling machine is specified by the diameter of the column and
length of the arm. Other particulars such as maximum drilling radius, minimum
drilling radius, spindle speeds and feeds, etc. should also be stated to specify the
machine fully.
3.4 Work Holding Devices

− Before performing any operation in a drilling machine it is absolutely necessary to
secure the work firmly on the drilling machine table.
− The devices commonly used for holding the work in a drilling machine are:
1. T - Bolts and Clamps 4. V - Block
2. Drill Press Vice 5. Angle Plate
3. Step Block 6. Drill Jigs
3.4.1 T - Bolts and Clamps
− One of the most common methods of holding the work directly on the drilling
machine table is by means of T - bolt and clamp.
− The diameter of T - bolts usually ranges from 15 to 20 mm.

− The clamps are made of mild steel flats 12 to 20 mm thick and 45 to 70 mm wide.
− The clamp is made to rest horizontally on tthe
he work surface and a clamping block and
the nut is then tightened.
1 – T -Bolt
Fig 3.4 Different views of T - Bolts
− The T - bolt must remain as close to the work as possible. Some of the common
types of clamps are:
− Plain slot clamp: The clamps are made of mild steel flat having a central slot through
which a T - bolt is made to pass. This is general purpose clamp.
− Goose neck clamp: The clamp is used for holding work of sufficient height. The
smaller size of T - bolts and packing can clamp the work securely due to the typical
shape of the clamp. The clamps are sufficiently strong and manufactured by forging.
1 – Goose neck clamp, 2 – Work Fig 3.6 U clamp

Fig 3.5 Use of Goose neck clamp
− U clamp: U - clamps are very useful for quick adjustment of the work. The clamps
can be removed without removing of the nut.
− Finger clamp: The finger clamps have a round or flat extension which may be fitted
in a hole of the workpiece for clamping.
− Adjustable step clamp: TThe
he adjustable step clamp has screw at its one end which is
used to level the clamp when its other end rests against the work. The work may be
quickly set up without any packing pieces.

1 – Finger clamp, 2 – Work 1 – Adjusting screw, 2 – Clamp

Fig 3.7 Use of Finger clamp Fig 3.8 Use
se of adjustable step clamp
3.4.2 Drill Press Vise
− The drill press vise
e is one of the most common methods of holding small and regular
shaped workpieces.
− The work is clamped in a vise between a fixed jaw and a movable jaw. The extra slip
jaws are supplied for holding cylindrical or hexagonal bars.
1 – Work, 2 – Slotted arm

Fig 3.9 Universal Vise
− The screw of visee rotates in a fixed nut in the moveable jaw. The screw of vise
vis may
be square or acme threaded.
− While clamping the work in a vise, parallel blocks are placed below the work so that
the drill may completely pass through the work without damaging the vise table.
− The drill press vise may be plain or universal type.
− In universal vise the base may be swiveled at any angle about the vertical axis and it
may be tilted in a vertical plane to drill hole in a work at different angles.
− Two lugs are provided at the base of the vise for clamping it securely on the work
table.
Department
3.4.3 Step Block

− The step blocks are used in conjunction with T - bolts and clamps for holding the
work directly on the table.
1 – Step block, 2 – Plain slot clamp, 3 – T - bolt, 4 – Work

Fig 3.10 Use of step block
− The step block provides support for the other end of the clamp.
− The different steps of step blocks are used for leveling the clamp while handling
workpieces of different heights.
− The step blocks are made of mild steel.
3.4.4 V - Block
− The V - blocks are used for holding round workpieces.
1 – Clamp, 2 – V - block
Fig 3.11 Use of V- block
− The work may be supported on two or three blocks and clamped against them by
straps and bolts.
− V - Blocks are accurately machined cast iron or steel blocks.
3.4.5 Angle Plate
− The angle
ngle plates are usually made of cast iron having two faces right angles to each
other.

− The faces are accurately finished and are provided with holes and slots for clamping
the work on one of its face while the other face rest upon the table and is bolted to
it.
Fig 3.12 Use of an angle plate

− The angle plates are used when it is necessary to drill a hole parallel to another
surface.
3.4.6 Drill Jigs
− The drill jigs are used for holding the work in a mass production process. A jig can
hold the work securely, locate the work, and guide the tool at any desired position.
1 – Drill, 2 – Clamping nut, 3 – T - bolt, 4 – Drill bush, 5 – Work

Fig 3.13 Use of drill jig
− The work may be clamped and unclamped quickly. Jigs are specially designed for
each type of work where quantity production is desired.
− Holes may be drilled at the same relative positions on each of identical workpieces
without marking the work individually.
− As shown in fig 3.13, the work is clamped below the jig and holes are located. The
drill is guided by bushing, and when the work is completed the second work is
clamped below the jig and process is repeated.
Department
3.5 Drill Tool Nomenclature
Fig 3.14 Twist drill nomenclature

− The following are the nomenclature, definations and functions of the different parts
of drill illustrated in fig 3.14.

Manufacturing Processes I (2131903) 3. Drilling Machine
− The following are the twist drill elements:

− Axis : The longitudinal centre line of the drill.
− Body: The portion of the drill extending from its extreme point to the
commencement of the neck, if present, other wise extending to the commencement
of the shank.
− Body clearance: That portion of the body surface which is reduced in diameter to
provide diametral clearance.
− Chisel edge: The edge formed by the intersection of the flanks. The chisel edge is
also sometimes called dead centre. The dead centre or the chisel edge acts as a flat
drill and cuts its own hole in the workpiece.
− Chisel edge corner: The corner formed by the intersection of alip and the chisel
edge.
− Face: The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which the chip impinges
as it is cut from the work.
− Flank: That surface on a drill point which extends behind the lip tp the following
flute.
− Flutes: The groove in the body of the drill which provides lip. The functions of the
flutes are: 1. To form the cutting edges on the point 2. To allow the chips to escape
3. To cause the chips to curl 4. To permit the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
− Heel: The edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body
clearance.
− Lands: The cylindrically ground surface on the leading edges of the drill flutes. The
width of the land is measured at right angles to the flute helix. The drill is full size
only across the lands at the point end. Land keeps the drill aligned.
− Lip (cutting edge): The edge formed by the intersection of the flank and face. The
requirements of the drill lips are: 1. Both lips should be at same angle of inclination
with the drill axis, 59o for general work 2. Both lips should be of equal length 3. Both
lips should be provided with the correct clearance.
− Neck: The diametically undercut portion between the body and the shank of the
drill. Diameter and other particularsa of the drill are engraved at the neck.
− Outer corner: The corner formed by the intersection of the flank and face.
− Point: The sharpened end of the drill, consisting of all that part of the drill which is
shaped to produce lips, faces, flanks and chisel edge.
− Right hand cutting drill: A drill which cuts when rotating in counter - clockwise
direction viewed on the point end of the drill.

− Shank: that part of the drill by which it is held and driven. The most common types
of shank are the taper shank and the straight shank. The taper shank provides means
of centering and holding the drill by friction in the tapered end of the spindle.
− Tang: The flattened end of the taper shank intended to fit into a drift slot in the
spindle, socket or drill holder. The tang ensures positive drives of the drill from the
drill spindle.
− Web: The central portion of the drill situated between the roots of the flutes and
extending from the point toward the shank, the point end of the web or core forms
the chisel edge.
− The following are the linear dimensions of the drill.
− Back taper: It is the reduction in diameter of the drill from the point towards the
shank.
− Body clearance diameter: The diameter over the surface of the drill body which is
situated behind the lands.
− Depth of body clearance: The amount of radial reduction on each side to provide
body clearance.
− Diameter: The measurement across the cylindrical lands at the outer corners of the
drill.
− Flute length: The axial length from the extreme end of the point to the termination
of the flute at the shank end of the body.
− Lead of helix: The distance measured parallel to the drill axis between the
corresponding point on the leading edge of the flute in one complete turn of the
flute.
− Lip length: The minumum distance between the outer corner and the chisel edge
corner of the lip.
− Overall length: The length over the extreme ends of the point and the shank of the
drill.
− Web (core) taper: The increase in the web or core thickness from the point of the
drill to the shank end of the flute.
− Web thickness: The minimum dimension of the web or core measured at the point
end of the drill.

3.6 Drilling Machine Operations

− The different operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are:
1. Drilling 6. Spot facing
2. Reaming 7. Tapping
3. Boring 8. Lapping
4. Counter boring 9. Grinding
5. Countersinking 10. Trepanning
3.6.1. Drilling
− Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole by removing of metal by the
rotating edge of cutting tool called the drill.
− The drilling is the simplest method of producing a hole.
− Before drilling, the centre of hole is located on the workpiece by drawing two lines at
right angles to each other and then center punch is used to produce an indentation
at the centre.
− Drill point is pressed at this centre point to produce the required hole.
− Drilling does not produce an accurate hole in a workpiece and the hole is generated
by drilling becomes rough and the hole is always slightly oversize than drill used due
to vibration of the spindle and drill.
− A 12 mm drill may produce a hole as much as 0.125 mm oversize and 22 mm drill
may produce 0.5 mm oversize.
Fig 3.15 Drilling operation Fig 3.16 Reaming operation
Department
3.6.2. Reaming
− Reaming is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole which has been previously
drilled.
− To finish a hole and to boring it to the accurate size, the hole is drilled slightly
undersize.
− The speed of spindle is made half of drilling and automatic feed may be produced.
− Reamer tool is used which has multipoint cutting edges.
− It can not originate hole, it simply follow the path which has been previously drilled.
− The material removed by this process is around 0.37
0.375
5 mm and for accurate work it
should not exceed 0.125 mm.
3.6.3. Boring
− Boring is performed in a drilling machine for reasons stated as under.
1. To enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with only one cutting
edge.
2. To finish a hole accurately and to bring it to the required size.
3. To machine internal surface of a hole already produced in casting.
4. To correct out of roundness of the hole.
5. To correct the location of the hole as the boring tool follows an independent
path with respect to the hole.
− In precision
sion machine the accuracy is as high as ± 0.00125 mm.
Fig 3.17 Boring operation Fig 3.18 Counter boring operation

3.6.4. Counter boring
− Counter boring is the operation of enlarging the end of hole cylindrically.
− The enlarged hole forms a square shoulder with original hole.

− This is necessary in some cases to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
− Counter boring can give accuracy of about ± 0.050 mm.
− The cutting speed for counter boring is 25% less than that of drilling operation.
3.6.5. Countersinking
− Counter sinking is the operation of making a cone shaped enlargement of the end of
a hole to provide a recess for a flat head screw or countersunk rivet fitted into the
hole.
− Standard countersinks have 60o, 82o or 90o inclined angle.
− Cutting speed is 25% less than that of drilling.
Fig 3.19 Countersinking operation Fig 3.20 Spot facing operation

3.6.6. Spot facing
− Spot facing is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around a hole for
the seat for a nut or the head of a screw.
− Counter bore or a special facing tool may be employed for this purpose.
3.6.7. Tapping
− Tapping is the operation of cutting internal thread
threadss by means of a cutting tool called
a tap.
− Tap may be considered as a bolt with accurate threads cut on it.
− The threads act as cutting edges which are hardened and ground.
− When tap is screwed into the hole it removes metal and cuts internal threads which
will fit into external threads of the same size.
3.6.8. Lapping
− Lapping
ping is the operation of sizing and finishing a small diameter hole already
hardened by removing a very small amount of material by using a tap.
Department
3.6.9. Grinding
− Grinding operation may be performed in a d
drilling
rilling machine to finish a hardened hole.
− Grinding wheel is made to revolve with the spindle and is fed up and down.
− Accuracy in grinding operation is ± 0.0025 mm.
Fig 3.21 Tapping operation Fig 3.22 Trepanning operation

3.6.10. Trepanning
− Trepanning
panning is the operation of producing a hole by removing metal along the
circumference of a hollow cutting tool.
− Trepanning operation is performed for producing large holes.
− Fewer chips are removed but tool may be operated at higher speeds as the variation
in diameter of tool is limited by narrow cutting edge.

BORING MACHINE
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Boring Machine

4. Boring Machine Manufacturing Processes I (2131903)
4.1 Introduction
− The boring machine is one of the most versatile machine tools used to bore holes in
large and heavy parts such as engine frame, steam engine cylinders, machine
housing, etc. which are practically impossible to hold and rotate in an engine lathe or
a drilling machine.
− In addition to its primary purpose of boring the range of speeds and feeds provided
to the various traversing components allow drilling, milling and facing to be
performed with equal facility.
− By the fitting of simple attachments, the use of the machine can be extended still
further to include screw cutting, turning, planetary or gear cutting.
4.2 Types of Boring Machine

− The boring machines may be classified under the four headings:
1. Horizontal boring machine
A. Table type
B. Floor type
C. Planer type
D. Multiple head type
2. Vertical boring machine
A. Vertical turret lathe
B. Standard vertical boring machine
3. Precision boring machine
4. Jig boring machine
A. Vertical milling machine type
B. Planer type
4.2.1 Horizontal boring machine

− In horizontal boring machine the work is supported on a table which is stationary
and the tool revolves in a horizontal axis.
− A horizontal boring machine can perform operation like boring, reaming, turning,
threading, facing, and grooving etc. with suitable tools.
− Workpiece which are heavy, irregular, unsymmetrical can be conveniently held and
machined easily.
− Table type is the most common of all horizontal boring machines. In this boring
machine work is mounted on the table.

Manufacturing Processes I (2131903) 4. Boring Machine
1 – Headstock, 2 – Pulley for counter balancing weight of headstock, 3 – Headstock

elevating screw, 4 – Boring head, 5 – Boring cutter on boring bar, 6 – Work, 7– End
supporting column, 8 – Bearing block, 9 – Saddle, 10 – Cross slide, 11 – Table
Fig 4.1 Horizontal boring Machine
− Table may be adjusted by hand or power in lengthwise or crosswise.
− The headstock may be adjusted vertically on the column.
− The machine essentially consists of a bed, headstock, supporting column, end
supporting column, headstock, saddle and table, and boring bar.
− This machine is suitable for general purpose work where other operation, in addition
to boring are required to be performed.
1 – Column base, 2 – End supprting column, 3 – Table, 4 – Saddle, 5 – Spindle, 6 –

Head stock supporting column, 7– Headstock, 8 – Motor, 9 – Bed
Fig 4.2 Table type Horizontal boring Machine
− Floor type horizontal boring machine having no table uses a stationary floor plate on
which T - slots are provided to hold the work.
− The headstock supporting column and the end supporting column are mounted on
the runways which are placed at right angles to the spindle axis.
− This is so designed for holding very large and heavy workpieces which are difficult to
be mounted and adjusted on a table.

1 – End supprting column

column, 2 –Column base, 3 – Spindle, 4 – Floor plate,
plate 5 – Head
stock supporting column
column, 6 – Head stock, 7– Motor
Fig 4.3
4 Floor type Horizontal boring Machine
− Planer type horizontal boring machine resembles the table type but table slides
directly on the bed instead of on a sad
saddle and reciprocates at right
ight angles to the
spindle similar to a planner.
− The end supporting column and headstock supporting column may be adjusted
towards or away from the table for accommodating different widths of the work.
− This type of machinee is suitable for supporting a long w
work.
1 – End supporting column

column, 2 – Column base, 3 – Table, 4 – Spindle, 5 – Headstock
supporting column
column, 6 – Head stock, 7– Motor, 8 – Bed
Fig 44.4 Planer type Horizontal boring Machine
− Multiple head type horizontal boring machine resembles a double housing
housin planer or
a plano - miller. The table is supported on a long bed on which it reciprocates.
− There are two vertical columns at two sides of the bed, nearly at the middle of the
bed. The
he two columns are bridged by a cross rail.
− The machine may have two, three or four heaheadstocks. This type of machine may be
used both as a horizontal and vertical machine.
− The machining operations ca
can be performed simultaneously at different work
wo
surfaces.

2131903) 4. Boring Machine
1 – Cross rail, 2 – Headstock

Headstock, 3 – Column, 4 – Headstock, 5 – Bed, 6 – Table,
Fig 4.5 Multiple head type Horizontal boring Machine
4.2.2 Vertical boring machine
− In this vertical boring machine work rotates on a horiz
horizontal
ontal table and tool is
stationary except for the feed.
1 – Feed adjusting levers,, 2 – Tool box, 3 – Tool head assembly, 4 – Ram,, 5 – Housing,
6 – Handwheel for ram adjustment
adjustment, 7– Crossrail, 8 – Fine hand adjustmetn for ram,
ram
9 – Crossrail elevating screw, 10 – Table, 11 – Bed
Fig 4.6 Vertical boring Machine
− This
is specific design of the machine provides certain distinct advantages over a lathe
for a particular class of work. The advantages are:
1. Large diameter and heavy workpiec
workpieces,
es, similar to chucking jobs on a lathe, may be
set up more coveniently and quickly than on a lathe. It is easier to lay a
workpiece down on the table rather than to hang it up.
2. The table and the work it carries rotate in a horizontal plane, and there is no
overhang as in the case of a lalathe spindle, and consequently any chance of
bending the spindle which supports the heavy workpiece is eliminated.
Department
3. The table being horizontal, the diam

diameter of the table may be designed as large as
possible to support large workpieces.
4. Multiple tooling may be adapted in the case a vertical boring machine with its
turret type tool post increasing the rate of production.
− Vertical turret lathe combines the advantages of the vertical boring mill and the
turret lathe. A vertical boring machine of smaller size is called a vertical turret lathe.
− It has an indexablee turret mounted upon the cross rail above the table for multiple
tooling.
1 – Housing, 2 – Crossrail,
Crossrail 3 – Saddle, 4 – Turret, 5 – Table, 6 – Bed
Fig 4.7 Vertical turret lathe
− A four station square turret side head which enables facing, turning,
tu under cutting
and many other operations is mounted at the side of the lathe.
− The cross rail may have vertical adjustments and for ease of operation it is counter
balanced.
− The turret mounted on the saddle may be moved crosswise by hand or power. The
turret mayy also be moved in a vertical p
plane. The side head also has up and
a down
and to and fro adjustments
nts from the center of the table.
− The machine is suitable for boring and turning railro
railroad wheels, piston rings, gear
blanks, etc.
− Standard vertical boring machine is larger in size than vertical turret lathe and there
is no turret lathe.
− The machine is provided with two vertical heads and one or two side heads.
− The machine is particular
particularly intended for boring large cylindrical and symmetrical
workpiece.

2131903) 4. Boring Machine
− Turbine castings, locomotiv

locomotive tires, etc.
c. are some of the common examples
examp which
need vertical boring machine.
4.2.3 Precision boring machine
− The precision boring machine uses si
single
ngle point tools to machine surfaces rapidly and
accurately.
− Cemented carbide and diamond tipped single point tools are operated at a very high
cutting speed to produce
duce accurately sized holes with a fine surface finish.
− The feeding movement may be provided by the tool or by the work.
− The machine may be horizontal or vertical type.
4.2.4 Jig boring machine
− The jig boring machine is the most accurate of all machine tools. This was developed
in the year 1910 in Switzerland and used as a locating machine. The he real jig borer
was first built in the year 1917 by Pratt and Whitney.
− The jig boring machines are now used for production of jigs, fixtures, tools and other
precision parts which require high degree of accuracy.
− They characterized by provisions of highest accuracy through rigidi
rigidity,
ty, low thermal
ther
expansion and precise means of measuring distance for accurately locating and
spacing holes.
− The machining accuracy is very high, within range of 0.0025 mm.
− A jig boring machine resembles in appearance to a vertical milling machine, but so
far its operation and accura
accuracy are concerned there cannot be any comparison the
two.
1 – Spindle head, 2 – Quill

Quill, 3 – Column, 4 – Spindle housing, 5 – Spindle,
Spindle 6 – Table,
7– Saddle, 8 – Bed
Fig 4.8 Jig boring Machine
Department
− The spindle and other parts of the machine are extremely rigid to resist deflection
and the vibration is minimum.
− The spindle runs in preloaded antifriction bearing. The spindle housings are made of
invar having a very low coefficient of linear expansion.
− The jig boring machine requires to be operated in temperature can be maintained
constant. This is essential to prevent inaccuracy in the machine in the work being
manufactured due to thermal expansion of the metal.
− Vertical milling machine type resembles in construction to a vertical milling
machine.
− The spindle rotates on a vertical column and the horizontal table rests on the bed in
front of the column.
− The positioning of the work mounted on the table may be obtained by compound
movements of the table, perpendicular and parallel to the column face.
− Planer type consists of two vertical columns at the two sided of the table and is
mounted on the base.
− The table has reciprocating movement for adjustment of the work. The spindle is
mounted on the cross rail bridging the two vertical columns.
− In a planer type jig borer, two co - ordinate movements for hole locations are
provided by the longitudinal movement of the table and the cross movement of the
spindle along the cross rail.

5
MILLING MACHINE
Course Contents
5.1 Introduction to milling machine
5.2 Types of Milling Machines
5.3 Column and Knee Type Milling
Machines
5.4 Milling Cutters
5.5 Methods of Feeding Workpiece /
Table Feed in Milling
5.6 Milling Machine Operations
5.7 Dividing Head or indexing Head
5.8 indexing Methods
5.9 Milling Machine Attachments
5.10 Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of
Cut
5.11 Machining Time
5.12 Alignment Test on Milling
Machine
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: paras G. Vegada

5. Milling machine Manufacturing process-I (2131903)
5.1 Introduction to milling machine

 Milling is the machining process in which the metal removal takes place due to the
cutting action of a revolving cutter when work piece is fed past it.
 The revolving cutter is held on a spindle or arbor and the work piece clamped on the
machine table.
 During the process, to produce the desired shape, the cutter removes the metal in
the form of chips from the work piece surface'
 The machine tool on which the milling operation is performed is called as milling
machine.
 Also, the work piece can be fed in a vertical, longitudinal or cross direction shows the
working principle of a milling machine.
Fig.5. 1 Working principle of milling machine

5.2 Types of Milling Machines:
A large variety of different types of milling machines are available. Aclassification of
these machines according to the general design can be done as follows:
1. Column and knee type milling machines :
a. Hand milling machine
b. Plain or horizontal milling machine
c. Vertical milling machine
d. Universal milling machine
e. Omniversal milling machine
2. Fixed bed or manufacturing type milling machines :
a. plain type milling machine (having single horizontal spindle)
b. Duplex head milling machine (having double horizontal spindles)
c. Triplex head milling machine (having two horizontal and one vertical spindle)
d. Rise and fall type milling machine (for profile milling)
3. Planer type milling machines
4. Production milling machines:
a. Rotary table or continuous type milling machine
b. Drum type milling machine
c. Tracer controlled milling machine
Prepared By: paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

5. Special purpose milling machines :

a. Thread milling machine
b. Profile milling machine
c. Cam milling machine
d. Gear milling or gear hobbing machine
e. Planetary milling machine
5.3 Column and Knee Type Milling Machines
 Column and knee type milling machines are most commonly used in machine shops and
tool rooms. These machines are general purpose machines and have a single spindle
only.The worktable is supported on a knee-like casting. Which can slide in vertical
direction along a vertical column? Depending upon the spindle position and table
movements, they are further classified as follows:
a. Hand milling machine
b. plain or horizontal milling machine
c. Vertical milling machine
d. Universal milling machine
e. Omniversal milling machine
f. Column and Knee type milling machines
5.3.1 Hand Milling Machine:
 It is the simplest of all the milling machines and smaller in size.
 All the operations are performed by hand except the rotation of an arbor.
 The table carrying the work piece over it is moved by hand to feed the work piece.
 This machine is mostly useful in producing small components such as hexagonal or
square headed bolts, cutting key ways and slots on screw heads.
5.3.2 Plain or Horizontal Milling Machine:
 Fig. 5.2 shows block diagram of a plain milling machine, in which the vertical column
serves as housing for electrical, main drive, bearings, etc.
Fig.5. 2: Horizontal Milling Machine:
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Paras G..Vegada

 For supporting the saddle, worktable and other accessories such as indexing head,
knee is provided.
 Overarm provides support for the yoke which supports the free end of the arbor
 The arbor carrying the cutter rotates about a horizontal axis.
 Except swiveling, the table can be given motion in three different directions i.e.
o Longitudinal direction   
o Vertical direction  
o Cross direction   
 For vertical movement of the table, the knee along with whole unit over it slides up
and down in the guide ways provided on the column.
 For cross movement of the table, the saddle is moved towards or away from the
column along with the whole unit over it.
 To provide additional support and rigidity to the arbor, a brace is employed.
5.3.2 vertical milling machine
 In this type of machine spindle position is vertical hence, called as vertical milling
machine.
 This machine is available in two types i.e. fixed bed type and column and knee type.
 Fig. 5.3 (a) shows the block diagram of vertical milling machine with fixed head.
 It consists of a vertical column on a heavy base and overarm is made integral with
the column and carrying housing at its front.
 This housing is called as head which can be of fixed type or swivelling type. In fixed
head type, the spindle always remains vertical and can be adjusted up and down.
 Whereas, in swivelling head type, the spindle can be swivelled to any required angle
for machining inclined surfaces. Refer Fig. 5.3 (b).
a. Vertical milling machine with fixed head

 The knee carries a screw jack with the help of which it is moved up and down along the
guide ways provided on the column.
b. Vertical milling machine with swivelled head

Fig.5. 3: Vertical Milling Machine:
 The saddle is mounted on the knee which can be moved towards or away from the
column, along the horizontal guide ways provided on the knee.
 This enables the table to move in cross direction.
 Similar to horizontal milling machine, in vertical milling machine also there are three
motions for the table i.e. longitudinal, vertical and cross.
 Hence, with the help of knee the work piece gets vertical movement, by using cross
movement; and longitudinal movement by the table.
5.3.4 Universal Milling Machine
 Universal milling machines are most versatile of all the milling machines and most useful
because, they are capable of performing most of the machining operations.
 By using this machine, large number of other machine tools can be avoided.
 Universal6illing 63shine is similar to horizontal milling machine, except that thetablecan
be given one more additional movement. Refer Fig. 5.2.
 Its table can be swivelled in a horizontal plane and for this purpose circular guide way
are provided on the saddle.
 To read the angle of swivelling, a graduated circular base is provided under the table
with datum mark on the saddle. Hence, Work piece can be set at an angle with the
cutter for milling helical and spiral flutes and grooves.

 By using some attachments, this machine can be worked as a vertical milling

machine.
5.3.5 Omniversal Milling Machine
 Omniversal milling machine is a modified form of a plain milling machine.
 It is provided with two spindles, out of which one is horizontal and other is carried by
a universal swivelling head.
 The latter can be fixed in vertical position or can be set at any required angle up to
90 on both the sides of vertical.
 One more special feature of this machine is that, it carries two more adjustments in
addition to all the adjustments provided in a universal machine.
 Its knee can be swivelled about a horizontal axis to tilt the table and can be moved
horizontally also.
 Hence, this machine is very useful for tool room work.
5.3.6 Principle Parts of Column and Knee Type Milling Machines :
 The main parts of all column and knee type milling machines are similar but, only the
movements are different. All these machines consist of following main parts:
1. Base 4. Table 7. Arbor
2. Column 5. Saddle
3. Knee 6. Overarm
1. Base:
 Base is a heavy casting and provided at the bottom of the machine.
 On both the top and bottom surfaces, it is accurately machined.
 It acts as a load taking member for all other parts of the machine and a reservoir for the
coolant.
 Column of the machine is secured to the base.
 Also, the base carries a screw jack which supports and moves the knee.
2. Column:
 Column is very important part of a milling machine and produced under careful attention
because on the column many parts and controls are fitted.
 Vertical parallel guide ways are provided on front face of the column in which knee slides
up and down.
 Also, on the top of the column overarm is supported'
3. Knee
 Knee is a rigid casting which is capable of sliding up and down along the guide ways
provided on front face of the column.
 With the movement of the knee, the table height or distance between the cutter and
work piece can be adjusted.
 By operating the screw jack with the help of hand wheel or Powel feed, theheight can be
adjusted.

 For cross movement of the saddle and table, horizontal guide ways are provided the top
surface of the knee.
 Two bolts are usually provided on front face of the knee for securing the braces it.
4. Table:
 Table acts as a support for the work piece.
 Table is generally made of cast iron with its top surface accurately machined.
 To accommodate the clamping bolts for fixing the work piece, the top surface of the
table carries longitudinal T-slots.
 Also, the cutting fluid after it is used drains back to the reservoir through slots these and
for this purpose pipe is fitted.
 Longitudinal feed is provided to the table by using hand wheel fitted on one side of the
feed screw.
 Vertical feed is provided by raising or lowering the knee and cross feed by the moving
saddle.
 Also, in case of universal milling machine, the table can be swiveled in a horizontal plane
around the center of its base.
5. Saddle :
 Saddle is the intermediate part between the table and knee which acts as a support for
the table.
 To provide cross feed to the table, the saddle can be adjusted crosswise along the guide
ways provided on the top of the knee.
 Also, horizontal guide ways are provided at the top of the saddle along which the table
can be moved in a longitudinal direction.
6. Overarm :
 It is the heavy support provided on the top of the milling machine (in plain and universal
milling machines).
 To support the projecting arbor, it can slide horizontally, forward and backward and
adjusted at required position.
7. Arbor:
 Arbor is used for holding the milling cutters during the operations.
 It is a common method of mounting the cutters, although they are mounted on the
machine spindle directly too.
 The arbors are mainly of two types i.e. standard arbor and stub arbor.
 Standard arbor is provided with a set of spacing collars, which helps in adjusting the
cutter position. Refer Fig. 5.4 (a).
 The slots are provided on the flange of the arbor to engage the driving dogs of the
spindle.
 Stub arbors are used to hold face and side milling cutters, which do not need a large
overhang. Refer Fig. 5.a (b).

Fig.5. 4: Milling arbor

5.3 Milling Gutters :
 The milling cutters may have straight teeth i.e. parallel to the rotation axis or in helical
shape.
 The angle of helix may be right hand or left hand which will decide the direction rotation
of the cutter for cutting operation.
 A milling cutter may be made of single piece of steel ot having cutting teeth inserted
solid body.
 According to the shape of teeth, milling teeth are broadly classified as follows
1. Plain milling cutters :
a. Light duty cutters
b. Heavy duty cutters
c. Helical cutters
2. Side milling cutters:
a. Plain cutters
b. staggered teeth cutters
c. Half cutters
d. Interlocking cutters
3. Metal slitting cutters
a. Plain cutters
b. staggered teeth cutters
4. End milling cutters :
a. Taper shank cutters
b. Straight shank cutters
c. Shell cutters

5. T-slot milling cutters

6. Woodruff key slot milling cutters
7. Fly cutters
8. Angle milling cutters
a. Single angle cutter
b. Double angle cutters
9. Formed milling cutters
a. Convex milling cutters
b. Concave milling cutters
c. Corner rounding milling cutters
d. Concave milling cutters
e. Gear cutters
f. Thread milling cutter
5.4 Plain Milling Cutters:
 Plain milling cutters are cylindrical in shape and have the cutting teeth on their
periphery.
 The cutting teeth may be either straight or helical. Refer Fig. 5.5 (a).
Fig.5. 5: (a) Plain Milling Cutters

 Their end faces are either ground square with the axis or slightly concave to reduce the
friction.
 Hence, by side faces no cutting action is provided.
 These cutters are used for milling flat surfaces parallel to the rotation axis.
 These cutters are available in diameters from 16 to 160 mm and width range from 20 to
160 mm
 The different types of plain milling cutters are as follows :
a. Light duty plain milling cutters :
 These cutters are available upto 20 mm width and carry straight teeth. .

 These cutters are used for key way and slot cutting.
b. Heavy duty plain milling cutters :
 These cutters are wider and used for heavy duty work.
 The cutters have few teeth on the periphery and this increases the chip space permitting
them to take deeper cuts.
c. Helical Plain milling cutters:
 These types of cutters have coarse pitch and the helix angle of teeth ranges from45 to
60°.
 These cutters are useful in profile milling work because of smooth cutting action and are
adapted for taking light cuts on soft steel or brass. Refer Fig. 5.5 (b).
Fig.5. 5: (b) Helical Plain Milling Cutters

5.4.2 Side Milling Gutters :
 Side milling cutters have teeth on their periphery and on one or both sides.
 Also, for mounting them on the arbor, they are provided with central hole refer Fig.5.6.
Fig.5. 6: Side Milling Cutters

 When used in pairs they are called as straddle mills'
 These cutters are employed for removing metals from the side of a work piece
 They are available from 50 mm to 200 mm in diameter and 5 mm to 32 mm in width
 The different types of side milling cutters are as follows
a. Plain side milling cutters :

 These cutters have cutting teeth on periphery and on both sides Refer Fig5.7(a)
 They are used for face milling or cutting slots.
Fig.5. 7(a): Plain side Milling Cutters
b. Staggered teeth side milling cutters :

 These cutters have alternate teeth on the periphery only. Refer Fig. 5.7 (b).
Fig.5. 7(b): Staggered teeth side milling cutters

 These teeth have opposite helix angle, staggered from side to side, like teeth wood saw,
and cut alternatively on one side and then other side.
 These types of cutters are mostly used for keyway cutting and slot cutting.
c. Half side milling cutters :
 Half side milling cutters have helical or straight teeth on the periphery and on one side
only.
 The helix can be either right hand or left hand.
 Actual cutting operation is performed by peripheral teeth where finishing and sizing is
done by side teeth.

 Mostly, they are used in pairs for milling two parallel surfaces simultaneously and the
operation is called as straddle milling.
 These cutters are used for face milling.
d. interlocking side milling cutters :
 Interlocking cutters are formed by joining two half side milling cutter or staggered teeth
side milling cutters. Refer Fig. 5.7 (c).
Fig.5. 7(c): interlocking side milling cutters

 By inserting spacers between two cutters, they can be adjusted to acquire the required
width.
 The spacers are used to make good reduction in width of the cutters due to wear and
frequent resharpening of teeth.
 These cutters are useful f-or milling wider slots of exact width. Also widely used in gang
milling;
5.4.3 Metal Slitting Cutters:
 Metal slitting cutters are also called as metal slitting saws.
 They appear like plain or side milling cutter but are of very small width. Refer Fig. 5.8
Fig.5. 8: Metal Slitting Cutters

 These types of cutters are mostly used for parting-off operation and for slotting.
 Metal slitting cutters are available in following varieties.

a. Plain slitting cutter :

 As compared to other milling cutters, these cutters are very thin.
 To prevent rubbing their teeth carry some side relief.
 They are available in widths ranging from 1 mm to 5 mm.
b. Staggered teeth slitting cutters :
 These cutters are similar to the staggered side milling cutters but width is limited from 4
mm to 10 mm. These cutters are used for heavy work only.
5.4.4 End Milling Cutters:
 End milling cuttershave cutting teeth on the end as well as on the circumference of the
cutter.
 The teeth on circumference may be straight or helical and the helix may be left hand or
right hand.
 These cutters are used for light milling operations such as cutting slots, machining
accurate holes, profile milling, narrow flat surfaces, etc.
 Fig. 5.9 shows various types of end teeth on end milling cutters.
 The different varieties of end milling cutters are as follows :
Fig.5. 9: Types of end teeth

a. Taper shank end milling cutters :
 They have a tapered shank or extension on one end for cutters. Refer Fig,
5.10(a).mounting and driving the cutters may have double flutes or multiple flutes.
 The taper shank end milling cutters are available from 10 to 63 mm in diameter.
Fig.5. 10(a): Taper shank end milling cutters

b. Straight shank end milling cutters :
 For mounting and driving the cutters, the straight shank mills have round shank Refer
Fig. 5.10(b).

Fig.5. 10(b): Straight shank end milling cutters

 The cutter teeth may be straight or helical.
 The diameter of cutter ranges from 2 mm to 63 mm.
c. Shellend milling cutters:
 Shell end milling cutters are heavier and larger end milling cutters and are provided with
central hole for mounting the cutter on an arbor. Refer Fig. 5.10 (c)
Fig.5. 10(c): Shell end milling cutters

 The cutting edges are on the circumference and at the end.
 The cutting teeth may be straight or helical and may be right handed or left handed.
 These cutters are generally used for face milling operations.
 The diameter of cutter ranges from 40 mm to 160 mm and width from 32 mm to 50mm.
5.4.5 T-slot Milling Cutters:
 T-slot milling cutters are special forms of end milling cutters used for producing T-slots.
 In smaller size, it has the shank integral with the cutter, as shown in Fig. 5. 11 whereas
large size cutters are mounted on a separate shank.
Fig.5. 11: Shell end milling cutters

 During the operation, the narrow groove at the top is first milled by using a slotting
cutter or end milling cutter.
 After that, T-slot milling cutter is employed for milling wider groove.
5.4.6 Woodruff-key Milling Cutters :
 It is a small type of end milling cutter which resembles plain and side milling cutters.
 Fig. 5.12 shows small type of woodruff-key milling cutter.

Fig.5. 12: Woodruff-key Milling Cutters

 Small size (up to 50 mm) diameter cutters have a solid shank, whereas larger size cutters
are provided with a central hole for mounting on an arbor.
 Smaller size cutters have straight teeth on the periphery, whereas larger cutters have
staggered teeth on the periphery and sides.
5.4.7 Fly Cutters :
 It is actually a single point cutting tool, which is mounted on a cylindrical body and held
in a stub arbor or in a bar. Refer Fig. 5.13.
Fig.5. 13: Fly Cutters

 Generally, fly cutters are the simplest form of cutters and used in experimental shops or
tool room works.
 The cutting edge may be formed to reproduce countered surface.
 When standard cutters are not available, this cutter is considered as an emergency tool.
5.4.8 Angle Milling Cutters :
 The cutting edges of the angle milling cutters are formed at the conical surface around
theperiphery of the cutter. Its angularteethareneitherparallelnornormaltotheiraxes.
 They are mostly used in milling v-grooves, notches, dovetail slots, reamer teeth and
other angular surfaces.
 Two common types of angle milling cutters are as follows
a. Single angle milling cutters :
 They may have their teeth either only on the angular face or both on angular faceand
the side. Refer Fig. 5.14 (a).

Fig.5. 14(a) Single angle milling cutters:

 The angle of the cutter is designated by an included angle between the conical faceand
flat face of the cutter.
 Their teeth may have an included angle of 30, 45, 60, 75, 80 and availablewith
diameter of 50 mm and width of 12 mm.
b. Double angle milling cutters :
 These cutters have two angular faces whichjoin together to form V-shaped teeth.
 The included angle of V is generally 45, 60 or 90, but it is not necessary that theangle
ofboth the faces should be equal.
Fig.5. 14(b): Double angle milling cutters

 Fig. 5.14 (b) shows double angle millingcutter which is mainly used for cuttingspiral
grooves on a piece ofblank.
 The cutters are available upto 100 mm diameter and width ranges from 12 mm to36
mm.
5.4.9 Formed Milling Cutters :
 Formed milling cutters are also called as form relieved milling cutters or radiuscutters.
 The formed cutters have irregular profiles on the cutting edges, to generate an irregular
routeline of the work.
 The teeth of formed milling cutters are provided with a certain angle of relief so
thattheir forms and sizes are retained even after resharpening.
 The common types of formed milling cutters are as follows :
a. Convex milling cutters :
 Convex milling cutters are the most commonly used formed cutters.
 The name convex doesnot indicate the shape of the surface to be produced, but
theshape of the cutter teeth.

 It is used for producing concave surface on a work piece.
Fig.5. 15(a): convex milling cutters

 Fig. 5.15 (a) indicates convex milling cutters which are available from 50 mm125 mm
diameter and radius of semi-circlevaries from 1.6 mm to 20 mm.
b. Concave milling cutters :
 Concave milling cutters are also mostly used formed milling cutters.
 In this also, the name does not indicate the shape of the surface to be produced, but the
shape of the cutter teeth.
 These cutters are used for milling a convex surface on a work piece.
 The concave milling cutters have teeth curved inwards on the circumferential surface to
form the contour of a semicircle.
Fig.5. 15(b): Concave milling cutters

 Fig. 5.15 (b) shows concave milling cutters56 mm to 110 mm and semicircle radius from
1.5mm to 20mm
c. Comer rounding milling cutters :
 The corner rounding milling cutters have teeth curved inwards on thecircumferential
surface to form the contour of a quarter circles.
 These cutters are manufactured separately as single cutters or double cutters.

(I) R.H. corner (ll) L.H. corner (III) Double

rounding cutter rounding cutter rounding cutter
Fig.5. 15(c): Comer rounding milling cutters
 The single cutters may be right hand Fig. 5. 15 (c) (I) or left handFig.5.15 (c) (II).
 The double cutter is a combination of both right hand and left hand in a single unit Refer
Fig. 5.15 (c) (III).
 These cutters are used for milling the edges and comers of the jobs to a requiredradius.
The diameter of which ranges from1.5 mm to 20 mm.
d. Gear cutters :
 The gear cutters have formed cutting edges which reproduce the shape of the
cutterteeth on the gear blank.
 According to the gear tooth profile, the shape of the cutter may be involute or cycloidal.
 They are used for milling gear teeth on a milling machine.
(Roughing) (Finishing)
Fig.5.15 (d): Grade of gear cutters
 Fig. 5.15 (d) shows two common grades of gear cutters i.e. roughing and finishing.
 Sometimes, gears are also generated by gear hobbing process is called as gear hob. Refer
Fig. 5.15 (e).

Fig.5.15 (e): Gear hob

 This process is used for milling operation such as cutting teeth of worm wheel helicaland
spur gears, spline shafts, etc.
e. Thread milling cutters :
 Thread milling cutters are used for milling worms and acme type threads.
 The cutters may have parallel or taper shanks. Refer Fig. 5.16(f) (i) and (ii).
(I)Parallel shank thread milling cutter
(II) Taper shank thread milling cutter

Fig.5.16 (f): Thread milling cutters
 These cutters are available in diameters ranging from 8 mm to 20 mm and the length of
threaded portion varies from 8 mm to 33 mm.
 The included angle of cutting teeth will correspond to the angleof the threads to be
produced.
5.4.10 Tap and Reamer Cutters :
 Tap and reamer cutters are special types of doubleangle cutters.
 These cutters are used for milling flutes on reamers and taps.

(a)Tap cutter (b) Reamer cutter
(c) Tap and reamer fluting cutter

Fig.5.17: Tap and Reamer Cutters
 The point end of the tooth is round and tooth profile correspond to the type of groove
that is to be made
 Fig5.17 (a), (b) and (c) shows tap and reamer fluting cuter.
5.5 Methods of Feeding Work piece / Table Feed in Milling
 As already discussed, milling is a process of cutting a metal by using multi-teeth
rotatingtool which is called as cutter.
 The form of each tooth of the cutter is similar to the single point tool.
 An important feature is that, each tooth after taking a cut comes in operation again
aftersome interval.
 This allows the tooth to cool down before the next cutting operation is done by it, which
minimises the effect of heat developed in cutting on the cutting edge.
 Following two methods are commonly used for performing this operation by
usingcylindrical cutter
a. Up milling :
 Up milling is also called as conventional milling.
 In this method, cutter rotates in a direction opposite to that in which the work pieces
fed. Refer Fig. 5.18 (a).

Fig.5.18 (a): Up milling

b. Down milling :
 Down milling is also called as climb milling.
 In this method, the direction of rotation of the cutter and the direction of work piece fed
is same. Refer Fig. 5.18 (b).
Fig.5.18 (b): Down milling

 The above relative directions of movements of the cutter and work piece should
benoted at the point of contact.
 By comparing both the figures it is found that, the shape of the metal chip removedby
the cutter is same in both the cases.
 But in up milling, as the cutting proceeds, the chip thickness increases graduallywhereas,
in down milling chip thickness decreases gradually.
 In other words, chip thickness in up milling is zero at the start and maximum at theend of
cut, whereas in down milling chip thickness is maximum at the start and zero at the end
ofcut.
 According to the nature of work piece, particular method is selected.
 Up milling is generally used for machining of casting and forging, while the downmilling
is used for finishing operations.
 Down milling is also used for small work such as slot cutting, milling grooves, slitting. etc.

5.5.1 Comparison of up milling and down milling

Sr. Up milling or conventional milling Down milling or climb milling
No.
1. The cutter is rotate against directionof The cutter rotates in the same direction
travel of the work piece. of travel of the work piece.
2. The chip thickness is minimum at The chip thickness is maximum at
thebeginning of the cut and or reaches thebeginning of the cut and or reduces
tomaximum when the cut terminates. tominimum when the cut terminates.
3. The cutting force is zero at the beginning The cutting force is maximum when
of the cut and maximum at the end of the thecut begins and it reduces to
cut. minimumwhen the tooth leaves the
work.
4. The cutting force is directed upward and The cutting force is downwards
this tend to lift the work piece from the whichtends to seat the work piece firmly
fixture in the fixture.
5. Difficulty in pouring the coolant just on The coolant can be poured directly atthe
the cutting edge, due to typical nature of cutting zone where cutting force
the cut ismaximum.
6. The chip accumulate ate the cutting zone Chips are disposed off easily and do
and may be carried over with the cutter notinterfere with the cutting.
spoiling the work surface
7. The actual cutting does not start at zero Chips are disposed off easily and do
chip thickness as teeth slide through a notinterfere with the cutting.
minute distance which gives a slightly
wavy surface
5.6 Milling Machine Operations :

 A large variety of components can be machined on a milling machine which involves
various types of operations. These operations are broadly classified as follows.
1. Plain or slab milling 8. Gear milling

2. Face milling 9. Form milling
3. Angular milling 10. Gang milling
4. Straddle milling 11. Keyway milling
5. Slot and groove milling 12. Side milling
6. Slitting or saw milling 13. Profile milling
7. End milling 14. Thread milling
1. Plain or slab milling:
 Plain milling is used for machining a flat, plain, horizontal surface, parallel to the axis of
cutter with the help of plain or slab milling cutter.

 For machining of very wide surface, interlocking teeth plain milling cutters are used
instead of simple plain milling cutters.
Fig.5.14: Plain or slab milling

 During the operation, the work piece and cutter ate secured properly on the machine
and by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table and machine, the depth of cut is
adjusted.
 Fig. 5.14 shows the plain milling operation
2. Face milling :
 Face milling is employed for machining a flat surface which is at right angle, tothe axis of
revolving cutter.
 The cutter used in the process is face milling type which is rotated about an axis
Perpendicular to the work piece.
Fig.5.15: Face milling

 The operation is performed on plain milling machine and depth of cut is adjusted by
rotating the cross feed screw of the table.
 Fig. 5.15 shows the face milling operation.
 Face mills under 150 mm are called as shell mills and are held on a short arbor.
3. Angular milling:
 Angular milling is used for machining a flat surface at an angle, other than right angle, to
the axis of milling machine spindle. For example, V-blocks.

Fig.5.16: Angular milling

 According to the type of surface (single or two mutually inclined), the single or double
angle cutters may be used. Refer Fig.5.16
4. Form milling:
 Form milling is the operation of machining irregular contours by means of form milling
cutter. Refer Fig. 5.17.
Fig.5.17: Form milling:
 The irregular contour may be concave, convex or ofany other shape.

 The cutting speed of form milling process is 20 - 30 % less than that of the plain milling.
5.Straddle milling :
 Straddle milling is the operation of flat vertical surfaces on both the sides of a work piece
simultaneously.
 For this purpose two side milling cutters are mounted on the same arbor Refer Fig. 5.18.
Fig.5.18: Straddle milling

 By using suitable spacing collars, the distance between the two cutters can be adjusted.
 This process is mainly used for production of square and hexagonal surfaces.
6.Gang milling :
 Gang milling is the operation of machining several surfaces of the work piece
simultaneously.
 For this, table is fed against the number of cutters having same or different diameters
mounted on a common arbor Refer Fig5.19
Fig.5.19: Gang milling

 This method saves machining time and is widely used in repetitive work
7. Slot and groove milling :
 slot milling is the operation of producing slots in solid work pieces.
 These slots can be of different shapes such as plain slots, T-slots, dovetail slots etc.
 Plain slot can be milled by using plain milling cutter and end milling cutter. Refer fig5.20
Fig.5.20: Milling a plain slot by end milling cutter

 Groove milling is the operation of producing grooves of various shapes like plain
grooves, curved grooves, v grooves, etc.
 According to the shape of slot or groove, the cutter is selected.
 Fig. 5.21 shows milling of T-slot .
(a)Work having milled plain slot (b) Milling of T- slot with T-slot milling cutter
Fig.5.21: Milling a T- slot using T-slot milling cutter

 These operations are carried out in two or three stages

 In first stage, open slot is milled by using suitable cutter (plain milling cutter) and
 Then the slot is milled by using special cutters like T-slot milling cutter.
8. Keyway milling :
 Keyway milling is a common operation which is performed on milling machine
 In this a groove is milled on shafts and spindles, which is known as key seat
 Fig. 5.22 shows different types of key seats. awoodruff key seat which is milled with
woodruff key seat cutter.
Fig.5.22: Keyway milling

 sunk key seat which is milled with end milling cutter
9. Slitting or saw milling :
 Saw milling is the operation of production of narrow slots or grooves on a work piece by
using a saw or slitting milling cutter.
 It is also used for complete parting-off operation.
Fig.5.23:Keyway milling
 The cutter and work piece are set in such a way that, the cutter is directly placed over
one of the T-slots of the table. Refer Fig. 5.23.
10. Side milling :
 In this operation a side milling cutter is used for machining a flat vertical surface on one
side of the work piece.

 When two parallel vertical flat surfaces are required to be machined, then two side
milling cutters in pairs are used.
Fig.5.24: Side milling

 By using spacer, the space between two cutters can be adjusted.
 Hence, this operation is similar to straddle milling. Refer Fig. 5.24.
11. End milling :
 This operation is used to machine and produce a flat surface or a pair of flat surfaces by
using an end milling cutter.
Fig.5.25: End milling

 Fig. 5.25 shows the end milling operation in which flat surface is produced withthe help
of an end milling cutter.
 The surfaces produced may be horizontal, vertical or inclined with respect to the top of
the machine table.
12. Profile milling :
 In profile milling, the profile of a template or cavity shape of a master-die is duplicated
on the work piece surface. Refer Fig. 5.26.
 The cutter movement is guided by a tracer control unit which carries a contact finger.

Fig.5.26: Profile milling

 This finger runs in contact with the outline to be duplicated and the tracer mechanism
guides the tool accordingly.
13. Gear milling :
 Spur gears are easily produced on plain and universal milling machines for cutting
helical, worm and bevel gears dividing heads are required. (Discussed later in this
chapter).
Fig.5.27: Gear milling

 Fig. 5.27 shows that, the cutter is mounted on arbor with its axis at right angle to the
work piece.
 Cutter is properly adjusted so that its central line is radial with the blank.
 The knee is raised to adjust the required depth of teeth.
 In a single pass, one tooth is finished and table is returned to its starting position
14. Thread milling :
 Thread milling is a method of cutting screw threads with the help of form-milling cutters.
 Both internal and external threads can be milled.
 Thread milling is associated with single or multiple cutters.

(a) Thread milling with single thread cutter (b) Tread milling with multiple tread cutter
Fig.5.28: Thread milling
 A single form cutter has a single row of annular teeth which are lying in one plane.
 While cutting, a cutter is tilted through a helix angle of the thread to avoid interference
during cutting.
 During the process, the cutter is fed radially inward up to the required depth of thread
and work piece remains stationary.
 The work piece is held between centers of the machine.
 Now, the job is rotated slowly and cutter while rotating is also traversed longitudinally
parallel to the work piece axis with the help of lead screw.
 Thread milling is used for cutting coarse threads as shown in Fig. 5.28 (a).
 Thread milling with multiple teeth cutter (hob) is as shown in Fig. 5.28 (b).
 The process is almost similar to milling with single cutter.
 But, the width of the cutter is slightly more than length of thread produced on the work
piece.
5.7 Dividing Head or indexing Head
 The dividing head or indexing head is one of the most important of the milling machine
accessories.
 The dividing head is a mechanical device used to divide the circumference or periphery
of a job into a specified distance or angular separations.
 It is also used to hold the work piece securely.
 The dividing head rotate the work piece through a certain degree or certain fraction part
of complete circle of graduating the parts this operation is called as indexing.
 Following are the types of dividing head :
a. Plain dividing head
b. Universal dividing head
c. optical dividing head

a. Plain Dividing Head :

 There are two types of Plain dividing head.
 The first type carries an indexing plate directly mounted on its spindle and there is no
use of worm and worm wheel. index Plate
 The index Plate carries 12 to 24equi-spaced slots on its periphery Refer Fig. 5.36
 The work piece is held between two centers i.e.one on the dividing head spindle and the
other on the tail stock, For locking the spindle in its position hand lever is used.
 The plate, together with the spindle can be rotated by means of hand i.e. provided on
the left hand side of the dividing head In the second type of plain dividing head worm
and worm wheel are used.
 In this the index plate movement is obtained due to worm which is rotated by hand
b. Universal Dividing Head :
 For indexing the work piece, this type of dividing head is very useful.
 It consists of robust body and worm drive is enclosed in it, which is having worm and
worm wheel. Refer Fig. 5.29.
 Fig. 5.30 shows the details of an internal mechanism.
Fig.5.29: Universal Dividing Head
Fig.5.30: internal mechanism of universal dividing head

 In this, the dividing head spindle carries a worm wheel, which meshes with the worm.

 The worm carries a crank at its outer end.

 The index pin works inside the spring loaded plunger, which can slide radially along aslot
provided in the crank.
 This plunger can slide, to adjust the pin position along a desired hole circle on the index
plate.
 The index plate is mounted on the same spindle as the crank, but on a sleeve, hence the
crank and worm spindle can move independent on the index plate.
 To set a definite distance along a desired hole circle, sector arms are used.
 Sector arms are of detachable type and can be set at a desired angle with one another.
 The index plates are available in a set of two or three, with a number of hole circles
generally on both sides on them.
 The universal head is used to perform following operations :
o To set the work piece in a desired position, in relation to the machine table.
o To rotate the work piece through a desired angle, after each cut and hence, index
the periphery of the work Piece.
o To provide, a continuous rotary motion to the work piece while milling of helical
grooves.
5.7.1 Using the Dividing Head :
 As discussed, the dividing head provides the support to the work piece, hold it in
position and rotates it through a required angle after each cut is over.
 To provide the rotary motion to the work piece, the index crank is rotated and the index
plate enables this rotation to take place through a required angle.
 When the crank is rotated, the worm rotates which in turn, rotates the worm wheel'
 As this wheel is mounted directly on the spindle, the spindle and work piece held by it
also rotates.
 An angle through which the work piece will rotate, for each crank revolution depends
upon the velocity ratio between the worm and worm wheel
 Generally, this ratio is 40:i i.e. for 40 revolution of the worm (crank), thework piece will
rotate by 1 revolution'
 For this, the worm is single start and the worm wheel has 40 teeth along its periphery.
 To connect worm shaft and spindle, a set of change gears are used. These gears are
mounted on the left hand side of the dividing head. Refer Fig 5.37 (a)
 Index plates are provided with a number of circles on each face. Generally, two or three
index plates are used.
 Each of these circles carries a definite number of holes on them.
 Brown and Sharp index plates are the standard plates and have the following circles:
No. 1. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
No. 2. 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33
No. 3. 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49

 Some German made dividing heads, which are commonly used are supplied with a set of
3 index plates carrying whole circles as follows:
 One side : 13, 16, 18, 20, 23
Plate No. 1  Another side: 15, 17, 19, 21, 24 
 
 One side : 27, 28, 31, 37, 41, 47
Plate No. 2  Another side: 29, 33, 39, 43, 44, 49 
 
 One side : 18, 19, 20, 23, 29, 33, 39, 43, 49 
Plate No. 3  Another side: 15, 17, 19, 21, 27, 31, 37, 41, 47 
 
 The number of plates supplied may vary with different manufacturers and other
combinations of hole circles are also available.
 While using the dividing head, first it is calculated as to how many full turns the crank
has to rotate through and how many holes on which circle it has to cross further, in
order to give the required rotation to the work piece.
 After that, to accommodate as many holes on that circle, the sector arms are opened
out. Before rotating the crank, by pulling the plunger, the crank pin is withdrawn and
rotated as described earlier.
5.8 indexing Methods
 Indexing is defined as division of the job periphery into a desired number of equal
divisions.
 It is followed by a controlled movement of the crank such that, the workpiece rotates
through a definite angle after each cut is over.
 The different methods of indexing are as follows:
1. Direct indexing 2. Simple or plain indexing
3. Compound indexing 4. Differential indexing
5. Angular indexing
5.8.1 Direct indexing :
 It is simplest method of indexing, in which plain dividing head is used Ref fig 5.36.
 In that, the index plate is directly mounted on the spindle and rotated by hand.
 This method of indexing is used only when the number of divisions to be obtained is
such that the number of slots on the periphery of the index plate is a multiple of the
former.
 The indexing ratio is calculated by:
N
Required ratio 
n
Where, N: Number of slots on the periphery of the index plate,
n: Number of divisions required to be machined'
For example: The circumference of a job has to be divided into 6 equal divisions and the
index plate has 24 slots, then the required ratio is:

N
Required ratio 
n
24

6
 4
 i.e. the index plate will require to move through 4 slots after the cut is complete
5.8.2 Simple or Plain indexing :
 When the direct method of indexing cannot be used for obtaining the required number
of divisions on the work piece, then simple indexing method is used.
 For e.g., if the work piece is required to be divided in to 22 equal divisions, then direct
indexing cannot be used.
 Because, 22 is not divisible into any of the hole circles on the direct indexing plate.
 For simple indexing, another type of plain dividing head is used which consists of worm,
worm wheel and index plate.
 In Fig. 5.37 (b) and section 5.8.3 it is already discussed that, the worm has single
 threads and worm wheel has 40 teeth
 Also, with one turn of the crank (worm), the worm wheel will rotate through one pitch
1
distance i.e. of a revolution
40
2 1
 Similarly, two turns of the crank will make the work piece to rotate through or
40 20
3
and 3 turns through of a revolution.
40
 Hence, the crank will have to be rotated through 40 tums, to rotate the through one
complete turn.
 The rotation of the index crank is subdivided by the holes in the index plate.
 For dividing the work piece into a number of divisions, the crank the crank movement
are as follow :
40
 For 2 divisions on the work piece, the crank will make  20 i.e.20 turns for each
2
division.
40
 For 4 divisions on the work piece, the crank will make  10 turns.
4
40
 For 10 divisions on the work piece, the crank mill make  4 turns
10
40
 Hence, for 'n' tums on the work piece, the crank will
n
 For example, the work piece is to be divided into 23 equal divisions, then
thecorresponding crank movement will be :
40 40 17
Crank movement = = = 1 turns.
n 23 23

 Now, in the obtained result a whole number represents the number of full turns the
crank has to make through and the fraction indicates the part of the turn that the crank
has to make, in addition to the above.
 Hence, the crank has to move that much turns i.e. whole number and fractional number,
to rotate the work piece through one required division.
 In the fraction, the numerator indicates the number of holes to be moved and
denominator indicates the number of holes on the circle to be used.
 Hence, in the above indexing, for each division on the work piece, the crank will make
one complete revolution and will move further through 17 holes on 23 holes circle.
 To avoid error and confusion while counting the holes every time and to set the spacing
on the index plate, sector arms are used.
 While giving full turn to the crank, the pin can be withdrawn from the hole and crank is
turned.
 For remainder purpose, the pin should be moved from one arm to the other and then
engaged.
5.8.3 Compound indexing:
 When the number of divisions required is outside the range of simple indexing, and then
compound indexing is used.
 It includes the use of two separate simple indexing movements and is followed in two
stages :
a. T um the crank in a definite amount in one direction, as in case of simple indexing.
b. Tum the index plate and crank both, either in the same or reverse direction, hence
adding further movement to or subtracting from that which is obtained in the first Stage.
 To understand the principle of compound indexing consider the following example:The
crank is turned 3 holes on 18 holes circle and the index plate and crank both
turnedfurther 5 holes on 20 holes circle.
On account of these two movements the worm will be turned through:
3 5 5
+ = of a revolution
8 20 12
(Consider that, the index plate and crank are rotated in the same direction).
As 40 turns of the worm turn the work piece through 1 revolution.
5
Hence. of the worm will turn the work piece through
12
5 5 1
revolution i.e. = of revolution
12  40 480 96
This will enable '96' divisions on the work piece.
Now, consider that the crank is turned 5 holes on the 18 holes circle in one direction
andthen the index plate, alongwith the crank, turned 2 holes on 20 holes circle in a direction
opposite to the former. For these two movements the worm will turned through:

5 2 8
- = of revolution
18 20 45
8
Hence, turn of the worm wheel turn the work piece through
45
8 8 1
= = of revolution
45  40 1800 225
This will enable 225 divisions on the work piece.
Steps to solve:
To obtain the required number of divisions through compound indexing, following
stepsareto be followed:
 Factorise the number of required divisions.
 Factorise the standard number 40
 Select any two circles on the same plate and on its same side. Consider their
differenceand factorise it.
 Factorise the number of holes of one circle and other circle.
 After obtaining these factors, use following relation :
5.8.4 Differential indexing:

 Principle of differential indexing is almost similar to compound indexing.
 Differential indexing is carried out in two stages, i.e.
a. Crank is moved in certain direction.
b. Some movement is added to the crank or subtracted from it.
 The loss or gain in the movement is accomplished by moving the plate using the
geartrain, which connects the dividing head spindle to the worm spindle,
 The motion is gained by rotating the crank and index plate in the same direction and it
islost by rotating the same in the opposite direction.
 The dividing heads are having standard sets of change gears, which are as follows :
24 (2 Nos.), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86, 100.
 In addition to this, some dividing heads are having following gears also :
46, 47, 52, 59, 69, 76, 94.
 ln differential indexing, both simple and compound gear trains are used. Refer Fig. 5.31
(a) and (b).

(a) Simple gear train (b) Compound gear train

Fig.5.31: Universal Dividing Head
 In both the gear trains, the first driver is mounted on the main spindle of the dividing
head and on the same spindle worn wheel is mounted inside and work piece at the other
end.
 Also, the last driven is mounted on the worn spindle which drives the index plate.
 The simple gear train consists of one driver and one driven wheel, which are connected
together through one or two idle gears.
 The compound gear train consists of two drivers and two driven wheels and idle gear
may or may not be used.
 The direction of rotation of the index plate depends on the type of gear train and
number of idle gears used.
 The use of idle gears and consequent loss or gain of motion is described as follows :
o Using simple train, motion is gained by using 1 idler and motion is lost by using 2
or no idler.
o Using compound train, motion is gained by using no idler and is lost by using 1
idle
Example:-1 Find index movement for 73 Divisions
Let us select the number as 70.

40 40 4 4  3 12
By simple indexing = = = = =
n 70 7 7  3 21
It shows 12 hole on 21 hole circle
4 5
Crank movement for 73 divison = 73  = 41 
7 7
Henc, the movement done by the crank is more than required 40 turn, then
5 5
41  40 = 1 of a revolution
7 7

5
Hence 1 turn of the crank are to be lost through the movement of the plate
7
5 12 12  4
Gear ratio = 1  =
7 7 7 4
48 Driver 
=
28 Driven
5.9 Milling Machine Attachments:
 Milling machine attachments are used to add to the versatility of the machine, high work
capability and to increase the efficiency of the machine.
 A standard attachments used on milling machine are as follows :
a. Vertical milling attachment b. universal milling attachment
c. high speed milling attachment d. Rack milling attachment
e. Gear cutting milling attachment f. rotary table
g. Dividing head
a. Vertical milling attachment
 This attachment is used to convert a horizontal milling machine into a vertical milling
machine.
 It can be mounted on the face of the column of a knee for a column type milling
machine.
 For angular milling, the spindle head can be swivelled to any desired angle.
 Generally, the speed of a vertical spindle is same as that of horizontal spindle.
b. Universal milling attachment

 It is used on a horizontal milling machine to perform milling operations in any plane.
 It is similar to the vertical attachment with added arrangement for swivelling the spindle
about two mutually perpendicular axis.
c. High speed milling attachment
 It is mounted on horizontal milling machine to use a small diameter milling cutter for
milling keyways, splines, slots, etc.
 By using internal arrangement of gears, the speed of rotation is increased which makes
possible a productive increase in feed.
d. Rack milling attachment
 It can be mounted on either plain or universal horizontal milling machines.
 It is used to cut teeth (gear teeth) along a straight line.
 It consists of a milling unit, a fixture and a rack indexing unit.
e. Gear cutting attachment
 It is used to space and cut teeth quickly and accurately on spur gears.
 In addition to spur gear, the teeth for helical and worm gears can also be cut.
 It is indexed in the same manner as that of universal dividing head.

f. Rotary table
 Rotary table or circular milling attachment is bolted to the top of table of a plain or
universal milling machine.
 It is graduated in half degrees on its circumference. It is used to machine a large
variety of shapes like circular T-slots, different type of cams, etc
5.10 Cutting speed Feed and Depth of cut
5.10.1 Cutting Speed:
 The cutting speed of a milling cutter is the distance travelled per minute by the
cutter edge of the cutter.
 It is measured at the circumference of the cutter and generally expressed in
meters/minute. Mathematically it is given as,
DN m
V=
1000 min
Where,
V: Cutting speed in m/min.,
D: Diameter of cutter in mm,
N: Cutter speed in r.p.m.
5.10.2 Feed:
 Feed represents the table travel in any direction. It is the rate at which the work
piece advances under the cutter.
 It is generally expressed in milli-meters (mm). It can be given to the table, either by
hand or through automatic means.
 It is expressed in milling machine by the following methods
1. Feed per tooth (Sz) : It is defined by a distance, the workspace/advances in the
time between engagement by the two successive teeth, It is expressed in mm/tooth
of the cutter.
2. Teeth- per revolution (Srev) : It is defined by a distance, the work piece advances in
the time when the cutter turns through one complete revolution. It is expressed in
mm/rev. of the cutter.
3. Feed per minute (Sm) : It is defined by a distance, the workpiece advances in one
minute. It is expressed in mm/min.
5.10.3 Depth of Cut:
In milling machine, depth of cut is the thickness of the material removed in one pass of
the work piece under the cutter. It is the perpendicular distance measured between the
original and final surface of the work piece. Generally, it is expressed in mm.
5.12 Machining Time
The time required to mill a surface for any milling operation i.e machining time depends
on following factors:
 Total length of the job to be machined'

 Approach length i.e. the distance through which the cutter has to move before the full
 depth of the cut is obtained.
 Cutting speed and feed.
 Number of cuts.
 Over-run i.e. distance through which the cutter has to move further, after the job length
is over, to be clear the job. It is generally 5 to 6 mm.
 Machining time is calculated by the following relation :
L
T  where f = S Z  Z  N
f
Where,
T  Time required completing the cut in minutes,
L  Length of the table travel to complete the cut in mm,
SZ  Feed Per tooth in mm,
Z  Number of teeth in the cutter,
N  Cutter speed in r.p.m
f  Feed in mm / min.
Total table travel or cutter travel i.e. L is given by,
L = l1 +l2 +l3
Where,
l1= Length of the work piece be machined in mm,
l2= Approach length in mm,
l3= Over-run i.e. generally 5 to 6 mm.
Fig, 5.32 (a) shows approach length of plain milling cutter and
Fig. 5.32 (b) shows approach length of face milling cutter.
Fig.5.32 (a): Down milling

Fig.5.32 (b): Down milling

Plain milling:
Let, D: Diameter of the cutter in mm,
d: Depth of cut in mm.
From Fig. 5.32 (a)
2 2
D D 
l2  OB  OA 
2 2
   d 
2 2 
D
l2   OA
2
2 2
D b
OA     
 2  2
2 2
D D b
l2      
2  2  2
D 1
  D 2  b2
2 2
1

 D  D 2  b 2 , mm
2


Example:-2
A slot of 30 mm x 30 mm is to be milled in a work piece of 300 mm length using a side
and face milling cutter of diameter 100 mm, width 30 mm and having teeth 20. Taking
depth of cut 5 mm, feed per tooth 0.1 mm, cutting speed 35 m/min and over travel
distance of 5 mm. calculate time required for milling the slot.
l1 = 300 mm, D = 100 mm, b = 30 mm, Z = 20, V = 35 m/min
d = 5 mm, S = 0.1 mm/tooth, l3 = 5 mm
To find : Machining time
We know that,
DN
Cutting speed, V =
1000
 100  N
35 = N = 111.4084 rpm
1000
Table feed, f = SZ  Z  N = 0.1  20  111.4084
f = 222.8169 mm/min
But L = l1 +l2 +l3
1
2
l2 = D  D2  b2   ........ For Face Milling
 
l2 = 100  1002  302  = 2.3030 mm.
1
2
 L = 300 + 1.0730 + 5 = 307.30300 mm.
Now, machining time is,
L 307.30300
T=  = 1,3191minutes
f 222.8169
5.12 Alignment Test on Milling Machine :

Tests for machine tool
 The surface produced after machining is achieved by both work and tool movement.
 Hence the accuracy of the finished product depends on the accuracy of the machine
tool and its alignment with the parts of the machine tool.
 Various tests are performed on the machine tool to check its installation, flatness,
perpendicularity of the various axes, parallelism of the various surfaces of machine tool
and some practical tests.
 The instruments used for these alignment tests are dial gauges, test mandrels, straight
edges, spirit levels, frame levels etc.
1. able surface parallel to arbour rising towards overarm.
2. Table surface parallel to longitudinal movement.
3. Transverse movement parallel with spindle axis.
4. T-slot parallel with longitudinal table movement.
5. Cutter spindle axial slip and eccentricity of external diameter.

1. Table surface parallel to arbour towards overarm

 In this test, dial gauge is mounted on the machine or work table and mandrel is
fitted in the spindle.
 The plunger of the dial gauge is pressed against the lower surface of the mandrel.
 The dial gauge is then moved along the length of the mandrel over the table surface.
 The deflection in the reading of dial gauge shows that the axis of cutter spindle and
table surface is not produced by milling will not be square to the base.
 The permissible error is upto 0.025 mm per 30 cm.
2. Table surface parallel with longitudinal movement
 Fig. 5.33 shows the test setup for the above arrangement.
 In this test, the dial gauge is fixed to the spindle and the plunger of dial gauge is
pressed against the surface of machine table.
Fig.5.33: Test for Table surface parallel with longitudinal movement

 The machine table is then moved longitudinally.
 The deflections in the reading of dial indicator above permissible limit show that
surface is not even.
 This error causes cutter to take unequal cuts on the work piece. Hence straight edge
may be placed on the surface to achieve even surface for machining.
 The permissible error is upto 0.03 mm to 0.04 mm.
3. Transverse movement parallel to spindle axis
 Fig. 5.34 shows the test setup for the above arrangement.
 This test can be carried out with the help of dial gauge and stand in both vertical and
horizontal plane.
 The dial gauge is fixed on the table and the plunger of the dial gauges are pressed
against the arbor of milling machine in horizontal and vertical plane as shown in
Fig.5.34: Test for Transverse movement parallel to spindle axis

 Fig. 5.46.The table is then moved crosswise and deviations in the reading for dial gauge
on side of mandrel and under themandrel are noted down.
 This error results in the variation of depth of cut.
 The permissible error is upto 0.025 mm per 30 cm movement of table.
4. T-slot parallel with the longitudinal table movement
 Fig. 5.35 shows the test setup for above arrangement.
 As the jigs and fixtures are located on the table with the help of T-slots, they should be
machined perfectly.
Fig.5.35: Test for T-slot parallel with the longitudinal table movement
 In this test, the parallelism of T-slots with longitudinal movement is checked by using the
bracket fixed in the T-slot.
 The dial gauge is fixed on the spindle and its plunger is pressed against the upper surface
of the bracket.
 The table is then moved longitudinally and the deviations in the readings of dial gauge
are noted down.
 This error causes the uneven depth of cut as the job is inclined.
 The permissible error is upto 0.04 to 0.05 mm.
3. Cutter Spindle axial slip and eccentricity of external diameter
 The axial slip is the spindle movement which may follow the same pattern due to
manufacturing error.
 This can be tested by using a dial gauge is mounted on the table and its plunger is
pressed against the face of locating cylinder spindle.
 The spindle is rotated and the deviations in the readings are noted down.
 The eccentricity of external diameter of spindle can be tested using the dial plunge
placed on the cylindrical surface of the spindle.

6
Shaper, planer and slotter
Course Contents
6.1 Introduction to Shaping Machines
6.2 Principle Parts of Shaper
6.3 Classification of Shapers
6.4 Shaper Mechanism
6.5 Feed Mechanism
6.6 Shaper Operations
6.7 Introduction to Planer Machines
6.8 Types of Planing Machines
6.9 Main Parts of a Planer
6.10 Planer Mechanism
6.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Planer
6.12 Planer Operations
6.15 Types of Drives
6.16 Slotter Operations

6. Shaper, slotter and planer machine Manufacturing process-I (2131903)
Shaping Machine
6.1 Introduction to Shaping Machines
 A shaping machine is a reciprocating type of machine tool used for producing flat
Surfaces in horizontal, vertical or angular planes on small to medium sized workpiece.
 It is also used for machining convex and concave surfaces, for key-way cutting, slotting,
grooving etc.
 In shaper, the work is held on machine table and the ram carrying the tool moves
forward and backward over it during the cutting action in reciprocating motion Refer
Fig.6.1.
Fig. 6.1: Principle of working of shaper

 As each chip is cut-off, ram and tool return to the end of the stroke and the work is
positioned for another cut.
 This involves moving the table horizontally by an amount equal to one chip thickness so
that the work is ready for the next cutting stroke.
 The machining is performed during the forward stroke only and the return stroke is idle.
6.2 Principle Parts of Shaper Machine :
 The principle parts of shaper are shown in Fig. 6.2.
Fig. 6.2: Horizontal shaper machine

Manufacturing process-I (2131903) 6. Shaper, slotter and planer machine
1. Base:
 The base is a heavy cast iron body which acts as support for all the fixed and operating
parts of the machine which are mounted on it.
2. Column:
 Column is a hollow structure consisting of two walls and cast from cast iron.
 It is a rigid structure and gives support to the ram on its top way and is supported by the
base.
 There is a cross-rail carrying the table and the drives, to move the table up and down or
crosswise.
 On the left hand side of the column, a lid is provided for inspection and oiling of the
internal mechanisms.
 For operating the machine, levers and handles are provided on the other side of the
column.
3. cross rail :
 Cross rail is a box like structure over which the saddle slides horizontally.
 It is mounted on the front vertical guide-ways of the column.
 The table cross feed screw and the cross rail vertical feed screw are housed inside it.
4. Saddle :
 The saddle is mounted on the cross oil.
 By rotating the cross feed screw by hand or by power, the saddle moves in a cross-wise
direction.
5. Table:
 The table is made of cast iron and it is also a box type structure,
 It holds and supports the workpiece during the operation and slides along the cross rail
to provide feed to the workpiece.
6. Ram :
 Ram is a reciprocating member and carries the shaper head in its front on which the
cutting tool is mounted.
 It is semi-cylindrical in form and slides on the accurately machined guide ways provide
on the top of the column.
7. Shaper head (Tool head) :
 Tool head is clamped firmly to the front of the ram and consists of a tool slide, tool
post and clapper box.
 The tool head can be swivelled to any angle to enable the tool to take angular cuts. Ref
Fig. 6.3.
 Vertical feed to the tool is given by the vertical tool feed screw and the slide
movement can be measured by using micrometer dial near to the handle.
 The apron is clamped to the vertical slide by clamping screw.
 Apron consists of a clapper box, clapper block and a tool post.
 The clapper block is connected to the clapper box by using a hinge pin.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Paras G.Vegada

 During the forward cutting stroke of the ram, the clapper block is rigidly supported
inthe clapper box and on the return stroke, the block hinges outwards swinging on the
hinge pin.
Fig. 6.3: TooI head

6.3 Classification of shaper
 Shapers are classified in a number of ways as follows:
1. According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to theram :
a. Crank type
b. Geared type
c. Hydraulic type
2. According to the position and travel of the ram :
a. Horizontal type

b. Vertical type
c. Travelling head type
3. According to the type of design of the table :
a. Standard shaper
b. Universal shaper
4. According to the type of cutting stroke :
a. Push type
b. Draw type
Crank shaper:
 This is the most common type of shaper.
 In this, a single point cutting tool is given a reciprocating motion equal to the length of
stroke desired and the work is clamped on the table.
 The crank shaper employs a crank mechanism for converting a circular motion of a
large gear, called as a bull gear, to reciprocating motion of the ram.
 The bull gear receives power from individual motor.
Geared shaper
 ln this shaper, the circular motion of an electric motor is converted into reciprocating
motion of the ram by means of a rack and pinion.
 The rack teeth, which are cut directly below the ram, mesh with a spur gear.
 The pinion meshing with the rack is driven by gear train.
 This type of shaper is not widely used.
Hydraulic shaper:
 In hydraulic shaper, reciprocating movement of the ram is obtained by the hydraulic
power.
 Oil under high pressure is pumped into the operating cylinder fitted with piston.
 It first acts on one side of the piston and then on the other, causing the piston to
reciprocate and the motion of the piston is transmitted to the ram.
 The piston speed is changed by varying the amount of liquid delivered by the pump.
Horizontal shaper:
 In this, ram reciprocates in horizontal plane.
 Usually, a plain table is provided in these shapers and is mainly used to produce flat
surfaces.
Vertical shaper:
 This shaper has its ram reciprocating in vertical direction.
 The table is of circular rotary type.
 The ram of vertical shaper; in addition to its vertical movement, can also be adjusted
from its vertical position to about 10 on either side of the vertical axis.
 The work table can be given a cross, longitudinal and rotary movement.
 These shapers are conveniently used for machining internal surfaces, key-ways, slots
and grooves.

Travelling head type:

 It is a specially designed shaper.
 The ram carrying the tool, while it reciprocates moves crosswise, to give the required
feed.
 Heavy and large workpiece which cannot be held on the table are loaded on the base
or floor and then machined.
Universal shaper:
 In universal shaper in addition to the two movements provided on a table, the table
can be swivelled about an axis parallel to the ram ways.
 The upper portion of the table can be tilted about a second horizontal axis
perpendicular to the first axis.
 This shaper is used in tool room work.
Push type shaper:
 In this shaper, metal is removed when the ram moves away from the column.
Draw type shaper:
 In this shaper, metal is removed when the ram moves towards the column of the
machine.
 In this shaper cutting pressure acts towards the column which relieves the cross rail
and other bearings from excessive loading.
6.4 Shaper mechanism
 In shaper, rotary movement of the driving motor is converted in to reciprocating
movement of the ram by the mechanism provided in the column of the machine.
 In shaper only forward stroke of the ram is a working stroke, when the metal is
removed and there turn stroke goes idle and no metal is removed during this period.
 To reduce the total machining time, it is necessary to reduce the time taken by the
return Stroke.
 To achieve this mechanism known as quick return mechanism is provided.
 Due to this mechanism, the ram holding the tool is allowed to move at comparatively
slower speed during the forward cutting stroke, whereas during the return stroke, the
ram moves at a faster rate to reduce the idle return time.
 There are three methods of obtaining quick return mechanism.
I. Crank and slotted link mechanism
II. Hydraulic mechanism
III. Whitworth quick return mechanism.

Fig. 6.4: Principle of quick return mechanism

 Fig. 6.4 shows the principle of quick return mechanism.
 When the link is in position CD1 the ram willbe at the extreme backward position of its
stroke, andwhenitisatCD2, the ramwillreachattheextremeforwardposition.CD1 and CD2
are shown tangent to the crank pin circle.
 Therefore, forward cutting stroke takes Place when the crank rotates through the
angle B1k B2 and the returnstroke takes Place when the cant rotate through the angle
B2 LB1.
 It is clear from the Fig.6.4 that the angle made by forward stroke i.e.B1 K B 2is greater
than the angle made by return stroke i.e. B2 L B1.
 The angular velocity of the crank pin is constant during the return stroke and hence it is
completed within a shorter time for which it is called as quick return mechanism.
6.4.1 Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism
 The crank and slotted link mechanism is shown in Fig 6.5
 The crank AB rotates about the fixed centre A, the end B having the form of a sliding
block which fits the slot in the link CD.
 As B rotates about A, it slides up and down in link CD and causes this to oscillate about
the centre c (pivot point of slotted link) so that as CD oscillates, the ram is operated
backwards and forwards.
 The quick return feature is derived from the configuration of the mechanism.
 When the link in the position CD1 tangential to the pitch circle of B, the ram will be at
extreme backward position of is stroke and when it is at D2, the extreme forward
position of the stroke will have been reached.
 The time taken by cutting and idle stroke of the ram is proportional to the anglesB2 K B1
and B2 L B1 respectively.

Fig. 6.5: Crank and slotted link mechanism

 The ratio between cutting time and idle time may be determined from the formula :
Cutting time B2 KB1

Cutting time B2 LB1
 Cutting time to return time ratio usually varies between 2 : 1 and practical limit is 3 :2.
 The cutting speed and return speed is not constant through out the stroke. It is
minimum when rocker arm is at the two extremities and speed is maximum when the
rocker arm isvertical.
Adjustment of the length of the stroke and position of the ram
 The length of stroke can be vary by changing the distance between bull gear centre and
centre of the crank pin. Refer Fig. 6.5.
 As the bull gear is fixed, the variation in the distance is achieved by moving the slide
block and crank pin away or towards the bull gear centre.
 The sliding block can be moved by rotating the bevel gear and turning the spindle.
 Hence it rotates the adjusting lead screw and this will move the sliding block mounted
on it.
 This movement of sliding blocksresults in the change in the stroke length.
 The position of ram is adjusted after the stroke length is adjusted.
 The total tool travel consist ofthe tool approach, job length and tool over travel,
 The position of ram is adjusted by first keeping the hand wheel tight and moving the ram
back to extreme rear position.

 Then hand wheel is released and slide the ram to the required position.
 With the help of clamping lever this position of ram is get fixed. Check the travel by
moving the ram.
6.4.2 Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism :
 The Whitworth quick return mechanism is used in shaper machine which is shown inFig.
6.6.
Fig. 6.6: Whitworth quick return mechanism

 In this mechanism driving crank 3 rotates in clockwise direction with uniform angular
speed.
 The slider C which is attached at the end of driving link also reciprocates in slotted link 1
and cause to oscillate the slotted link 1 about pivot point B.
 The link 5 is attached at the end of slotted link 1 which carries the ram and tool.
 When the driving crank moves from position ac" to ac' through an angle Q in clockwise
direction then the tool moves back from f ' to f ".
 Thus the angle turned by driving crank i.e.  will be for cutting stroke and return stroke
will be for angle or ( 360   ).
 Since driving link 3 rotates at uniform angular speed, the ratio of cutting stroke to return
stroke time will be given by,
Time of cutting stroke Angle 
 
Time of return stroke Angle 360  

 As  is always greater than 180 , therefore the ratio is always greater than
360  
1.Hence time required for cutting stroke is greater than return stroke.
 Thus for return stroke no cutting operation is done in shaper machine. So it is quicker
than cutting stroke. Hence this mechanism is called as quick return mechanism.

6.4.3 Hydraulic Mechanism

 Hydraulic mechanism is used as a quick return mechanism.
 The shaper ram in the position as shown moves from left to right.
 The oil from the reservoir is drawn through the filter by a gear pump which is drivenbyan
electric motor.
 Pump delivers a constant quantity of oil to the control valve and from control valve the
oil can be delivered to the either side of the piston in the cylinder situated under the
ram.
Fig. 6.7: Hydraulic mechanism

 To which side of the piston the oil will be delivered is determined by the position of the
control lever of the control valve.
 Fig. 6.7 shows a constant volume hydraulic mechanism.
 The same volume of oil is delivered on both sides of the piston, but the intensity of
pressure is different due to difference in effective area ofthe piston.
 Due to difference in pressure, the ram travels at a faster rate in the return stroke than in
the forward stroke.
 The stroke length of the ram is adjusted by adjusting the distance between the two
stops.
 The cutting speed is controlled by using the throttle valve during the cutting stroke.
Advantages
 Large range of cutting speeds is available.
 Control of cutting speed is easy.
 Due to oil present on both sides of the piston, there is smooth and quick reversal of ram.
 Because of high speed, there is saving in machining time.

 Higher safety is provided to the machine and cutting tool.

6.5 Feed Mechanism :
 In shaper, both downfeed and crossfeed movements may be obtained.
 These feed movements are provided intermittently and during the end of return stroke
only.
 Vertical or bevel surfaces are produced by rotating the downfeed screw of the tool head
by hand.
 Cross feed movement is given by rotating the crossfeed screw either by hand or power.
 Rotation of crossfeed screw causes the table to move sideways through a pre-
determined amount at the end of each return stroke.
 Fig. 6.8 shows the automatic cross feed mechanism of a shaper.
Fig.6.8: Automatic feed mechanism

 In shaper, automatic cross feed of the table is obtained by a Ratchet and pawl
mechanism.
 It consists of a slotted disc which carries T-slot which is rotated by a bull gear of the
shaper.
 In this T-slot an, adjustable pin is fitted and to this connecting rod is attached.

 The other end of the connecting rod is attached to the lower end of the rocker arm of
the Pawl mechanism.
 The rocker arm swings about the fulcrum and at its upper end carries a spring loaded
pawl.
 Adjustable pin is set eccentric with the slotted disc centre.
 The slotted disc at its back carries a spur gear which is driven by a bull gear.
 As disc rotates, the adjustable pin being eccentric with the disc centre causes the
connecting rod to reciprocate.
 This in turn, makes the rocker arm to swing about the fulcrum, to move the pawl over
one of more teeth and thus transmit an intermittent motion to the cross feed screw
which moves the table.
 As the lower end of the pawl is bevelled on one side, it facilities the power feed tope
rate in either direction.
 To reverse the direction of rotation of ratchet wheel and consequently the feed, a knob
on the top of the pawl after removing the pin is rotated through 180.
 The amount of feed may be altered by shifting the position of crank pin with respect to
the centre of driving disc.
 Greater the throw of eccentricity, more will be the rocking movement of the rocker arm.
6.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Shaping Machine :
Advantages:
 Shaping machine requires less time for process setup.
 Shaping process has higher production rate.
 Shaping machine employes a quick return mechanism to minimize idle time.
 It uses relatively inexpensive tools.
 It is suitable for light duty operations.
Disadvantages:
 The cost of machining is higher than milling or broaching.
 Due to higher cost it confines to the small quantity production.
 It is not suitable for machining of large parts.
 It can not be used for heavy duty operations.
 It can not be employed with heavy cuts and coarse feed.
 It has less accuracy and rigidity than planer.
6.6 Shaper Operations :
The different operations which can be performed on shaping machine are listed below:
1. Machining horizontal surface 4. Machining a V or Keyway curved surface
2. Machining vertical surface 5. Cutting splines or gears.
3. Machining angular surface

6.6.1 Machining Horizontal Surfaces :

Procedure:
 Set the vice jaws length perpendicular to the ram movement.
 Hold the job length-vise parallel to the tool stroke so that maximum stroke of the tool
may be utilized. Refer Fig. 6.9.
Fig.6.9: Horizontal shaping
 Adjust the cutting speed and feed depending upon the surface finish required i.e.
rough or finish.
 Hold the appropriate tool in the tool head. Set the proper inclination of the tool and
depth of cut.
 Give cross feed to the tool initially by hand till the cut start and then employ Power
feed.
 After the tool has cut the full width ofthe job, stop the shaper, inspect the job and set
the another depth of cut. Repeat the above said procedure.
6.6.2 Machining Vertical Surfaces :
Procedure:
 The tool is fed Repeat the downwards in vertical cutting as swivelthe apron from the
face of the work to be cut as shown in Fig.6.10.
 The tool is fed downwards by rotating the down feed screw by hand at the end of return
stroke, Give the feed about 0.25 mm.
 On the return stoke, the tool wings away from the work and gives clearance which
prevents the work from being scored.
 Start cutting form highest point towards the bottom.
 Repeat the procedure for another cut.

Fig. 6.10: Vertical shaping

6.6.3 Machining Angular Surfaces :
Procedure:
 Set the swivel hand to the required anglefor shaping angular faces as shown inFig. 6.11.
Fig. 6.11: Angular shaping

 The apron is to be swung away from theface to be machined.
 The tool is to be fed by the slide handwheel.
 The tool head is also swivelled in thedirection away form the surface to be machined.
 Feed the tool during return stroke.
 Repeat the procedure to finish the work.
6.6.4 Machining Keyways and Grooves :
 For shaping grooves, slots and keyways, a square nose tool similar to the lathe paring
tool is to be used.

 Fix the tool in tool head rigidly.

 Avoid excessive overhung and ensure that the tool clearances are not so great as to
weaken the tool.
 Start the machine and give feed during return stroke.
Fig. 6.12: Shaping grooves

 Repeat the cut till the end of the operation Ref fig 6.12.
6.6.5 Gutting Splines or Gears:
Procedure:
 Hold the workpiece between the centers.
 Use index head for cutting equally spaced splines and gear teeth.
 Cut the first spline or gear tooth on the workpiece exactly in the way, a keyway is cut.
 Rotate the workpiece by the required amount using the index plate.
 Lock the index plate by engaging index pin with corresponding hole in thecircumference
of the index plate.
 Cut the second spline.
 Repeat the procedure, till the splines or gear teeth have been cut on the whole
circumference of the work piece.
 Use separate tools for cutting splines and gear teeth.

Planer
Planer Machines
machine
6.7 Introduction to Planer Machines :
 Planing is one of the basic operations performed in machining work and generally
preferred for machining large flat surfaces.
 These surfaces may be vertical, horizontal or inclined.
 The workpiece that can be machined on the planer machine cannot be machined on the
shaper machine, due to limitation of size.
 Also, Planing machine is most economical for machining for large flat surfaces.
 Fig. 6.13 shows the working principle of a planer machine.
Fig. 6.13: Working principle of planar machine

 The workpiece is rigidly held on the work-table, which can slide on the groovesprovided
on the base ofthe planer.
 The tool is held vertically in the tool-head mounted on the cross-rail which can travel ina
direction at right angle to the direction of motion of the work-table.
 Cutting action is achieved by applying the linear primary motion to the workpiece and
feeding the tool at right angle to this motion.
6.8 Types of Planing Machines :
Following are the types of Planing machines which are generally used:
1. Double housing or standard planer 4. Edge or plate planer
2. Open side planer 5. Divided table planer
3. Pit planer
1. Double housing planer
 Double housing or standard planer is the most commonly used type of planer.
 It consists of two vertical columns i.e. one on each side of the bed.
 Between these two columns (housings) the cross-rail is fitted which carries one or two
vertical toolheads.
 These machines are heavy duty type and carry a very rigid construction.

 In these machines, cutting speed is very high, but the size of workpiece is limited
because of the width of the table.
 Due to long table and larger table travel, on either side of the columns, a number of
workpiece in a series can be held over the bed length and machining is done.
 This will result in a substantial saving in machining time,
 Also, because of high rigidity of the machine and robust design of cutting tools, heavier
cuts can be easily taken, which leads to quicker metal removal and a reduced machining
time.
 Components machined on these machines are, extremely large and heavy castings such
as machine beds, tables, plates, slides and columns.
2. Open side planer
 This type of machine consists of only one housing i.e. vertically on one side of the bed
and the other side is left open without any obstruction.
 The cross-rail is suspended from the housing as a cantilever.
Fig. 6.14: Open side planar

 Open side planer is similar to double housing planer, but the former carries three tool
heads and latter carries four tool heads. Refer Fig. 6.14.
 As one side is open, the components which are difficult to machine on double housing
planer can be easily machined on these machines.
 As there is only one housing, the machine is subjected to severe twisting forces during
the operation.
 Hence, during designing of the machine special care is needed.
3. Pit planer
 Pit planer is a special type of Planing machine.

 It is specially designed for machining 1ong, heavy and tall workpiece, which can not
machined on the conventional types of planer.
 The workpiece is mounted on a stationary plate or on the floor inside a pit.
 For clamping of workpiece, T-slots are provided on the table.
 The machine is provided with two short vertical housings which carry a cross-rail.
 One or two toolheads are mounted on the cross-rail and if required, two side tool posts
on the housings. Refer Fig. 6.15.
Fig. 6.15: Pit Planer

 For machining the surface of the workpiece, the whole unit travels along the horizontal
guide ways.
4. Plate or Edge Planer
 This machine is completely different from conventional planer machine in construction
as well as working.
 In this machine, the bed and table, is a fixed unit and the workpiece is mounted on the
table.
 The toolhead is mounted on a movable carriage, which can travel longitudinally alongthe
bed.
 While machining, the operator can stand on a platform which is attached to the carriage
and travels along with it.

 Hence during the operation, the workpiece remains stationary, while the tool moves to
and fro.
 It is a single purpose machine constructed for special works such as boiler plates, ship
plates, for pipelines and for welding.
5. Divided table planer
 In this machine, the table is constructed in two or more parts which can be joined
together to hold long workpiece or used separately, as required.
 This machine is mainly used for those components for which more machine setting time
is required, because of their heavy weights.
 For such items, particularly when identical parts are to be machined on large scale, this
machine with divided table is used such that when the workpiece on one table is being
machined; the same is being simultaneously set-up on the other table, for replacing the
former after the operation is over.
 This will result in a considerable saving in setting time.
6.9 Main Parts of planer
The principal parts of double housing planer are Refer Fig. 6.16
1. Bed 4. Cross rail
2. Table 5. Tool head
3. Housing or columns 6. Driving and feed mechanism
Fig. 6.16: Main parts of a Planer

1. Bed
 It is a heavy box like casting which is provided with cross ribs for additional strengthand
stiffness.

 The length of bed is twice the length of the table.

 At its top, it carrier V-ways or flat ways to support and guide the tableAll the ways are
straight, parallel and accurately machined.
2. Table
The table is made of cast iron with an accurately machined top.
 At its top, it carries T-slots and holes to accommodate the clamping bolts and other
devices.
 The work is directly mounted and clamped on the table by using various devices.
 On its sides, the table carries adjustable stops to reverse its motion at the end of each
stroke.
 Also, in planer table, there is provision of a suitable safety device to prevent the heavily
loaded reciprocating table from running out in case of failure.
3. Housings or columns
 Columns are vertical members situated on both sides of the planer bed.
 Inside them, they carry the different mechanisms for transmission of power to the upper
parts of the machine, from the main drive.
 The front face of each housing are accurately machined, to provide guide ways on which
the cross-rail slides up and down, for accommodating different jobs of different heights.
 Two side tool heads also slide vertically along the same guideways.
4. Cross-rail
 It is a horizontal member of heavy structure which connects the two vertical housings
ofthe machine.
 By means of elevating screws provided in housings, it can be raised or lowered on the
front face of the housings and can be clamped at any desired position.
 In order that the cross-rail is moved up and down uniformly on both ends, both the
 Elevating screws are rotated simultaneously by ahorizontal shaft, mounted on the top
ofthe machine, through a set of bevel gears.
 The front face of the cross-rail is accurately machined, to provide guide ways for the
toolhead.
 The cross-rail encloses the screws for vertical and cross feed of the tool heads.
5. Tool heads
 The tool head consists of a saddle, swivel base, vertical slide, apron, clapper box, clapper
block, tool post and down feed screw.
 The saddle is fitted on the ways of the cross-rail on which the tool heads may be
fitted.The tool heads on the cross-rail are independently operated,
 At most four tool heads can be mounted in a planer and any or all of them can be used
at a time.
6. Driving and feed mechanism
 For driving the table various mechanisms like quick return mechanism, feed mechanism,
etc. are provided with the planer.

6.10 Planer Mechanism:

 In planer, the forward stroke is a working or cutting stroke and return stoke is id1e.
 Hence, to reduce the time required for return stroke different mechanisms are used.
 The mechanisms are :
1. Open and cross belt drive
2. D.C. reversible motor drive (Ward Leonard drive)
3. Hydraulic drive.
6.10.1 Open and Cross Belt Drive:
 Most of the planers are having this system of drive for quick return of their tables.
 It consists of the main driving motor situated over the housings.
Fig. 6.17: Belt drive for a planer

 The motor drives the countershaft through an open V-belt.

 The countershaft carries two driving pulleys; one for open belt and the other for belt.
 The main driving shaft is situated below the bed.
 One end of it passes through the housings and carries a pinion, which meshes with rack
provided under the table of the machine.
 The other end of this shaft carries two pairs of pulleys: Each pair consisting of a pulley
and a loose pulley.
 One of these pairs is connected to one of the driving pulleys by using an open belt the
other to the second driving pulley by using cross belt.
 A speed reduction gear box is mounted on the main driving shaft. Refer Fig. 6.17.
 During the cutting stroke, greater power and less speed is required.
 The cross belt giving a greater arc of contact is used, to drive the table during the
forward cutting stroke.
 The position of the cross belt is on the larger diameter fast pulley on main driving shaft.
 The open belt is on the smaller diameter losses pulley.
 Since loose pulley is free to rotate on main driving shaft, no motion is transmitted to
the table by open belt. During the cutting stroke, the cross belt is shifted to the loose
pulley.and the open belt on fast pulley of the other set.
 Therefore, during the return stroke the motion is transmitted by on open belt.
 Since the open belt connects a larger diameter driving pulley on countershaft with
smaller diameter fast pulley on the driving shaft, the table will run at a faster speed.
6.10.2 D.C. Reversible Motor Drive:
 This type of drive is observed generally in modern planer machines.
 In this drive, a d.c. reversible motor is directly connected to the main shaft.
 The direction of rotation of d.c. reversible motor can be changed by reversing the
polarity, by operating two different switches which are actuated by using trip dogs
provided at each end of the table.
 A very popular electric drive, which is widely used in modem planers, is Ward Leonard
Variation drive.
 This type of drive is very popular because of its capability of reversing the table
movement almost infinite times without losing its reliability and flexibility,
 It consists of an a.c. induction motor, d.c. generator and variable speed reversible d.c
motor. Refer Fig. 6.18.
 An a.c. motor is driven by the Powel obtained from mains supply, which drives the d.c.
generator and the generator drives variable speed d.c. motor.
 The d.c. motor is then connected to the table drive gear mechanism through the
reduction gears, to transmit motion to the table.
 The exciter is also a small generator and it is used for exciting the fields Fg and Fm of the
generator and d.c. motor respectively.

Fig. 6.18: Ward Leonard Drive

 A variation in the speed of the d.c. motor (machine tool) can be obtained by varying
the resistance in the rheostat R1 i.e. the resistance in the field of the generator.
 Further variation in the speed of the d.c. motor can be obtained by varying the
resistancein the rheostat R2 i.e. the resistance in the field of the motor.
 The main a.c. motor always revolves at a constant speed.
Advantages
 It is more safer than the belt drive.
 Its control is more easier, faster and accurate,
 Return speed of the table can be made much faster and hence a lot of saving of time.
 Variation in the cutting speed is possible.
6.10.3 Feed Mechanism:
 In a planer, the horizontal feed to the tool is given by moving the tool head along the
cross-rail and vertical feed, to vary the depth of cut, is imparted by moving the vertical
slide of the tool head by means of the down feed screw.
 In many machines, ratchet and pawl feed mechanism is used but, more popular
mechanism for planer is friction disc feed mechanism.
Friction disc feed mechanism
 It is fitted on the side of the vertical column.
 It consists of a friction disc at the bottom and a rack and pinion at the top.
 The friction disc carries the radial T-slot which carries a sliding block.
 A knurled knob of the screw shaft can be rotated to adjust the position of a block with
respect to the centerof the friction disc.
 A connecting rod is connected to the sliding block at one end and the tack at the other
end which moves inside the guide.
 Eccentricity of the sliding block decides the length of rack movement, and hence the
amount of feed. Gears G1, G2 and pinion Pare mounted on the pinion shaft A S3.Pinion P
meshes with the rack.

 The friction disc D is connected to the drive mechanism of the planer table and is driven
by the latter.
 The disc is rotated by a certain amount to one direction in the beginning of the cutting
stroke and by the same amount of rotation in the reverse direction at the beginning of
idle stroke.
 The amount of rotation of disc is limited between fixed pins P 1 and P2 and a projecting
pin attached to a disc.
 These rotations of the disc are transferred to the rack through the connecting rod.
 The rotation of the disc in one direction will move the rack upwards and rotation
inreverse direction will pull it downwards.
 This will rotate the pinion, first in clockwise direction and then in anticlockwisedirection.
Refer Fig. 6.19.
Fig. 6.19: Friction disc feed mechanism of a planer

 The gear G1 is free on the shaft, while G2 is keyed to the shaft.

 The direction of rotation of these gears can be controlled by double pawl, which can be
engaged with the teeth of gear G 2, to allow it to locate in any one direction as desired.
 The double pawl is fitted on the face of the gear G1 by means of a pin' Any one of the
two arms of the pawl is engaged with the gear G2 With upward movement of the rack
the gear G2 will rotate in clockwise direction which will rotate gear G1 through the pawl.
 During downward movement of the rack, gear G2and gear G1, will not receive any
motion through arm slipping over the teeth of gear G2.
 In this way in one double stroke of the rack, and hence of the planer table, the gear G 1
will rotate through a part of its revolution in one direction only.
 Since this gear is meshed with one gear on down feed shaft and another gear on crossed
shaft these gears will get motion from it to impart equal feed to gear the tool each time
the G1 rotates partially by an equal amount.
 The direction of feed can be changed by changing the position of pawl.
6.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of planer:
Advantages:
 Planer machine is suitable for machining of large parts. . It is used to machine multiple
small parts held in a line. . It is suitable for heavy duty operations.
 It can take heavier cuts and coarse feed.
 Planers can be provided with multiple tools.
Disadvantages:
 Higher stresses are developed due to higher cutting and return speed.
 Due to heavy work pieces and rapid acceleration change, the higher inertia forces are
developed.
 Hence, fastening process of work pieces should be very efficient.
6.12 Planer operation
 The planing machine is used for larger and heavier workpiece. Also the surfaces
machined on a planer are much larger and wider. The common operations performed on
a planer are as follows :
o Planing of horizontal flat surfaces
o Planing of vertical flat surfaces
o Planing at an angle
o Planing curved surfaces
o Planing ofdifferent types ofslots and grooves
o Planing a helix.
 For performing above planer operations, one has to adjust the cutting tool in a
propelposition with respect to workpiece and then the necessary motion is given to the
too1, so as to cut either in horizontal or vertical direction or along a curved path.

Comparison between Shaper and Planer:

 Shaper and planer are both reciprocating type of machine tools and both of them are
primarily intended to produce flat surfaces, but they differ very much in construction
Operation and use. The main differences are:
Sr.
Shaper Planer
No.
1. It is comparatively light duty machine.
It is a heavy duty machine.
2. The tool is held on the ram which The work mounted, on the, table
reciprocates and work mounted on thereciprocates while the tool is rigidly held
table is stationary. on the machine frame.
3. It requires less floor area It requires more floor area.
4. The work may be clamped directly The work may be clamped directly on the
onthe table or held in a vice or chuck.
table by using fixture or clamping device
5. Very heavy cuts and coarse Heavier cuts and coarse, feeds Can be
feedscannot be employed. employ
6. Usually only one tool is used. Several tools can be mounted
andemployed simultaneously (usually
four) facilitating a faster rate of
production.
7. Cutting takes place by moving the Cutting takes place by reciprocating
cutting tool over the job. the work under the tool. :
8. Setting of work is easy and quick Work setting requires much skill andtakes
long, time.
9. Used for machining relatively small Used, for, machininglargeflat surface.
surface
10. Indexed feed is given to the work Indexed feed is given to the tool during
during the ideal stroke of the ram the idle stroke of the work table
11. Light, small and has less cost. Heavier, large and costlier

Slotting Machine
6.13 Introduction to Slotting Machines:
 Slotting machine is a reciprocating type of machine tool which operates on the same
principle as that of shaper, except that the ram of the slotter reciprocates in vertical
direction.
 In a slotter, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical direction; the work
mounted on the table remains stationary and provides the feed.
 It is very useful for cutting grooves, keyways, straight and curved slots, for machining
regular and irregular surfaces (both internal and external), machining of dies, cutting of
external and internal teeth of large gears.
 The slotters may be puncher slotter and precision slotter.
 The slotting machine consists of a base, which acts as a support for column, driving
mechanism, ram, table and all other parts. Refer Fig 6.20
Fig. 6.20: Block diagram of slotter

 The column is an integral part with the base.
 It is a vertical member. At its front, it carries vertical guide ways along which the ram
reciprocates. It houses the driving mechanism.
 Saddle is mounted on the bed ways and provides a longitudinal feed on the saddle cross
slide is mounted in the guide waysCross slide can be moved in a direction perpendicular
to the movement of the saddle.
 A rotor table is mounted on the top of the cross slide and can be rotated by hand or
power by means of worm and worm gear mechanism situated underside the table.
 The table is graduated in degrees, which enables it to be rotated for indexing' T-slots are
also provided on the top of the table.

 Ram is reciprocating member which moves vertically up and down. The cutting takes
place during the downward stroke of the ram.
 A special type of tool box is provided to relieve the tool during its return stroke.
6.14 Types of Drives:
There are mainly four types of mechanisms used in slotters for driving the ram:
1. Slotted disc mechanism
2. Variable speed reversible motor drive
3. Hydraulic drive
4. slotted link mechanism
1 Slotted disc mechanism :
 It is the simplest of all the ram drive mechanisms and is very commonly used in size
slotting machines.
 In this mechanism, the driving pinion gets drive from a pulley which runs through belt by
motor.
 The pinion rotates the gear which inturn rotates the slotted driving disc.
 The rotation of the slotted disc is converted into the vertical reciprocating motionram
with the help of connecting rod.
 The length of stroke of ram can be changed by shifting the crank pin towards or from the
center of the slotted driving disc.
 Position of the stroke is adjusted with the help of hand lever provided for adjustment.
2 Variable speed reversible motor drive:
 Such a drive is used in large modem slotting machines.
 Slotting machines have an attached or enclosed motor drive with a multi speed gear box
to give a range of speeds to the ram.
 A typical range would be 40 to 150 strokes or cycles per minute.
3 Hydraulic drive:
 Hydraulic drive is used in large-modem slotted machines.
 The drive is similar to that employed for the shapers.
 In this drive, the hydraulic cylinder is in vertical direction.
 Both constant pressure and constant volume type drives are used.
6.14.1 Work Holding Devices
 In slotting machines, it is necessary that the work piece should be held rigidly in a
suitable device or clamped to the machine table, to withstand cutting forces.
 For this purpose following devices are used :
o Clamps
o Vices
o Parallel strips
o Special fixtures
o T-bolts
 These devices components are placed as in case of shaper machines.

6.15 Slotter Operations:

The operations performed on a slotter are:
1. Machining flat surfaces
2. Machining cylindrical surfaces
3. Machining irregular surfaces and cam machining
4. Machining slots, keyways and grooves.

7
Sawing and
Broaching Machine
Course Contents
7.1 lntroduction to Sawing Machines
7.2 Classification of Sawing Machines
7.3 Manual or Hand Hacksaw
7.4 Bad saw
7.5 circular saw
7.6 Saw blades
7.7 Advantages, Disadvantages and
Applications of Sawing
7.8 lntroduction to Broaching Machines
7.9 Broach Geometry / Elements of Broach
7.10 Basic Broaching Process
7.11 Types of broach
7.12 Principle of Broaching
7.13 Types of Broaching Machines
7.14 Horizontal Broaching Machine
7.15 Vertical Pull Type Broaching Machine
7.16 Continuous Broaching Machine
7.17 Continuous Broaching Machine
7.18 Keyway Broaching Machine
7.19 Specification of Broaching Machine
7.20 Advantages, Disadvantages and
Applications of Broaching
7.21 Broach material

7. Sawing and Broaching machining Manufacturing process-I (2131903)
Sawing machine
7.1 lntroduction to Sawing Machines:

 In machining of metal working jobs, the first step is to cut the stock to the desired
length.
 Many parts of machines (of any type) are cut from round, square, flat or hexagonal
barstock or tubing.
 This cutting-off operation should be done in the shortest possible time with desired
quality.
 For this purpose, different sawing machines are used which are either power
operated or manually operated.
 The cutting action in the power sawing process is performed by the action of a
continuous series of single point cutting tools as they pass over the workpiece.
 The tool life (cutters or blades) is more because, the cutting load is shared by
individual teeth.
7.2 Classification of Sawing Machines:
 Sawing machines are generally classified according to the type of motion used in the
Cutting action. Following are the three general types which are commonly used:
1. Reciprocating saw
o Manual hacksaw o Power hacksaw
2. Band saw
o Vertical cut-off saw o Horizontal cut-off saw
o Combination cut-off saw o Friction blade
3. Circular saw
o Cold saw o Abrasive disk o Steel friction disk
7.3 Manual or hand Hacksaw
 Hacksaw is a common tool used for cuffing required lengths of bar stocks, rods, etc. in a
workshop.
 Hacksaw consists of a metal frame, fitted with a wooden handle and carrying metalwith
wing-nut at the end to hold and stretch the blade. Refer Fig. 7.1.
Fig.7. 1: manual or hand Hacksaw

Manufacturing process-I (2131903) 7. Sawing and Broaching machining
 Generally, push type blades i.e. those which cut in forward stroke are used. In these
blades, teeth are away from the operator.
 Proper care should be taken while fixing the blade in Saw and Broach ensure the
direction of teeth.
 The blades in common use are usually 0.7 mm thick, 12.7 mm wide and.20 cm to 30 cm
long.
7.4.1 Power Hack Saw:
 In machining of metal working jobs, thefirst step is to cut the stock to the required
length.
 Many parts of the machines are cut from round, square, flat or hexagonal bar stock.
 This cutting-off operation should be done in shortest possible time with desired quality.
For this purpose, different sawing machines are used which are either power operated
or manually operated.
 But power operated machines or power saw is most commonly used.
Fig.7. 2: Power Hack Saw

 A reciprocating power saw is shown in Fig. 7.2 which consists of following basic
elements:
1. Base 2. Vice 3. Clamping mechanism
4. Hack saw frame 5. Driving head 6. Coolant arrangement
1. Base
 Base is the lowermost and rigid part of the power saw machine. . It supports all other
elements of the machine.

2. Vice :
 Vice or work holding jaws are used to hold the workpiece.
 One of the jaws is fixed and other is moving with the help of cramping mechanism.
 The movable jaw can be swivelled to 45" on either side for clamping of work piece of
different sizes.
3. Clamping mechanism:
 The movable jaw of the machine can be moved by using screw and nut arrangement.
 For this purpose handle is provided in the machine.
4. Hack-saw frame :
 The hack-saw is connected with the hack-saw frame.
 Hack-saw reciprocates with the hack-saw frame.
 During the forward or idle stroke, the frame is lifted up to make the blade clear of
thework piece.
5. Driving head :
 The main driving motor is housed in the driving head.
 The driving head gives the reciprocating motion to the hack-saw frame.
 The hack-saw cuts the workpiece during the backward stroke and the forward stroke
isan idle stroke
6. Coolant arrangement
 During the cutting operation, coolant is supplied for dissipating the heat.
 Sufficient amount of coolant is also required for efficient operation and longer life of
theblade.
 The main body also consists of coolant tank which is made in two parts.
 A slot is made in the bed, through which the used coolant falls into the sump and the
swarf (waste material) is collected in a separate tray.
7.4 Band Saw :
 Band saw employs the continuous action of an endless high speed toothed blade.
 The advantages of band saw over hacksaw are,
o Its cutting speed is twice of hacksaw
o It can cut irregular curves in metals.
 Only the limitation is that, its cost is more than the hacksaw.
7.4.1 Vertical Band Saw :
 Vertical band saw machine is also known as contour machine. The main parts ofvertical
band saw is shown in Fig. 7.3.
 In a band saw, a continuous saw blade or band runs over the rims of two wheels (upper
and lower), one of which drives the saw at the required cutting speed.
 The work piece is mounted on the table between the two wheels.
 The band saw is never ideal during its motion. This continuous action makes the band
saw more Productive.

Fig.7. 3: Vertical Band Saw

 The workpiece may be fed in any direction on the table and the direction of feed
isreadily controlled and changed while cutting is in process to produce any required
outline.
 Vertical band saw is used for following purposes :
 Cutting-off the sprues and risers from castings.
 Making dies or tools with contour internal shape,
 Filing and polishing contours of regular or irregular shape by substituting specialfile
bands or abrasive belts.
 Straight, internal or external and angular cutting is performed.
7.4.2 Horizontal Band Saw :
 Horizontal band saw machine is also known as cut-off band saw machine. Refer Fig.7.4.
 It consists of a frame which carries driven and driver wheel. Driver wheel is connected to
the motor or prime mover.
 These two wheels are connected with the help of saw band.
 To maintain the proper tension in the blade, a tension control mechanism is employed
so as to run the blade continuously on the wheel.
 The adjustable supports and guides are provided at the cutting area to support the band

Fig.7. 4: Horizontal band saw

 The cutting takes place due to the continuous running of the saw bands into the work
 Horizontal band saw has the flexibility of the power saw and continuous cutting actionof
the vertical band saws. Hence, this machine is very efficient.
7.5 Circular Saw :
 Circular sawing machine is also known as cold sawing machine which is widely used for
cut-off operation.
 These machines differ from a hacksaw or band saw in respect of the cutter or blade.
 Circular sawing machines employ a toothed circular disk cutter as shown in Fig. 7.5which
is similar to slitting cutter used on milling machines.
Fig.7. 5: Circular Saw

 The circular saw blades are fairly large in diameter (250 to 400 mm) and operate at low
speeds.
 The blade may have teeth either cut on its periphery or may haveinserted teeth or
removable segments that may contain several teeth.
 The main advantage of segmented teeth saw is that, the disk can be made of less
expensive steel and the teeth can be made up of high speed steel or tungstencarbide.
 During cutting operation, the saw is fed into the workpiece which is positively clampedby
mechanical or hydraulic means,
 Circular saw is generally used for cutting pieces of much bigger diameter. o A cutting
fluid is recommended during cutting of all metals except cast iron.
7.6 Saw Blades :
 Saw blades are the cutters used on different sawing machines for cut-off and
otheroperations.
 Saw blades are generally made from carbon steel, high speed steel or tungsten carbide.
 Fig. 7.6 shows main parts of band tool.
Fig.7. 6: Saw Blades

 The face forms the main bearing surface against which the chip strikes.
 Gullet helps to remove the chips from the cut.
 Pitch of saw blades is the distance between the tops of two adjacent teeth.
 Tooth spacing generally controls the size of the teeth.
 The space between the teeth tends to be large and this spacing must be sufficient to
contain the chip that is formed without crowding.
 The tooth spacing should be such that, at least two teeth bear on the work piece at all
times.
Setting of saw teeth
 Tooth set generally refers to the type of tooth construction on a saw'
(a) Straight set

(b) Racker set
(c) Wave set

Fig.7. 7: Setting of band saw teeth
 To provide ample clearance for the blade during cutting the teeth are set to cut a slot
slightly wider than the thickness of blade.
 This is done by bending the teeth slightly to the left or right side asshown inFig.7.7.
 Three types of commonly used tooth set are as follows :
 Straight set or alternate set: It is used for cutting brass, copper and plastic. Refer Fig.7.7
(a).
a. Racker set: It is used for steel and iron cutting. Refer Fig. 7.7 (b).
b. Wave set: It is used for cutting tubes and light sheets of metal. Refer Fig. 7.7 (c),
7.7 Advantage and Disadvantage And Application of Sawing
Advantages
 Tool life of the cutters or blades is increased due to sharing of the wear in the teeth.
 Tooling cost is less.
 It ensures fine finishing of the material.
 Unskilled or semi-skilled labour is required.
Disadvantages
 It can only cut straight line or tight curves.
 It requires long cutting, preparation and maintenance time.
Applications
 Different rolled or extruded shapes, tubing or flat plates stock etc., are cut by power
hacksawing or circular sawing upto desired length.
 It is used to remove unwanted or excess flash from the pressed steer parts.
 It is used to remove gates, sprues, runners and risers from the different castings. o It is
used to produce a forging prototype for design evaluation process. . It is also used to
produce cam profiles, parts of dies, fixtures etc.
7.8 lntroduction to Broaching Machines :
 Broaching is a machining operation in which a tool used is called as Broach havingseries
of cutting teeth.
 Broach is either pulled or pushed with the help of broaching machine on the work
piecesurface.
 Each teeth of a broach (tool) takes a small cut through the surface of the metal.

 Both external and internal surfaces may be cut with the help of broaching.
 When internal surface is machined, it is called as internal or hole broaching and when
external surface is machined, it is called as external or surface broaching.
 Generally, the cutting operation is done by the first and intermediate teeth where as
finishing operation are done by last few teeth of broach.
 A broach is capable of removing material as deep as 6 mm in one stroke.
 Ferrous materials with a hardness upto RC.45 can be machined easily by broaching. Parts
produced by broaching have good surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
7.9 Broach Geometry / Elements of Broach
 Fig. 7.8 (b) shows the details of pull type internal broach for producing a cylindrical hole
(a) Broach teeth detail
(b)Broach term
Fig.7 .8: Broach geometry

 The broach is gripped at the shank end by the puller. Before the teeth, front pilot enters
in to the hole to keep proper alignment
 Broach consists of three sets of cutting teeth; The first set is called as roughing teeth,
which does most of the cutting operation.
 The second set is semifinishing teeth, which removes less stock as compared to the
firstset. The size ofthe second set is little larger than first set.

 The third set is used for finishing operation hence called as finishing teeth, but the sizeof
finishing teeth does not vary. Finishing teeth removes very small amount of
materialwhich is almost negligible.
 Fig. 7.8 (a) shows the details of broach teeth, The principal elements of a common type
of broach are as follows :
1. Pull end:
 The end of the pull broach, which contains shank, is the pull end. The broaching
machine's puller head grip this end of a broach.
2. Front pilot :
 It guides the broach into the hole and keeps it concentric with latter. It helps in starting a
straight cut.
3. Rear pilot :
 Its size and shape confirms to those of the finished hole and provides support to the
broach after the cutting process is over.
4. Land:
 It is the extreme top part of the tooth and it is normally ground slightly to provide
clearance.
5. Tooth gullet:
 It is also known as chip space. It provides space for the chips to curl and escape. The too
small space spoil the hole surface as the chips will rub against it,
6. Pitch :
 The linear distance measured between the cutting edge of one tooth and corresponding
point on the next tooth is called pitch. But it is not the same for all the teeth of the
broach.
 It is different for the three sets of teeth i.e. roughing, semi finishing and finishing teeth.
7. Back off angle :
 It is also known as clearance angle and is ground on the land to provide relief.
 Its value normally varies from 0.5o to 3o, values from 1.5o to 2o being very common. For
finishing teeth no clearance is provided.
8. Hook or rake angle :
 It is also known as face angle. It is similar to rake angle provided on single point too1.
 It depends upon the material to be cut and varies from 3° to 15°, most common value is
in between 12° to 15°.
9. Hook radius :
 It is the radius contained by the bottom of the gullet. It should have a very polished and
smooth surface so as to prevent sticking of chips in the gullet.
7.10 Basic Broaching Process :
 As seen in previous article, a broach is a tapered bar on which teeth are cut so as
produce a desired contour in the workpiece in a single pass of the broach.
 Fig. 7.9 shows the basic broaching process in which work piece to be internally must be
provided with a straight hole through which the broach is pushed or pulled.
 This hole is just large enough to permit the front pilot section of the broach to enter
freely.

 As the broach advances through the part, cuffing starts gradually and as each succeeding
tooth engages the work, it removes a small amount of metal.
Fig.7. 9: Broaching Process
7.11 Types of Broach :

 Large variety of broaches is used in the industries. They are categorized asfollows :
1. Based on method of operation :
a. Push type broach b. pull type broach
2. Based on kind of operation performed
a. Internal broach b. External broach
3. Based on construction :
a. Solid broach d. Inserted tooth broach
b. Built-up broach e. Progressive cut broach
c. Rotor cut broach f. Overlapping tooth broach
4. Based on use:
a. Single purpose broach b. Multi-purpose broach
5. Based on functions :
a. Keyway broach e. Roughing broach
b. Surface broach f. Rifling broach
c. Spline broach g. Spiral broach
d. Burnishing broach h. Serration broach
7.12 Principle of Broaching :
 Broaching operation involves the use of mufti-tooth cutter called as broach

 The broach teeth are so designed that height of the following cutting tooth is slightly
more equal to feed per tooth than that of preceding tooth.
 When the broach feed in line, metal is cut several successive layer with the help of
broach
 The thickness of each layer is same and called as feed per tooth and sum of thicknesses
of all the layers is called as depth of cut.
 Fig 7.10 (a) shows push type broach which is used for machining of external surface and
Fig 7 .10 (b) shows pull type broach which is used for machining of internal surface.
(a) A push type broach in use (b) A pull type broach in use for
for machining external surface machining internal surface
Fig.7. 10: Principle of Broaching
 During the process either broach is kept stationary and work is fed or work pies is kept
stationary and a broach is fed
 The surface produced by broaching carries an inverse profile as that ofa broach used
foroperation.
7.13 Types of Broaching Machines :
 There are different types of broaching machines used in the industries corresponding
todifferent applications. Broaching machines are available in different sizes with
differentcapacities. Broaching machines are classified as follows:
1. Based on power employed:
a. Manually operated b. Power driven
2. Based on direction of movement of broach :
a. Horizontal b. Vertical pull up and pull down
3. Based on cutting :
a. Pull type b. Continuous type
c. Push type
4. Based on type of drive :
a. Mechanical drive b. Hydraulic drive
5. Based on number of pull heads :
a. Single pull head b. Multiple pull head

7.14 Horizontal Broaching Machine :

Construction and working:
 Horizontal broaching machines are applicable for machining external of both internal
and external surfaces' Fig' 7.10 (a) and (b) shows principal of operation of broaching for
internal and external machining.
 In operation either work piece is kept stationary and, broach is fed past on the work
piece or broach is kept stationary and workpiece is fed past on the broach. '
 Horizontal broaching machines have a bed similar to the lathe machine and the broach is
moves like a tailstock on the bed ways.
 Horizontal internal broaching machines range from 2 to 60tones and stroke upto 3 m,
whereas horizontalextremely or surface broaching are available upto 100 tones and
stroke upto 9 m.
 Horizontal internal broaching are generally used for producing internal splines in the
boss of gear
7.15 Vertical pull type Broach Machines:
 Vertical pull type machines are available in two types i.e. pull up and pull down type of
machines.
 Both the types are used for internal or hole broaching.
 The main advantage of this type of machines is that, more than one broach can be
mounted easily.
 In pull down type, the work piece is mounted on the table and broach is lowered to pass
its front pilot through the work piece.
 This pilot is held by the pulling head attached at the top of ram, which is enclosed in the
bed.
Fig.7. 11: Vertical pull type Broach Machines

 Broach is pull down with the help of ram and the desired hole is produced in the
workpiece.
 In pull up type, the only difference is that, ram is provided at the top which carries the
pulling head at the bottom.
 Fig 7.11 shows the principle of pull, down type of broaching machine.
7.16 Continuous Broach Machine:
 These types of machines are available both in horizontal as well as vertical type.
 The main difference between other types of machines and horizontal continuous type
machine is that, the broach remains stationary while the work piece moves continues
type of past it to perform the cutting.
 Horizontal continuous machine consists of two sprockets one on each side of the
machine, on which endless chain continuously travels.
 A series of fixtures are mounted on this chain to travel along it.
 On the machine the broaches are rigidly held in ahorizontalposition and work pieces are
loaded and unloaded on either side of the machine on the fixtures.
 The principle of operation of horizontal continuous broaching machine is as shown in fig
7.12
Fig.7. 12: Working principle of horizontal Continuous Broach Machine

7.16.1Rotary Table Broaching Machines:
 Rotary table broaching machine is a useful type of continuous broaching machine.
 In this machine a table is provided which continuously rotates about a vertical axis.
 On this table, the fixtures are mounted and broach is held rigidly in a broach holder
 Shape of a broach is similar to that of rotary table and work pieces are loaded in the
fixtures as shown in Fig. 7.13.
 As the table rotates machining of work pieces is done and new work pieces are loaded
again.
 Thus, the cycle of loading, broaching, unloading and reloading is continuous without any
break

Fig.7. 13: Working principle of rotary table horizontal continues broaching machine
7.17 Surface Broaching Machine

 In surface broaching machine, either workpiece or broach moves across each other.
 The process of broaching external work surface is known as surface broaching.
 These machines are generally vertical and hydraulically operated.
 Surface broaching machines is another alternative to milling machine and hence in these
machines fixtures are also used. Refer Fig.7,I4.
 During operation, the broaching surface must be rigidly mounted and the work piece
must be solidly supported as it passes the broaching section.
Fig.7. 14: Surface broaching

 These machines are used for large quantities of work and quite large, relatively
flatsurfaces.
7.18 key way broaching machine
 Fig. 7.15 shows the keyway broach with its adapter which guides the broach as well as

Fig.7. 15: Keyway broaching machine

 This is the simplest type of broaching machines and can be used for general purpose.
 If multiple keyways or splines are to be cut, a single broach can be used with the work
piece and indexed after each cut.
 Broaching internal keyways is the oldest method.
7.19 Specification of Broaching Machine :
 The size of a broaching machine is given by the stroke length of ram (in mm) and
pressure or force applied on the broach (in kg or tonnes). Other main specifications of
the machine are as follows :
o Speed and feed range
o Type of drive
o Power rating of an electric motor
7.20 Advantage, Disadvantage Application of Broaching machine

Advantages:
 It is a faster process than other operations.
 High rate of production is obtained with more accuracy and better surface finish.
 Broach has a longer life than other tools.
 Tool cost per piece is low.
 Broach alone can perform roughing and finishing operations.
 Cutting fluid is easily and effectivelyapplied than other operations.
 Interchangeable components can be produced at faster rate.
 Better surface finish is obtained.
 High skilled operator is not required.
Limitations:
 To produce different shapes and sizes different broaches are required. o In broaching
process, all jobs need a fixture, which is not economical.
 Sharpening ofa broach is difficult and expensive.
 All types of surfaces cannot be machined.

 As cutting forces involved in the process are more, hence light and delicate jobs
cannotbe broached.
 With the help of broaching, it is difficult to produce blind holes.
 Initial cost of a broach (tool) and broaching machine is very high, this leads to
higherproduction cost.
Applications:
 Broaching is used for producing a variety of shapes, internal and external, regular and
irregular profiles. The shapes which are difficult to produce by other operations can be
easily produced by broaching.
 Typical examples of components produced by broaching are as follows :
a. Bearing Caps
b. Bearing bodies
c. Cylinder blocks
d. Connecting rods
e. Cylinder heads
f. Crank case
g. Sprockets for chain drive
h. Gears and turbine blades
i. Aircraft engine parts, etc. (Refer Fig. 7.16)
Fig.7. 16: Representative shape produce through internal broaching

7.21 Broach Materials :

 When broaches are used for light duty work, then it is made of high carbon steel.
 For high production work and satisfactory performance, broaches are made up of High
Speed Steel (H.S.S.).
 H.S.S. broach has higher life and it gives good surface finish.
 For hard rubber and cast iron material broach teeth are tipped with sintered carbide.

8
Grinding Machine and Abrasive
Course Contents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of Grinding Machines
8.3 Roughing or Non-Precision
Grinders
8.4 Cylindrical Grinders
8.5 Surface Grinders
8.6 lnternal Grinders
8.7 Special Grinding Machines
8.8 Common Grinding Wheel
Shapes
8.9 Methods of Specifying or
Marking of Grinding Wheel
8.10 Grinding Wheels and Materials
8.11 Grain, Grade and Structure of
Grinding Wheels
8.12 Selection of Grinding Wheel
8.13 Mounting of Grinding Wheel
8.14 Loading and Glazing of
Grinding Wheels
8.15 turning and dressing of grinding
wheel
8.16 Balancing of Grinding Wheels

8. Grinding Machine And Abrasive Manufacturing process-I (2131903)
8.1 lntroduction:
 We have already seen the grinding operation in our domestic applications For
example sharpening of knives, sensors, etc.
 Grinding is a process of removing the wheel on the surface of workpiece. material by
the abrasive action of a revolving
 During the grinding process, material is removed in the form of small chips
 The wheel used for performing the grinding operation is called as grinding wheel.
 Grinding wheel consists of sharp crystals which are called as abrasives' held together
with the bonding materials.
 Grinding is considered as finishing operation, because a very small amount of
material is removed from the surface
 Hence, the machine tool used for providing the good surface finish and high accuracy
to the components by removing the small amount of material with the help of
grinding wheel is called as grinding machine or grinder.
Working principle of grinding machine:
 Generally, in a grinding machine, the grinding wheel is mounted on the spindle
which is driven by an electric motor.
 During the process, a high speed revolving grinding wheel is brought in contact with
the workpiece.
 ln many of the grinding machines, the workpiece is also revolving (cylindrical grinder)
and in some of the machines reciprocating (surface grinders). Refer Fig. 8.1 (a) and
(b),
a. cylindrical grinder b. surface grinder

Fig.8. 1: Working principle of grinding machine
8.2 Types of Grinding Machines
 There are various types of grinding machines which have been designed and some of
them are used for roughing work, for precision work and for special
 However, the most commonly used types can be broadly classified as follows :
1. Rough or Non-Precision Grinders 2. Precision grinders
1. Rough or Non-Precision grinders
The main purpose of roughing grinders is to remove more material than that can be

Manufacturing process-I (2131903) 8.Grinding Machine And Abrasive
removed by the other types of grinders this class of grinders include followings grinding
machines
a. Bench, pedestal or floor grinders
b. Swing frame grinders
c. Portable grinders
d. Belt grinders
2. Precision grinders :
Precision grinders remove a small amount of material and finish the workpiece to a very
accurate dimension.
As per the type of surface generated, precision grinders are classified as follows:
(i) Cylindrical grinders:
a. Plain cylindrical grinders
b. Universal cylindrical grinders
c. Centre less grinders
(ii) Surface grinders :
a. Reciprocating table
I. Horizontal spindle
II. Vertical spindle
b. Rotary table
I. Horizontal spindle
II. Vertical spindle
(iii) Internal grinders:
a. Plain internal grinders
b. Universal internal grinders
c. Planetary internal grinders
d. Centre less internal grinders
(iv) Special grinding machines
8.3 Roughing or Non-Precision Grinders :
8.3.1 Bench, Pedestal or Floor Grinders :
 These types of grinders are mostly used for Snagging and Off-hand grinding of different
materials and cutting tools in tool room, foundries, general workshops, etc.
Fig.8. 2: Bench grinder
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: ParasG..Vegada

 It consists of a horizontal spindle having grinding wheels mounted at both the ends.
 Fig. 8.2 shows a typical bench grinder.
 Bench grinder can be easily bolted on a bench at convenient height.
 The floor or pedestal grinders are nothing but a bench grinder which can be mounted on
a steel stand or pedestal of suitable height. Refer Fig. 8.3.
Fig.8.3: pedestal grinder

 The working principle of these grinders is similar to bench grinders.
 These grinders are also used for polishing by replacing grinding wheel with polishing
wheel
8.3.2 Swing Frame Grinder:
 Swing frame grinders have 2 to 4 metres long horizontal frame which is freely suspended
at its centre.
 The frame carries a grinding wheel at one of the ends and a motor at the other end.
Refer Fig. 8.4.
Fig.8. 2: Swing Frame Grinder

 During the operation, to cover the required grinding area the motor revolves the wheel
and the frame is swung by the operator about its suspension point.
 The motor drives the grinding wheel by using a belt drive.
 This is used for snagging, particularly for casting that are too large for the operator to
hold up to the wheel.
8.3.3 Portable Grinders:
 Portable grinders are similar to portable electric drill, in construction and operation.
 The only difference is that, the drill spindle carries a drill chuck and grinder carries the
grinding wheel.
Fig.8. 3: portable pneumatic grinder

 For safety purpose, a safety guard is provided over the wheel,
 These grinders are widely used for finishing of castings, forgings. Welded joints,
removing burrs and nicks, jigs and fixtures, etc.
 Portable grinders can be of electric type or pneumatic type.
 Fig. 8.5 shows portable pneumatic grinder.
8.3.4 Belt Grinders :
 Belt grinders are designed for using an endless abrasive belt for grinding instead of
regular grinding wheel.
 The belt runs around the pulleys and the workpiece is fed against the revolving abrasive
coated belt.
 Machines are available in various varieties such as wet belt, dry belt, combination
machines etc.
8.4 Cylindrical Grinders
 Cylindrical grinding involves holding of the workpiece rigidly on centres, in a chuck or in a
suitable holding fixture, rotating it about its axis and feeding a revolving grinding wheel
against the same.
Fig.8. 6: principle of cylindrical grinding

 Fig. 8.6 shows the principle of cylindrical grinding.

 If the workpiece is longer than the face width of grinding wheel, then the workpiece is
traversed past the wheel or wheel is traversed past the workpiece.
 Traversing of wheel is done either hydraulically, mechanically or manually.
 When face width of wheel is more or equal to the workpiece, then traversing of
workpiece or wheel is not required and that is called as plunge grinding.
 There are three main types of cylindrical grinding machines :
1. Plain grinders 2. Universal grinders 3. Centre less grinder
8.4.1 Plain Cylindrical Grinders :
 It consists of two centres i.e. one in the headstock and other in the tailstock and the
Workpiece is held between these two centres. Refer Fig. 8.7.
 While operation, the rotating workpiece is traversed across the face width of the
grinding wheel.
 The amount of feed of the workpiece is equal to the depth of cut.
 Tailstock and headstock both can be moved along the table as per the workpiece
requirement, but generally headstock centre is not disturbed.
 The table is made in two parts i.e. upper table and lower table.
 The upper table contains tailstock, headstock and workpiece.
 Also, the upper table can be swivelled in a horizontal plane up to 10 on either side,
along the circular ways provided on the lower table,
Fig.8. 7: Plain Cylindrical Grinders

 The lower table is mounted over horizontal guideways for providing longitudinal traverse
to the upper table and workpiece.
 The table movements can be controlled both by hand and power.
8.4.2 Universal Cylindrical Grinders :
 Universal cylindrical grinder contains all the parts and movements of a plain cylindrical
grinder and some additional features are as follows :
 The headstock spindle may be used a live or dead, so that the work can be held and
revolved by chuck and grounded between the centers.
 The headstock can be swivelled in a horizontal plane.
 Its wheel head can be raised or lowered and also swivelled to ± 90 for grinding taper
surfaces having large taper angles.
8.4.3 Centreless Grinders :
 The working principle of centreless grinding is different than the center type grinding.
 In centreless grinding, the workpiece is supported by a combination of grinding wheel,
regulating wheel and a work rest blade.
 Fig. 8.8 shows the principle of centreless grinding which is used for both external and
internal grinding.
 Many hollow cylindrical and tapered workpiece such as bushes, pistons, valves, tubes
and balls are easily grounded on centreless grinders.
 Fig. 8.9 shows the block diagram of centreless grinder with its main parts and controls.
Fig.8. 8: principle of through feed centreless grinding

Fig. 8.9: Centreless Grinders

 It contains a heavy base and two wheel heads i.e. grinding wheel (bigger one) and
regulating wheel (smaller one).
 Each wheel head carries a separate truing mechanism for the wheel it carries.
 The workpiece rests on the work rest blade between these two wheels.
 The grinding operation is performed by the grinding wheel only whereas; the regulating
wheel provides a support to the workpiece when it is pushed away by the cutting
pressure of the grinding wheel.
 Also, bottom support is provided by the work rest as the workpiece during rotation rests
on the work rest blade.
 Due to this, the workpiece remains in contact with the grinding wheel.
 The direction of rotation of the grinding wheel and regulating wheel is same
 The common methods used for feeding the workpiece are as follows :
a. Through feed
b. linefeed
c. End feed
a. Through feed grinding:
 In this method the workpiece is supported and rotated as described earlier, but it is
simultaneouslygivenanaxialmovemehtalsobytheregulatingwheelandguides'
 For this purpose, the axis of the regulating wheel can be inclined from 2 to 10° ( ) with
the vertical. Refer Fig' 8.8.
 The amount of actual feed is determined by using following relation :

Where, f: Feed in mm/min

n: Number of revolutions/min
d: Diameter of regulating wheel in mm
g = Angle of inclination of regulating wheel with vertical
b. lnfeed grinding :
Fig. 8. 10: Indeed centreless grinder

 Infeed grinding is similar to plunge cut grinding used on cylindrical grinders
 Before the operation, the regulating wheel is drawn back so that the workpiece may be
placed on the work rest blade
 After this, the regulating wheel is pushed in to feed the workpiece against the grinding
wheel
 This method is used for grinding shouldered and formed surfaces. Refer Fig. 8.10.
c. End feed grinding :
 In this method, the grinding wheel and regulating wheel are dressed to contain the
desired shape or form. Refer Fig. 8.11
Fig. 8.11: End feed centreless grinding

 The workpiece is fed longitudinally from the side of the wheels.

 As the workpiece advances between both wheels, its surface is ground till it further
touches the end stop.
 This grinding method is used for spherical and tapered surfaces.
8.4.3.1 Advantages of Centreless Grinding:
The advantages of centreless grinding are as follows:
 In centreless grinding, the need of centering and use of fixtures is totally avoided.
 This method is applicable for both internal and external grinding,
 The process is continuous and hence, suitable for production work.
 During the operation, the workpiece is rigidly supported and can be subjected to heavy
cuts, resulting in a rapid and economical grinding.
 Large grinding wheels are used hence; errors due to wheel wear are reduced. Less
maintenance of the machine.
 For operating the machine high skilled operators are not required.
 Direct adjustment of sizes can be made which results in higher accuracy.
1. Disadvantages of Centreless Grinding :
Some disadvantages of centreless grinding are as follows:
 Workpiece having multiple diameters is difficult to handle.
 In hollow workpiece, there is no certainty that the outside diameter will be concentric
with the inside diameter.
8.5 Surface Grinders :
 The operation of surface grinders is similar to shaper, planer or milling machines but
with more precision.
 Basically, surface grinders are used to machine flat surfaces and irregular, regular or
tapered surfaces.
 As per the table movement and positions of spindle, the surface grinders are classified as
follows :
1. Reciprocating table :
a. Horizontal spindle b. Vertical spindle
2. Rotary table:
a. Horizontal spindle b. Vertical spindle
8.5.1 Reciprocating Table Type surface Grinders :
 Fig. 8.12 (a) and (b) shows the working principle of reciprocating table type surface
grinders with horizontal and vertical spindles.
 The horizontal spindle machine carries a straight wheel whereas; vertical spindle
machine carries a cup type wheel.
 The cutting action is carried by the periphery of the straight wheel in case of horizontal
spindle machine, whereas on the revolving edge of the cup wheel in case of vertical
spindle machine.

a. Vertical spindle reciprocating b. Horizontal spindle reciprocating

table surface grinder table surface grinder
Fig. 8. 12: Surface grinders
 On these machines, the workpiece is generally held on a magnetic chuck.
 These machines are mostly used for grinding flat surfaces.
 In case of vertical spindle grinder, the table along with the workpiece reciprocates under
the wheel and wheel covers all or major portion of the width of the job.
8.5.2 Rotary Table Type Surface Grinders :
 Fig. 8.13 (a) and (b) shows the relative movements of the wheel and table.
 ln these machines the workpiece are held on a magnetic chuck and arranged in a circle.
a. Horizontal spindle rotary b. Vertical spindle rotary

table surface grinder table surface grinder
Fig. 8. 13: Surface grinders
 In both of the machines, the direction of rotation of wheel and table is opposite.
 In horizontal spindle grinder, the cross feed is given by the horizontal movement of the
wheel spindle whereas in vertical spindle grinder it is by sliding a table on a slide.
8.6 Internal Grinders :
 Internal grinders are used for grinding internal surfaces of different types of holes such
as cylindrical, tapered, formed, etc.
 Blind or through holes can be ground by internal grinders.

 These machines are made in various types and designs, some of the common types are
as follows :
a. Plain internal grinders b. Universal internal grinders
c. Planetary internal grinders d. Centreless internal grinders
8.6.1 Plain Internal Grinders :
 It carries an individually driven wheel head mounted on a cross-slide.
 To hold the workpiece, the work head carries either a chuck or face plate, or sometimes
fixture attached a to the work head spindle.
 For grinding the tapered holes, the warhead can be swivelled.
 Fig8.14 shows the operating principle and relative movements of grinding wheel and
Fig. 8. 14: principle of internal grinding on a plain internal grinding machine

8.6.2 Universal internal grinder
 Universal internal grinder carries all the similar features of plain internal grinder.
 In addition its work head is mounted on a cross-slide which provides a cross-feed to the
work head.
 Another important feature of universal grinders is that, its work head can be swivelled
through 90.
Fig. 8. 15: principle of internal grinding on a universal internal grinding machine

 Fig. 8.15 shows the relative moments of the workpiece and grinding wheel.

 Universal grinders are used to grind cylindrical and tapered holes, flat surfaces, convex
and concave surfaces etc.
8.6.3 Planetary internal Grinders :
 In planetary grinding, workpiece is mounted on a slide and remains stationary.
 The wheel head carries a mechanism, because of which the axis of the rotating grinding
wheel travels along a circular path around the hole axis. Refer Fig. 8.16.
 The longitudinal traversing movement can be obtained in following two ways :
1. By reciprocating movement of the grinding wheel.
2. By moving the slide (forward and backward), on which the workpiece is mounted.
 Planetary grinders are used to grind holes in large, irregular shaped and heard
workpiece.
Fig. 8. 14: principle of planetary internal Grinding

8.6.4 Centreless internal Grinders :
 The principle of internal centreless grinding is almost similar to external cylindrical
grinding.
 Only the method of supporting the workpiece is different.
Fig. 8. 17: Centreless internal Grinders

 In an internal centreless grinding the workpiece is supported between three rolls i.e.
pressure ro11, supporting ro11 and a regulating wheel. Refer Fig. 8.17.
 All the three rolls, rotate in the same direction whereas, workpiece and the grinding
wheel rotate in the opposite direction.
 The grinding wheel remains in contact with the internal surface of the workpiece at the
horizontal centre line of the regulating wheel.
 It ensures a uniform wall thickness of the workpiece and hence, concentncitv of the
grounded internal hole with the external surface of the workpiece.
 For loading and unloading of the workpiece, the pressure roll can be swung to a side.
8.7 Special Grinding Machines :
 These machines are designed, to do some specialized operations. Some common types
of special grinding machines are as follows :
a. Tool and cutter grinders d. Camshaft grinders
b. Piston grinders e. Disc grinders
c. Tool post grinders f. Thread grinders
8.7.1 Tool and Cutter Grinders:
 Tool and cutter grinders are mostly used to sharp and recondition multiple tooth cutters
such as reamers, milling cutters, drills, taps, hobs, broaches etc.
 These machines are mainly used for tool room work.
Fig. 8. 18: Tool and Cutter Grinders

 These machines are also capable of doing light cylindrical, surface and internal grinding
operations.

 Tool and cutter grinder is a machine that supports the cutter while a rotating abrasive
wheel is applied to the cuffing edge for the purpose of sharpening it.
 According to purpose of grinding, they are classified into two groups :
1. Universal tool and cutter grinders
2. Single purpose tool and cutter grinders
 But, universal tool and cutter grinder is most versatile and widely used type.
 Single purpose grinders are particularly used for grinding tools such as drills, tool-bit etc.
in large production plants where large amount of grinding work is needed.
 Also, with single purpose grinder tools can be grounded uniformly and with accurate
cutting angles.
 Fig. 8.18 shows a typical tool and cutter grinder.
8.7.2 Thread Grinding :
 Thread grinding is applied when :
o The hardness of the work material makes it difficult to produce the thread by other
process.
o The dimensional and form accuracy is very high.
o The work material is too soft to get a good surface finish by the other methods.
 Taps, thread milling cutters, thread gauges, precision lead screw and micrometer screw
are some examples of thread grinding application.
 Threads are ground by contact between a rotating workpiece and a grinding wheel
dressed to the desired form.
8.7.2.1 Thread Grinding Machines:
 These are similar to cylindrical grinding machines but they have following important
additional features :
 Means for imparting precise longitudinal travel of the table for each revolution of the
work to produce the desired helical form.
 Provision of tilting the wheel head to the helix angle of the thread.
 Devices for dressing the wheel periphery to the required form of thread.
 Provision for relief grinding components such as taps and cutters.
 Thread grinding machines may be of external, internal or universal type and they employ
either single ribbed or multi-ribbed wheels.
Single Ribbed Wheel:
 In this type, the wheel terms against the rotation of the workpiece.
 With this rotary motion, a relative axial motion between the wheel and job is provided
by means of a lead screw.
 The wheel is tilted at a helix angle of thread, which is to be produced with the job axis.
 This method is called as Traverse grinding of thread, as shown in Fig. 8.19 (a) and useful
for production of long and coarse pitch threads,

a. Traverse grinding b. Plunge cut grinding

Fig. 8.19: Multi-ribbed wheel
Multi-Ribbed Wheel:
 In this process, grinding wheel is little bit longer than the workpiece and used to cut
whole threads in one revolution of the workpiece.
 During the process, the wheel is fed into the work to the required depth and moves
axially through a distance of pitch.
 The wheel (cutter) is set parallel to the axis of job. This method is called as plunge cut
grinding as shown in Fig. 8.19.
 Very accurate threads are produced by this method'
8.8 Common Grinding Wheel Shapes
 The most common shapes of grinding wheels are shown in Table 8.1 with their typical
applications
Table 8.1: Grinding wheel shapes
Shape Name Application
Straight Cylindrical, centreless, internal,
(Type 1) cutter, surface and off hand grinding
operations
Cylinder Surface grinding on horizontal and
(Type 2) vertical spindle grinders.
Tapered (both It is primarily used for grinding

sides) thread, gear teeth, etc.
(Type 4)
Recessed Cylindrical, centreless. internal, and
(one side) surface grinders; recess, provides
(Type 5) clearance for mounting ; the flange
Straight cup Cutter and tool grinder and surface
(Type 6) grinding on vertical and horizontal
spindle machines.

Recessed Cylindrical, centreless and surface

(both sides) grinders; its recess provides
(Type 7) clearance for mounting the flanges
Flaring cup Cutter and tool grinder; it used
(Type 11) mainly for sharpening milling cutters
and reamer.
Dish Cutter and tool grinder its used edge

(Type 12) permit it to be used in narrow slots
Saucer It is generally used for sharpening of

(Type 13) circular or band saw
8.9 Method of specifying or marking of grinding wheel

 For specifying or designating the grinding wheel there are various method in different
countries.
 To maintain uniformity throughout the country in the marking system of grinding wheel
the Bureau of Indian standard (BIS) has devise a standard system to be followed by all
manufacturers
 As per this system' the various elements and characteristics indicated on a, of grinding
wheels are the wheels in a definite sequence which is as follows :
1. Abrasive 4. Structure
2. Grit or grain size 5. Bond
3. Grade
 In addition to this, a manufacturer can use a suitable prefix, preceding the abrasive
notation to indicate his own brand of used abrasive.
 Also a suitable suffix at the end of all the notations to indicate the 0manufacturer,soqm
symbolic representation for that particular type of wheel.
 The use of prefix and suffix is not compulsory.
 Table 8.2 shows the marking system recommended by BIS in their IS code :
 Apart from the above data to specify the grinding wheel completely, i.e. diameter, width
or thickness and bore diameter are also required to be mentioned.
 For example, the grinding wheel marked with 250×25×32W A 46 L 4 V 17 shows
following specifications :
 Where,
250 mm = Wheel diameter
25 mm = Wheel thickness
32 mm = Bore diameter

W = Manufacturer's prefix for abrasive, It is optional

(Here, denotes White).
A = Abrasive type (Here, Aluminum oxide)
46 = Grain size (Here, medium)
L = Grade type (Here, medium)
4 = Type of structure (Here, dense)
V = Nature of bond (Here, Vitrified bond)
17 = Manufacturer's suffix for bond type. It is optional
Table 8.2 : Indian Standards system of marking grinding wheels
Soft Medium Hard

ABCDEFGH IJKLMNOP QRSTUVWXYZ
Grade scale
8.10 Grinding Wheels and Materials:

 A grinding wheel essentially consists of the following two materials:
1. Abrasive 2. Bond
8.10.1 Abrasives :
 Abrasives are extremely hard materials consisting of very small particles called as grains.
 The grains carry a number of sharp cutting edges and corners.
 There are two types of abrasives :
1. Natural 2. Artificial or manufactured

1. Natural abrasives
 They are obtained from mines directly.
 The most commonly used natural abrasives are sand stone, emery, quartz, corundum
and diamond.
 Out of these, diamond is used for dressing of grinding wheels and is considered as an
abrasive for grinding hard materials.
 Solid quartz is one of the natural abrasive stone from which grindstones are shaped.
 Emery is a natural aluminum oxide which contains 60 to 70 % alumina and remaining is
iron oxide and other impurities.
 Corundum is also natural aluminum oxide which contains 70 to 90 % aluminium oxide
and remaining is other impurities.
2. Artificial abrasives
 They are manufactured in closed electric furnaces under controlled conditions, to avoid
the introduction of impurities and to achieve required temperature for the chemical
reactions to take place.
 The most commonly used artificial abrasives are as follows :
(i) Aluminum oxide Al2O3,
(ii) Silicon carbide (SiC)
(iii) Artificial diamonds.
(i) Aluminum oxide Al2O3:
 This type of abrasives are obtained by fusing the impure aluminium oxide called as
Bauxite, in an electric arc furnace'
 For this purpose, dry bauxite is mixed with ground coke and iron chips and the mixture
is charged into the furnace'
 Due to excess heat in the furnace a block of aluminium oxide is form which is afterwards
crushed and thus powdered grains are formed'
 This abrasive carries hard and tough grains having sharp cutting edges'
 .Aluminium oxide is mostly selected for wheels used for grinding of hardened tool Steel
components.
 Aluminiumoxideisrepresentedbyletter'A'.ReferTable8.2.
(ii) Silicon Carbide (SiC) :
 Silicon carbide is made from silicon dioxide, coke, sawdust and salt.
 These ingredients are mixed together and heated in an electric furnace abort 2600 c.
 Due to excess heat, the mass fuses and following chemical reaction occurs :
SiO2 + 3C = SiC+2CO
 After completion of reaction, the furnace is cooled down and a core of silicon Carbide is
removed from there.
 The outer shell is then removed and the core is crushed into the grains.
 silicon carbide is mostly selected for wheels used for grinding ductile materials like
copper, brass, aluminium, etc'

 Silicon carbide is represented by letter'C' Refer Table 8.2.

(iii) Artificial diamonds :
 Diamond abrasive is a form of pure carbon which is mainly used for sharpening of
cemented carbide tools and truing and dressing of grinding wheels.
 Its initial cost is high, but they have proved economical because of their rapid cutting
ability, slow wear and free cutting action'
Properties for a good abrasive:
 Abrasives are used as cutting materials.. Such abrasive grains possess the following
properties :
I. Penetration hardness : It is the ability of the abrasive to cut or scratch a softer
material
II. Fracture resistance: It is the ability of the abrasive to resist cracking or breaking under
the applied load.
III. Wear resistance: It is the ability of the abrasive grain to maintain sharpness.
8.10.2 Bonds:
 Bond material of the grinding wheel acts as a binder to hold the abrasive grains together.
 It is necessary that the grains of abrasive material should be held firmly together to form
a series of cutting edges.
 The principle bond materials are as follows ;
a. Vitrified bond c. Oxy chloride bond e. Shellac bond
b. Silicate bond d. Resinoid bond f. Rubber bond
a. Vitrified bond :
 It is a clay bond which is reddish brown in colour.
 The base material is felspar which is fusible clay.
 Proper proportions of refractories and flux are added to felspar and mixed thoroughly.
 This mixture together with abrasive grains, is fed into revolving drums which contains
water to form a paste.
 Most of the grinding wheel possesses this type of bond.
 Vitrified bond is denoted by letter'V'. Refer Table g.2.
Advantages:
 The bond itself is very hard and acts as an abrasive.
 Due to wet mixing of the different constituents, the structure of the wheel is uniform.
 It is not affected by water, oil, acids or climatic conditions.
 It is made porous and it removes material quickly.
Disadvantages:
 Manufacturing process is slow.
 wheels having diameter more than 750 mm cannot be easily produced.
 High temperature of the process makes the abrasive grains weak.
 During the process, cracks may develop in large wheels.

b. Silicate bond:
 The base material is silicate of soda.
 The process of manufacturing is similar to vitrified bond, but at low temperature, which
results in a high tensile strength.
 Wheels possessing this type of bond are light grey in colour.
 Silicate bond is denoted by letter's'. Refer Table 8.2.
Advantages:
 .The process of manufacturing is fast.
 Low temperature of the process makes the abrasive grains strong.
 Large wheels i.e. up to 1500 mm diameter can be easily produced.
 The cutting action of the wheel is smoother and cooler.
Disadvantages:
 Extra hard wheels cannot be produced.
 Harder grades of this bond do not provide a free cutting action.
c. Oxy chloride bond :
 Oxy chloride bond is mixture of oxide and chloride of magnesium.
 This type of bond provides a cost cutting action, but grinding is generally done in dry
condition because it is very susceptible to the action of conventional coolants.
 Oxy chloride bond is used for making of disc shaped wheels.
 Oxy chloride bond is denoted by letter'O'. Refer Table 8.2.
d. Resinoid bond:
 Resinoid bonded wheels are manufactured from a mixture of abrasive grains synthetic
resins and some compounds.
 This mixture is filled in moulds and fed into the furnace and baked at a temperature of
about 200 C.
 Due to heat, resin sets and binds the abrasive grains together.
 Resinoid bond is synthetic organic compound which is strong and flexible.
 Resinoid bonded wheels are used for cutting bar stocks, fine grinding of cams, precision
grinding of rolls, etc.
 Resinoid bond is denoted by letter'B'. Refer Table 8.2.
e. Shellac bond :
 Shellac bonded wheels are produced by mixing the bond and abrasive grains in a steam
heated mixture
 Shellac bonds wheel are used on hardened tool steel and thin section. They are also
helpful in producing high surface finish on component like cam shaft.
 Shellac bond wheel re strong but posses some elasticity.
 Shellac bond is denoted by letter ‘E’ Refer Table8.2
f. Rubber bond

 Rubber bond wheel are manufactured by passing a rubber and sulphur through the
mixing rolls and adding abrasive slowly. Abrasive grains are added until the required
proportion is added.
 The mixture is gain passed through the another set of rolls, to obtain the desired
thickness
 The wheel are than cut vulcanized under pressure
 Rubber bonded wheel are strong and can be made in thin section also.
 During grinding water can be used as a coolant but caustic soda and oil should be
avoided
 Rubber bond is denoted by letter ‘R’ Refer Table 8.2
8.11 Grain Grade and Structure Of Grinding wheels
 Grain are also as grit which denoted the approximate size of abrasive particles and
indicate coarseness or fitness of the Grinding wheel
 A grinding wheel may contain the abrasive particles of same of different size.
 If same sized abrasive are used then the wheel is known as straight wheel and for
different sized abrasive particles the wheel is known as compound wheel
 The choice of grain size depend upon following factor
a. Quality of surface finish required
b. Quantity of stock material to be removed
c. Physical property of workpiece
 The coarse grain removes the material at faster rate and for finer finish. Fine grains are
required
 Coarse grain wheel more suitable for grinding soft and ductile material whereas for
grinding hard and brittle material fine grain wheel are used
 The grain size of an abrasive is indicated by a number representing the number of
meshes per square inch of the screen, through which the grain of crushes abrasives are
passed for grinding.
 The standard numbers which represents different grain sizes are as follows, (Refer Table
8.3) :
Table 8.3: Standard grain size for grinding wheel
Grit designation Grain size or grit no
Coarse 10 12 14 16 20 24
Medium 30 36 46 54 60
Fine 80 100 120 150 180
Very fine 220 240 280 320 400 500 600
Grade:
 Grade denotes the strength of a bond in a wheel i.e. the power of the abrasive particles
to hold together and resist disintegration under the cutting pressure.

 If the proportion of bond for a specified quantify of abrasive particles is higher, then the
wheel becomes harder and lower proportion makes the wheel soft.
 The selection of particular grade of wheel depends on following factors :
a. Nature of workpiece
b. Composition of workpiece
c. Size and hardness of workpiece
 Softer wheels are considered for grinding hard materials and harder wheels for grinding
soft materials.
 Generally, all the wheel manufacturers provide a table of recommended grits and grades
for specific operations and materials to be machined.
 It is advisable to follow the table for selecting a wheel for a particular job.
 Table 8.4 shows the different grades of grinding wheel :
Table 8.4: Different grades of grinding wheel
Soft A B C D E F G H
Medium I J K L M N O P
Hard Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Structure
 The term structure indicates the spacing between the abrasive density grains or
indicates the of the wheel
 The structure of a wheel is mainly affected by proportion of the bond.
 A higher proportion of bond is considered as close structure.
 A higher proportion of bond consider as open structure, whereas lower proportion as
close structure.
 The selection of particular structure depends on following factors :
a. Hardness of workpiece
b. Type of grinding operation
c. Quality of surface finish required on the workpiece
 For grinding brittle and hard materials dense structure is considered whereas for soft
and tough materials open structure is selected.
 Table 8.5shows some standard numbers, which are categorized into dense and open
structure
Table 8.5: Structure of grinding wheel
Structure type Represented number
Dense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
medium 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 or up
8.12 Selection of Grinding Wheel :

 To obtain good results from grinding work, selection of grinding wheel important.
 A wheel may be required to perform following different functions :
a. Quick removal of stock material

b. Obtain high class of surface finish

c. Obtain close dimensional tolerances
 For this purpose a grinding wheel with proper grain size, bond, strength, shape and
should be selected.
 The factors on which the selection of wheel depends are as follows :
Constant factors:
a. Workpiece material: It affects the selection of abrasive, grain, size, grade, structure and
bond
b. Amount of material to be removed.
c. Contact area: For small contact area finer and harder wheels are used whereas, for large
contact area coarse and softer wheels are used.
d. Type of grinding machine.
Variable factors:
a. Speed of the wheel: It affects the selection of grade and bond.
b. Speed of the workpiece: Higher workpiece speed indicates more material is to be ground
in given time hence, greater wear on the wheel. For this, harder wheel is selected.
c. Machine condition.
d. Personal factor.
8.13 Mounting of Grinding Wheel :
 The operating speed of grinding wheel is very high.
 So, it is essential that, sufficient care should be taken while mounting a grinding wheel
on the machine spindle.
 Proper mounting of wheel ensures adequate safety and avoids the chances of failure of
the wheel during the operation.
During mounting some important precautions are required, which are as follows:
a. Before mounting each wheel should be thoroughly inspected, to ensure that it is sound
and free of all defects, cracks etc.
b. The liner bushings should be carefully checked, to ensure that they are neither loose nor
extend beyond the grinding wheel sides.
c. The grinding wheel should slide freely on the spindle. If it is tight, then the bush should
be slightly reamed.
d. On each side of the wheel a flange should be provided. Both the flanges must be of
equal diameter and should be large enough, at least equal to or more than half of the
wheel diameter. Refer Fig. 8.20.
e. The inner flange should be secured firmly to the spindle either by keying, screwing
pressing or shrink fitting.
f. A blotter (washer) should remain between the abutting surfaces of the wheel and inner
flange
g. A similar washer should be provided on the other side of the wheel (between wheel
surface and outer flange). These washers are made of blotting paper, card board, rubber,
leather or any suitable compressible material.
h. The outer flange should be a sliding fit on the spindle.
i. After placing the washer on outer flange side of the wheel, the outer flange is pushed on
the spindle for bearing against the wheel.

Fig. 8.20: Mounting of grinding wheel

j. Another cover is then placed against the outer flange which provides proper seat for the
nut. This is followed by tightening the spindle nuts, just enough to firmly hold the wheel.
k. Finally, the wheel guard is put in position and a trial run is made for few minutes without
loading, followed by truing of the wheel if necessary.
8.14 Loading and Glazing of Grinding Wheels:
 After continuous usage of grinding wheel, the cutting points of the abrasive grains
become dull.
 They lose their cutting ability, sharpness and are severely worn out.
 Hence the wheel become smooth and a provide a short of rubbing action only,instead of
cutting the work material.
 The above phenomenon which makes the ineffective for cutting is known as glazing of
grinding wheel.
 It is more predominate in harder wheel at higher speed.
 The grinding wheel affected by this phenomenon is called glazed wheel.
 Another problem associated with grinding wheel during the operation is the adherence
of cut particle of the work material to the face of grinding wheel.
 The open space between the cutting point is lost by these particles.
 Hence sharpness of the cutting point is lost and face become smooth

 This phenomenon is called as loading of wheel and the wheel and the wheel affected by
this is termed as load wheel
 This effect is mostly observed in those wheel which carry a hard bond when softer
material are ground at slow speed.
 Also high depth of cut contributes towards this effect.
8.15 Turning and dressing of Grinding wheel
 The turning and dressing operation are perform for following purpose
a. To make wheel concentric with its circle
b. To make its side true and to recover the lost shape of its face
c. To use the full cutting capacity of a grinding wheel which has gone dull or got clogged
with some foreign material
 A wheel is to be trued or dressed will depend upon the type of work skill of operator and
the wheel fitness
 A frequent truing is required in case of internal grinding, whereas in case of external
grinding it is not required.
 For dressing of grinding wheel following common devices are used :
a. Wheel dressers d. Diamond
b. Abrasive sticks e. Crush dressing fixtures
c. Abrasive wheels
Wheel dressers:
 Wheel dressers are made of four common types i.e. :
a. Star dresser. c. Locked dresser
b. Corrugated disc type d. Cylinder dresser
 The star dresser is having a number of pointed discs mounted on a pin and fed to the
wheel surface by being held in a handle. They are used for dressing of rough grinding
wheels.
 The locked dresser is having a set of cut or cast discs, carrying zig-zag or serrated edges
mounted on a pin and supported on suitable bearings.
 The wheels which are used in rough cylindrical grindings are dressed by locked dresser.
 Corrugated disc type dresser contains corrugated cast disc and used for dressing
smoother wheels.
 Cylinder dresser is having solid steel cylinders which carries helical grooves and used for
dressing of wheels used in cylindrical grinding.
Abrasive sticks:
 They are made in round and square section.
 The square section is used in hand dressing for tool room work and round section is
mounted on a magazine and used for shaping the wheel faces, truing and dressing thin
wheels.
Abrasive wheel dresser:
 This is a silicon carbide grain wheel with vitrified bond and mounted on a holder.

 It can be available in various designs to operate by hand or by machine.

 It is widely used for dressing the wheels used on cylindrical and centreless grinders.
Diamond:
 They form an unparalleled device for truing and dressing the wheels which are used in
precision work.
8.16 Balancing of Grinding wheel
Fig. 8.21: balancing of wheel

 To obtain a good surface finish, to prevent vibration and to avoid undue wear on
machine parts, it is necessary that the grinding wheel should have good balance before
its use.
 Hence, the wheel is properly tested for balance before its use. But, before testing it is
trued.
 Generally, small size wheels do not require any balancing but larger wheels operating at
high speeds require balancing.
 Balancing is done in the static position of the wheel by shifting the position of weights on
one of the mounting flanges of the wheel.
 The wheel is mounted on a suitable mandrel and placed on a balancing fixture for finding
out the direction in which the weights are to be shifted. Refer Fig. 8.21


Basic Machine Tools Course Contents and Cutting Tool Fundamentals

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BASIC MACHINE TOOLS

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

1.2 Types of cutting tools

1.3 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig 1.1 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

− The oblique tool will,

− Orthogonal cutting in the machine shop is confined mainly to such operations as

1.4 Mechanics of chip formation

− The outward or shearing movement of each successive element is arrested by work

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

− The place along which the element shears is called th

Fig 1.2 Shear plane in metal cutting

1.5 Types of chip

− In engineering manufacture particularly in metal machining processes hard brittle

− Discontinuous or segmental chips consist of elements fractured into fairly small

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

− Continuous chips consist of element bonded firmly together without being

− This is usually referred to as the ‘built up edge’.

1.6 Chip breakers

− A continuous type chip form a long cut is usually quite troublesome.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

− Such chips foul the tools; cl

Fig 1.4 Chip breakers

1.7 Cutting tool nomenclature

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig 1.5 Tool nomenclature and tool angles

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.2 Function of lathe

2.3 Types of lathe

2.3.1 Speed lathe

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

− T – Lathe is used for machining of rotors for jet engines.

2.4 Size of lathe

A – Swing over bed, B – Distance between centers, C – Gap

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.5 Construction of lathe

Fig 2.2 Lathe parts

2.5.1 The Bed

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

1 – Diagonal rib, 2 – Bedways

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig 2.6 Tailstock of center lathe

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

− The tailstock may be adjusted as length of workpiece is different or vary by clamping

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

A. Single screw tool post

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

1 – Toolpost screw, 2 – Toolpost body, 3 – Tool, 4 – Convex rocker, 5 – Concave ring

1 – Tool, 2 – Coil spring, 3 – Strap, 4 – Fulcrum block

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

1 – Set screw, 2 – Central clamping bolt, 3 – Clamping bolt handle, 4 – Tool

1 – Clamping handle, 2 – Central locking bolt, 3 – Set screws, 4 – Tool

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

2.5.5 Feed Mechanism

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.6 Lathe accessories and attachments

A – Ordinary center, B – Ball center, C – frictionless center 1 – Insert type center 2

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya

Prepared By: Jignesh P. Bhoraniya Department of Mechanical Engineering