The Contribution to Distribution Network Short-
Circuit Current Level from the Connection of
Distributed Generation
Sreto Boljevic
Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland
sreto.boljevic@cit.ie
Abstract-Electrical power production from distributed
generation (DG) is playing an increasing role in the supply of
electricity in liberalised electricity markets. Currently DG is
attracting both distribution utilities and electricity users, as it
can provide meaningful advantages to both. The increasing
demand on the distribution network (DN) imposed by new DG
such as renewable sources and Combined Heat Power (CHP)
will impact on the operation of the DN in a number of areas
including short-circuit (SC) current and voltage levels. In
general, all new DG causes some increase in fault levels. An
increase in CHP generation, that would be most likely to occur
in urban DN, would lead to an increase in fault level issues as
urban networks tend to have the lowest fault level headroom.
The aim of this paper is to use the methodology of the latest
edition of the IEC 60909 standard to calculate the maximum
fault level in a DN with DG connected at MV/LV level. The
application of the methodology is demonstrated using fictitious
networks resembling typical DN configuration applied in
commercial buildings where continuity of power supply is very
important. A discussion is also included on potential measures
available to reduce the fault level.
I. INTRODUCTION
Connection of DG plants fundamentally alters the
operation of networks. There will be observable impacts on
the network power flow, voltage regulation and fault level
where generator capacity of DG is comparable to local
demand and specifically where export occurs. There is a risk
that new connections will impact adversely on the security
and quality of local electricity supplies and accordingly they
must be evaluated carefully by Distribution Network
Operators (DNOs). Historically the distribution network has
been designed to accommodate power flow from the grid
supply points downward through tiers of networks operating
at lower voltage to the electricity consumers. The network is
designed to meet the needs of normal operation, fault
conditions and abnormal operation (e.g., when the network
has been reconfigured for maintenance).
When a short circuit fault occurs in the distribution
network, a fault current will flow to the fault location. The
fault current comprises the current from connected generation
and from rotating load such as motors at customer sites. The
power flow and SC current may even have an upstream
direction of flow or at least their amplitudes will change due
Michael F. Conlon
Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland
michael.conlon@dit.ie
Fig. 1. Fault Level Capacity with the Addition of Distributed Generation
to the presence of DG. This fault current is detected by the
protection system and will be cleared by circuit breakers or
fuses.
Designers calculate fault levels during network planning
and for operational reasons, in order to ensure that they
remain within the design limits of the network. Fault levels
can be an issue in all types of networks, at all voltage levels,
and if fault levels exceed the equipment, cable or overhead
line ratings, there are two broad options:
• the network configuration may be modified and/or
additional equipment may be installed, to reduce the fault
level at the specific parts of the network where the fault
level exceeds design limits;
• the appropriate equipment, and potentially cables and lines,
may be uprated to withstand the fault level.
Traditionally, in an environment where the primary forms
of generation are connected to the distribution networks via
supply transformers from the transmission network, the main
changes to fault levels over time were due to additional
supply transformers and to changes in rotating load at
customer sites. In today’s distribution networks, the presence
of DG provides an additional contribution to the fault level,
and the embedded nature of the DG makes the fault current
calculations more complex as they should take into account
the consequences of operational switching combinations to a
degree not required when all generation was via the
transmission network. The fault level contribution from DG is
determined by a number of factors, including:
• The type of DG, as different types of DG contribute
different fault currents.
• The distance of the DG from the fault, as the increased
cable impedance over longer distances will reduce the fault
current.
• Whether or not a transformer is present between the fault
location and the contributing DG (which is often the case
for voltage regulation purposes), as transformer short
circuit impedance may assist in limiting the fault current.
• The configuration of the network between the DG and the
fault, as different paths for the flow of the fault current will
alter the magnitude of the fault current (due to cable
impedances and other installed equipment).
• The method of coupling the DG to the network. Directly
connected DG will contribute significantly higher fault
currents than DG connected via power electronics (PE)
interfaces.
Fault current in power systems determine the ratings of the
circuit interruption devices and the settings of power system
protective relays. Once the circuit breakers (CB) are in place
and relay settings have been implemented there may be some
operating and planning implications imposed by the changing
fault current. Fault analysis should be carried out prior to the
installation of new DG units. The protection system and
associated circuit interruptions may need to be upgraded or
replaced. Protection system planning is an indispensable part
of an electric power system design. Analysis of fault level
and the pre-fault conditions are required for the selection of
interrupting devices, protective relays and their coordination.
Systems must be able to withstand a certain limit of fault that
also effect reliability indices.
II. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATION
Short-Circuit currents introduce potentially destructive
energy in the form of heat and magnetic forces in a power
system. Calculations should be made to ensure that the SC
ratings of the equipment are adequate to handle the fault
current available. In general, the procedure is to (a) develop a
graphical representation of the system with symbolic voltage
sources and circuit impedance, (b) determine the total
equivalent impedance from the source to designated points
and (c) at each point divide the voltage by the total
impedance to that point to derive the SC current.
The IEC 60909 international standard is applicable for the
calculation of SC current in three-phase a.c. system operating
at a nominal frequency of 50 Hz. The SC current is always
considered as the sum of an ac symmetrical component and
the aperiodic (d.c.) decaying component. A distinction is
made between “far from generator” and “near to generator”
faults.
In the presence of multiple fault current sources within the
DN, the total fault current is the vector sum of all
contributions from upstream network, local generation and
motor loads. The equivalent voltage source method is used,
permitting calculation of fault currents using only the nominal
voltage of the system and rated values of the equipment. In
this paper the objective is to calculate the maximum SC
current in the DN with and without DG. This is performed for
three-phase faults, which provide the maximum fault current
when the network neutral is earthed directly or via an earth
fault limiting impedance. In order to enhance the accuracy of
the results, the various impedance factors recommended in
the standard are used.
Balanced (three-phase) and unbalanced faults are
considered and in both cases, maximum and minimum values
of the SC currents are calculated. The standard distinguishes
between approaches that are provided according to network
configuration – radial or mashed and to fault location. For the
calculation of the fault level, only the maximum SC currents
need to be considered. In distribution networks with a radial
configuration and low-impedance grounded neutral typically
requires the calculation of SC for three-phase far from
generator.
A. Short-Circuit Definitions
The initial symmetrical SC current Ik” is the r.m.s. value of
the a.c. symmetrical component of a prospective S.C current.
The initial symmetrical SC power Sk” (or the fault level) is
defined as Sk”=√3 Ik”Un where Un is the nominal voltage
(line) at the SC location.
The peak SC current ip must be calculated to determine the
making capacity of the required CB and to define the
electrodynamics forces that the installation as whole must be
capable of withstanding. Its value is determined by the
equation ip=k√2Ik” where k is indicated by the curve shown
in Fig 2. k is a function of the R/X ratio and is given by
R
−3
k = 1.02 + 0.98e X
(1)
The symmetrical S.C. breaking current Ib is the r.m.s. value
of the symmetrical a.c. component of the prospective SC
current at the instant of contact separation of the first pole to
open of a switching device. The steady-state SC current Isc is
the r.m.s. value of the SC current remains after the decay of
the transient phenomena. The equivalent voltage source
cUn/√3 is the voltage of an ideal source applied at the SC
location in the positive-sequence system for calculating the
SC current according to the equivalent voltage source at the
SC location [2]. The voltage factor c is the ratio between the
equivalent voltage source and the nominal system voltage
(phase).
Fig. 2. Variation of coefficient k depending on R/X
B. Calculation of the SC current are often encountered. u Rr decreases with the size of the
Determination of the total SC resistance and reactance transformer and if not given, it may be ignored.
values of the main elements of a circuit allow the SC currents
D. Contribution of the DGs units
of the installation to be calculated. The total SC resistance
DG units connected to the MV distribution network are
and reactance values are the sum of respective network
typically wind turbines and CHP over 1MW. Other types of
elements. The SC total impedance value ZT is given by:
DG units such as micro-turbines, small-scale CHP and fuel-
cells are connected to the LV distribution network. The fault
Z Tk = (RT2 + X T2 ) (2) contribution of DG units depend on the location of DG
installation, the generator type and technology (synchronous
The three-phase symmetrical SC current is given by: or induction generators directly connected or via a power
electronics interface). Connection of a conventional generator
cU n on MV busbars is shown in Fig. 3.
I 3φ = (3)
3 ∗ Z Tk In Fig. 3, the SC current is:
cmaxU n
I k" = (9)
This is generally considered as the fault which generates 3 (Z G + Z T + Z L + Z R )
the highest currents. When there are no rotaring machines, or
when their effect is low, this value represents also the steady where the impedance of the generator (G), the transformer (T)
state SC current and is taken as a reference to determine the (if used), the interconnection line (L) to the substation and the
breaking capacity of the protection devices. reactor (R) (if used) are included, all referred to the voltage at
In DN (with or without DG), the maximum fault level the SC location F. For a synchronous generator connected
typically occurs at the busbars of the infeeding substation, directly to the grid, the impedance and its correction factor
due to the large contribution of the upstream grid, which is are given by:
rapidly diminishing downstream the network. In the presence
of DG, the resulting total fault is the sum of the maximum Z G = RG + jX d" (10)
fault currents due to the upstream grid, through the network U cmax
KG = n ∗ (11)
transformer and the DGs and large motors connected to the U rG 1 + xd" sin ϕ rG
DN.
C. Contribution of the upstream grid
The contribution of the upstream grid is calculated by

cmaxU n cmaxU n
I k" = = (4)
3 (Z Q + Z kT ) 3 (Z Q t r2 + KT Z TLV )

where ZQ is the impedance of the network feeder (upstream

grid) at the connection point Q and ZT is the impedance of the
transformer. KT is a correction factor used for the impedance
of the transformer. The above quantities are calculated using Fig. 3. DG connected at Bus Q
the following relations:
where X d" is the subtransient reactance of the synchronous
cU n
ZQ = (5) machine, R = 0.15 X " can be used and K is the applicable
G G
3I kQ
" d

2 correction factor from IEC 60909.

u U
Z T = kr ∗ rT (6) For synchronous generators connected to the grid through a
100% S rT unit transformer, referred to as a power station unit in the IEC
u U" P standard, the combined generator transformer impedance and
RT = Rr ∗ rT = krT2 (7)
100% S rT 3I rT the relevant correction factor are given by:
cmax
K T = 0.95 ∗ where X T = Z T2 − RT2 (8) Z S = tt2 Z G + Z THV (12)
1 + 0.6 xT
UnQ U cmax
KSO = ∗ rTLV ∗(1± pT ) ∗ (13)
UrG (1+ pG ) UrTHV
"
I kQ is the initial symmetrical SC current at the HV 1+ xd" sinϕrG
connection point Q, u kT is the SC voltage of the transformer
(in %) u kr is the rated resistive component of the SC circuit with R = 0.15 X " . p and p may be ignored here. The
G d G T
voltage (in %) and PkrT is the load losses at rated current. A
impedance of the transformer ZTHV is expressed at its HV
typical assumption is RQ X Q = 0.1 , although higher values
side.
 SC current at point A is
c ∗U n
I k" 3 = = 13121.59 A (14)
3 ∗ ZQ
Peak SC current at point A is
i pQ = k ∗ 2 ∗ I k" 3 = 19670.13 A (15)

Case 2: SC current level occurs at point B (0.415 kV)

SC current at point B (0.415 kV) is

c ∗U n
I k" 3 = = 5563 A (16)
(a) (b) 3 ∗ZB
Fig. 4. (a) DG connected at 11kV; (b) DG connected at 0.415kV Peak SC current at point B is
i pQ = k ∗ 2 ∗ I k" 3 = 12351.6 A (17)
III. NUMERICAL E XAMPLE
The application of the SC currents calculation methodology Case 3: SC current level on 11 kV busbars with DG
connected to 11 kV busbars
is demonstrated on the fictitious 11 kV DN shown in Fig. 4
and Fig. 5 showing DG connection on MV and LV busbars.
SC current contributed by DG
To determine the impact of DG installation on the SC current,
c ∗U n
two cases of DG connection were examined and results are I k" 3G = = 192.45 A (18)
compared and discussed. To simplify the SC calculations a 3 ∗ ZG
number of basic assumptions are required. These impose Peak SC current contributed by DG
limits for which the calculations are valid but usually provide i pQ = k ∗ 2 ∗ I k" 3 = 484.45 A (19)
good approximations, facilitating comprehension of the
physical phenomenon and consequently the SC current
Total SC current = ∑I "
k3 + I k" 3G = 13314.04 A
calculations. They nevertheless maintain a fully acceptable Total peak current = ∑ i pk + i pG = 20154.58 A
level of accuracy, erring on the conservative side. The Case 4: SC Current on 0.415 kV busbars with DG connected
assumptions used in this paper include: at 0.415 kV
- The given network is radial with nominal voltage of 11kV
and 0.415kV. DG generator contribution to the SC at point B
- The SC current, during a three-phase SC, is assumed to
c ∗Un 1 ∗ 415
occur simultaneously on all three phases I k" 3G = = = 89247.3 A (20)
- During the SC, the number of phases involved does not 3 ∗ ZG 3 ∗ 2.689 ∗ 10 −3
change i.e. a three-phase fault remains three-phase. Peak SC current at point B produced by DG is
- For the entire duration of the SC, the voltages responsible i pQ = k ∗ 2 ∗ I k" 3 = 224662.2 A (21)
for the flow of the current and the SC impedance do not
change significantly. Total SC current = ∑ I k" 3 + I k" 3G = 94810.3 A
- Transformer tap-changers are assumed to be set to a main Total peak current= ∑ i pk + i pG = 237013.8 A
position.
- Load currents are neglected From the numerical example shown above it is obvious that
- Arc resistance are not taken into account connecting DG on the LV 0.415 kV busbars substantially
In order to perform SC calculation according IEC 60909 increases the SC current from 5.5 kA to 95 kA which in most
the following informations are essential and these include: cases will exceed the thermal capacity of breaking devices
Upstream Network SC MVA SQ = 250 MVA installed in the LV section of the network. In the case where
Transformer rating = 750 kVA DG is connected to the 11kV busbar, the impact of DG is
usc= 5% minor regarding the SC current level on both MV and LV
Connection symbol Dyn5 section of the network.
Generator SG = 0.5MVA
Xsubtran = 5% ;
IV. SOLUTIONS FOR SC FAULT LEVEL REDUCTION
In addition to the assumptions outlined above, for these
calculations the impedances of the circuit breaker, connection The issue of fault level management (reduction) is not a
lines and busbars are neglected. new phenomenon and practicing power engineers are familiar
with its implications. Solutions to the problem are grouped in
E. SC Current Level without DG connected on the Network
four categories and these are discussed in this section.
Case 1: SC occurs at point A (11kV)
A. Increase the design maximum fault level
When faults levels go beyond the existing design limits due
to the connection of DG, uprating the capability of existing
equipment such as CBs is an option to increase the fault level
capabilities of the network. Most often the network
equipment is replaced with equipment having a higher design
rating. This is not a realistic option in DN where equipment
and construction are largely standardised by the utilities,
since a global upgrade would be required for the switchgear
in the network and customers user installations.
B. Reduce prospective SC current of the grid
It is possible to introduce higher impedances in the network
to limit the fault level. The use of current limiting reactors is
a relatively effective solution but needs additional efforts to
maintain the voltage profile, and causes increases in the
network losses. Also, one to one [6] transformers can be used
to connect the larger individual DG unit to the network.
Another alternative is a fault current limiter which senses
the rapid rise of the fault current and fires a pyrotechnic
charge to open the main current path. The current is
commutated to the parallel path where a conventional fuse
operates. The key advantages of using a limiter is that it
retains the existing low network impedance under normal
network conditions (no losses), combined with the
effectiveness of a fuse. A major disadvantage is the
replacement of contacts and fuses after each operation and the
requirement for careful adjustment of protective relay settings
to maintain selectivity
C. Network Changes
Network Splitting and reconfiguration can significantly
reduce the fault level at a busbar. However, network splitting
reduces power quality in general due to the increased source
impedance, and it increases system losses and the risk of
supply failure. Another possibility to reduce the fault level is
to reconfigure and alter the existing connectivity to be altered,
either in response to a fault or to allow a section of network to
be isolated for maintenance purposes. Both solutions require
new protective settings and switching sequences.
D. Sequential Switching
Sequential switching is a method by which the multiple
sources contributing to any fault current are separated prior to
the clearance of the fault section. This solution has some
safety risks to people and equipment because there is the risk
that a sequential switching scheme could fails to prevent a
circuit breaker opening before the fault current has been
reduced sufficiently. Another issue is the increased
complexity and dependency on information and
communication technology, particularly if equipment at more
than one site is involved, and the technical issues associated
with the deliberate introduction of a protection operation time
delay.
E. Reduce the prospective SC current of the DG
For various reasons, an increasing number of DG types
have become available which use a power electronics
converter interface. These provide a much lower fault current
contribution than either synchronous or asynchronous
machines, effectively providing no additional contribution to
the fault level.
Another option is to select equipment with increased SC
impedance. This includes step-up (LV/MV) transformers with
higher SC voltage and synchronous generators with higher
subtransient reactance.
Another common measure is the installation of current
limiting reactors in series with DG unit, effectively increasing
its total SC impedance.
F. Active limitation of the SC current
Active fault level management of fault level could be
carried out within operational as well as planning timescales
by developing the evolution of the network from “fit and
forget” to “actively managed” as part of the transition to an
“intelligent network”. Active fault management would consist
of simple activities such as reconfiguring the network
combined with more dynamic and active measures like
temporarily introduced impedances and actively shifted loads.
V. CONCLUSION
The SC capacity of existing DN is often close to their
design level, leaving little margin for the interconnection of
DG resources. In general all forms of DG contribute to fault
levels. The connection of DG to the DN could therefore result
in fault level exceeding the design limit of the network,
particularly if it is already being operated close to its design
limit.
In this paper the main objective is to outline simple
application of IEC 60909 standard for the calculation of fault
level in DN with DG. Besides all the great benefits of DGs,
some incompatibility problems between the DG units and the
protection system of the network and rating of other
components can arise. As it can be seen from the numerical
examples, fault level contribution is an important
consideration for the interconnection of DG to the DN.
The connection of DG can raise the fault levels on existing
equipment, due to the fault contributions from the DG itself,
to values beyond the capacity of existing switchgear. From
the results it can be seen that connecting DG on 11kV busbars
produce less increase in SC current level than when DG is
connected to LV busbars.
At the planning stage, fault levels are calculated in order to
determine whether or not they exceed the design limit of
existing equipment, and to determine the design limit
required of new equipment.
Due to the practical significant of the fault level constraints
and the uncertainty of the SC current contribution by DG
units, establishing a straightforward SC calculation procedure
would definitely contribute to the more objective evaluation
of their interconnection requirements.
The need for more active fault management to permit
increase in DG penetration levels in DN, a number of
possible solutions fault management (reduction) are outlined
and briefly explained.
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