Agronomy

Edited by
Nestor R. Lawas
Associate Professor

Department of Agronomy
College of Agriculture
University of the Philippines at Los Banos
College, Laguna

January 2001
(Reproduction with Permission Only)

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DEFINITION OF TERMS:

 Absorption - taking up H2o by assimilation

 Ambient temperature - the existing natural environmental temperature surrounding a plant or a
plant part
 Anabolism - the metabolic processes that form more complex molecules front from single ones' as
in photosynthesis or protein synthesis.
 Angiosperm - a plant in which the female gamete is protected within an enclosed ovary.
 Apical dominance - the suppression of the development of lateral buds by high concentration of
Auxins in the shoot apex
 Arrow - the inflorescence of sugarcane plant
 Asexual - used in reference to reproduction by any method in which sexual fertilization is absent or
not completed
 Abscissic acid - a plant growth regulator or hormone that affects dormancy it acts as a growth
inhibitor.
 Abscission - the natural separation of leaves, flowers and fruits or buds from the sterns or other
plant parts by the formation of a special layer of thin-walled cells.
 Acid soil - it soil with a pH below 7.0
 Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) - a high-energy phosphate compound. This is converted to A'I'P by
the addition of phosphate which is attached to the ADP molecule by a high-energy bond.
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - a high-encrg1, molecule that is the major source of usable
chemical energy for cellular work.
 Absorption - taking up vapor or liquid by surface on which they remain.
 Adventitious roots – a root that originates neither as a branch from the pericycle nor as a seminal
root.
 Aerial roots - roots that arise front the stem above the ground'
 Autotrophic - capable of producing food from non-food materials Ageotropic - Iacking a geotropic
response as in stolons, rhizomes. and lateral roots which grow either erect or downward
 Agroecology - the study of the relation of crop adaptation to environmental conditions.
 Agronomy - the science of crop production and soil management or field management.
 Alkaline soil - a soil with a pH above 7.
 Ammonification - formation of ammonia or ammonium compounds in soil.
 Annual - a plant that completes its life cycle from seed in one Year or less.
 Anther – the part of the stamen that contain the pollen
 Anthocyanin - a water-soluble plant pigment that produces many of the red, blue and purple colors
in plants.
 Apogeotropic – turning upward in response to a stimulus opposed to the force of gravity.
 Aquatic plant - a plant that lives in water.
 Asexual reproduction - reproduction without involving the germ or sexual cells
 Auxins - organic substances that cause stem elongation.
 Anthesis - the period during which the flower is open and. in grasses the period when the anther
arc extended from the glumes.
 Apomixis - a type of asexual production of seed (as in Kentucky blue grass).
 B horizon - the subsoil layer in which certain leached substances are deposited.
 Band application - the placement of fertilizer in a band or bands in the root zone before or at the
time of planting. Insecticides are sometimes applied in this manner.
 Backcross - the cross of a hybrid with one of the parental types.
 Biennial - of two year's duration" a plant germinating one season and producing seed the next.
 Brace root - an aerial root that functions to brace the plant as in corn.
 BuIb - a leaf with fleshy scales, usually subterranean.
 Bagasse - a fibrous by-product of sugarcane processing that is used in the manufacture of some
types of paper products.
 Boll - the rounded seed pod of cotton or flax.
 Botany - the science of plant life.
 Bran - the outer layers of karyopsis removed in milling.
 Budding - a form of grafting in which a vegetative bud from one plant is transferred to stem tissue
of another
 Bunch - growth habit of grasses that do not spread by rhizomes or stolons
 Cash crop - a crop produced for direct sale for cash, as contracted with crops produced as
livestock feed.
 Catabolism - destructive metabolism the metabolic processes that break down complex molecules
with the release of energy.
 Cation - a positively charged atom or molecule.
 Certified seed - seed that meets rigid standard of purity and germination and is so designated by
an authorized agency
 Chloroplast - the cellular organelle in which chlorophyll is located.
 CEC - a measure of the potential of a soil to give up or exchange positively charged ions or
molecules.
 Complete & Perfect flower - a flower with all parts of the perianth and pistil and stamen.
 Contact herbicide - a nonsystemic weed killer - one that does not have to be metabolized by a
plant to be effective.
 Crossing over - the physical exchange of chromosomal material between non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes
 Cross-pollination - the condition in which pollen from an anther on one plant ultimately fertilize a
flower on a different plant.
 Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells.
 C Horizon – the layer of weathered parent rock material below B horizon of the soil but above the
unweather rock.
 Calcareous soil - an alkaline soil containing sufficient calcium and Mg carbonate to cause visible
efflorescence when treated with hydrochloric acid.
 Chlorophyll - the green coloring matter of plants that take part in the process of photosynthesis.
 Chlorosis - the yellowing or blanching of leaves and other chlorophyll bearing plant parts.
 Chromosome - carrier of genes.
 Climate - the total long-time characteristic weather of any region
 Clone - a group of organism composed of, individuals propagated vegetative from a single original
individual'
 Coleoptile - the sheath covering the tip of the leaf of a grass seedling as it emerge from the soil.
 Coleorhizae - a sheath covering the tip of the first root from a seed.
 Companion crop - a crop grown with another crop, as a small grain with forage crops.
 Contour furrows - plowed at right angles to the slope, at the same level of grade, to intercept and
retain runoff water,
 Corm - hard swollen base of the stem.
 Cotyledon - the first leaves of a plant as found in the embryo.
 Cover crop - a crop grown between orchard trees or on field between cropping season to protect
the land from leaching and erosion.
 Crop rotation - is the planting of some crops, like vegetables, cereals, and legumes after harvesting
the main crop. Like rice, corn, or sugarcane and repeating the same pattern in the next crop year.
 Cross-fertilization or cross-pollination - fertilization secured by pollen from another plant.
 Cutting - a part of a plant used for vegetative propagation.
 Cytology - the study of the structure, function, and life history of the cell.
 Cytoplasm - the contents of a cell outside the nucleus.
 Cultivar - a cultivated variety within a plant species that differs in some respect from the rest of the
species.
 Diffusion - the random scattering [g of molecules due to their own kinetic activity and to external
forces.
 Digestion - the breakdown of complex foods to simple foods, which can be more easily respired.
 Double-fertilization - the process of sexual fertilization in the angiosperms in which one nucleus
from the male
 gametophyte fertilizes the egg nucleus to front the embryo and a second nucleus from the male
 gametophyte jointly-fertilizes two polar nuclei to form endosperm'
 Deciduous - plants or trees that shed leaves or awns at a particular season or stage'
 Dehiscence - the opening of valves or anthers, or separation of parts of plants.
 Denitrification - the reduction of nitrates to nitrites, ammonia and free nitrogen in the soil.
 Diploid - having two sets of chromosomes.
 Distal - the terminal end farthest from the base.
 Dominant - possessing as character which is manifested in the hybrid to the apparent exclusion of
the contracted character from the other parent.
 Dormancy - an internal condition of a seed or bud that prevents its prompt germinating or sprouting
under normal growth conditions.
 Determinate inflorescence - flowers that arises from the terminal buds and check the growth of the
axis.
 Dicotyledonous plants - plants producing two cotyledons in each fruit.
 Double cross - the result of mating two single crosses. Each of which had been produced by
crossing two distinct inbred linen.
 Drill - a machine for sowing in furrows.
 Drill row - a row of seeds or plants sown with a drill: one seed per hill.
 Dry sets - small onion bulbs, approximately 1.5 - 2 cm in diameter used as planting material.
 Ecology - the study of the mutual relations between organisms and their environment.
 Ecotype - a variety or strains adapted to a particular environment.
 Egg - the female reproductive cell'
 Emasculate - remove the male reproductive structures'
 Embryo sac - the sac in the embryo containing the egg cell'
 Emergence - coming off a place, as a seedling from the soil or a flower from a bud.
 Endocarp - inner layer of pericarp.
 Endosperm - the starchy interior of grain.
 Epicotyl - the stem of the embryo or young seedling above the cotyledons.
 Erosion - the wearing away of the land surface by water, wind or other forces.
 Energy - the potential to do work.
 Enzyme - a protein that functions as a biological catalyst and regulate cellular functions.
 Epigeal germination - in dicots, germination in which the cotyledons rise above the soil surface.
 Farming - the art and practice of crop production.
 Fermentation - alternate path of respiration followed when oxygen is absent or limited.
 F1 - the first filial generation the first generation offspring of a given mating.
 F2 - the second filial generation, the first generation in which segregation occurs.
 Fallow - cropland left side for the soil to rejuvenate and replenish its fertility.
 Fertility (plant) - the ability to reproduce sexually.
 Fertility (soil) - the ability to provide the proper nutrients in the proper amount and in proper balance
for the growth of specified plants under the suitable environment or the abili8 to support crop
production.
 Fertilization (plant) - the union of the male nucleus with the female cell.
 Fertilization (soil) - the applications to the soil of elements or compounds that aid in the maturation
of plants.
 Fibrous root - a slender thread-like root, as in grasses.
 Field capacity - the percentage of moisture on dry weight basis that is held against the pull of
gravity, after drainage has ceased in a soil that has been saturated.
 Filament - the stalk of the stamen which bears the anther.
 Fleshy root - a thickened root containing abundant food reserves; example: carrot sweet potato.
 Floret - lemma and Palea with included flower.
 Forage vegetable matter, fresh or preserved, gathered and fed to animals.
 Fruit - the ripened pistil or ovary.
 Fungicide - a chemical substance used as a spray, dust, or disinfectant to kill fungi infesting plants
or seeds.
 Fungus - a group of plants that causes most plant diseases.
 Gene - the unit of heredity variation, sex determination and related phenomena.
 Genotype - the hereditary make-up of characteristics of a plant or a pure line or variety.
 Geotropic - turning downward in response to a stimulus caused by the force of gravity.
 Germ cell - a cell capable of production or of sharing in reproduction
 Grain - a karyopsis, a collective term for the cereals'
 Grass - a plant of the family Graminae
 Gamete - a haploid cell or nucleus that may unite with another gamete to produce a zygote, the
process of sexual fertilization.
 Gametophyte - the spore that, as a result or mitosis, ultimately produces the male and female
gametes or nuclei.
 Genetics - the science or study of inheritance'
 Germination - the sequences of events occurring in a viable seed, starting with the inhibition of
water, that leads to the growth and development of an embryo'
 Gibberelins - a group of hormones that contribute to increase in cell size, fruit size, and fruit yield,
among other effects.
 Glycolysis - a respiratory process in which glucose is converted anaerobically into lactate or
pyruvate with a net
 Grafting - a method of asexual propagation involving the transfer of aerial parts of one plant (scion)
to the root or trunk material (stock) of another plant'
 Green manure – a crop that is plowed under while still green and growing to improve the soil
fertility.
 Green sets - young plants of the Alliums grown for transplanting'
 Growth – an irreversible increase in cell size or cell number
 Haploid- used in reference to either a nucleus or an entire organisms in which' only one member of
each set of
 homologous chromosomes is present'
 Hardening - the slight checking of the growth of plants before transplanting to improve their ability
to resume growth quickly in the new location
 Herbicide - applied to cropland as pre-emergence or post-emergence treatment for the control of
weeds.
 Heterozygous - containingunlikeallelesatoneormorelociasareactantandnotasasolvent.
 Hill - a place in which one or more seeds, a cutting or a section of a root or a tuber is planted.
 Hilling-up - the moving of soil toward a row of plants'
 Hypogeal germination - in dicot, germination in which the cotyledons do not rise above the soil
surface'
 Homozygous - containing like germ cells.
 Hormone - a chemical growth regulating substance that can be or is produced by living organisms'
 Humus - the well decomposed more or less stable part of the organic matter of the soil.
 Husk - the coarse outer envelope of a fruit as the glumes of an ear or maize.
 Hybrid - the offspring of two parents unlike in one or more heritable characters'
 Hybridization – the process of crossing organism of unlike heredity,
 Hydrophyte - a plant adapted to wet or submerged condition.
 Hypocotyl – the stem of the embryo or young seedling below the cotyledon.
 Insecticides - a chemical used to kill insects'
 Intercrop - the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same piece of land. Normally
one matures quickly so that-the longer growing crop then has the use of the whole area.
 Intercropping - is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same plot in alternating
rows or sets of rows.
 Inter-tilled crop - a crop planted in rows followed by cultivationbetwe6n the rows'
 Ion - an electricity charge element, group of elements or particle'
 Inbred line - a plant or group of plants that is homozygous'
 Incompatibility – a genetic condition in which certain normal male spores are incapable of
functioning on certain pistils.
 Incomplete flower - a flower missing all or some of the following parts: sepals, petals, stamens or
pistils.
 Indehiscent fruit - a fruit does not split open naturally at maturity'
 Indeterminate growth - the growth exhibited by a stem that terminates in a vegetative bud and thus
elongates
 Inferior ovary - an ovary that is imbedded in the receptacle, or an ovary whose base is below the
point of attachment of the perianth.
 Inflorescence - any structurally organized group of flowers. r Inoculation - introduction of bacteria
on seed or into soil.
 Irrigation - any method of applying water to a crop so that it reaches the rooting zone.
 Juvenile stage - a term applied to a period in the early growth of plants, mainly biennials, when
they are not susceptible to the influence of environment in the stimulation of reproductive
development.
 Krebs cycle - a cyclic series of chemical reactions through which pyruvate is oxidized to CO2 and
H2O, and ATP is produced.
 Legume - a simple, dry dehiscent fruit that dehisces along two margins. A pod-bearing plant.
 Light reaction - the reaction in photosynthesis in which light energy is required the photo activation
or excitement of an electron in the chlorophyll molecule, electro transfers of this electron and
associated reactions.
 Logging - a condition most frequently observed in cereals where plants bend at or near the soil
surface and lie more or less flat on the ground.
 Leach – to remove materials by solution.
 Lime - calcium oxide or quick lime; Calcium carbonate; material applied to increase soil pH
 Longenity - length of life usually of seeds or plants of longer than average life.
 Miosis - the divisions of the sexual cells in which the member of chromosomes is halved.
 Mellow soil - a soil that is easily worked or penetrated.
 Mesophyte - a plant that thrives under medium conditions of moisture and salt content of the soil.
 Mitosis - cell division involving the forma ion and longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes.
 Monocotyledon -"a plant having one cotyledon in its seed, as in the grasses.
 Mulch - a layer of plant residues or other materials placed on the surface of the soil to conserve soil
moisture
 Macro-nutrient - a mineral required in relatively large amount for plant growth
 Megaspore-- the spore that germinates to form the female gametophyte, the end product of mitosis
in the pistil.
 Micro-nutrient - a mineral required in a relatively small amount for plant growth
 Multiple cropping - is the growing of more than one food, feed or industrial crop on the same piece
of land in one year.
 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) - a hydrogen acceptor molecule.
 Nut - a dry, indehiscent, single-seeded fruit with a hard, woody pericarp.
 Necrosis - discoloration, dehydration and death of plant parts.
 Neutral soil - a soil neither acid nor alkaline with a pH or about 7.0 or between 6.6 and 7.3
 Nitrification - formation of nitrate from ammonia.
 Nitrogen fixation - the transformation of free nitrogen into nitrogen compounds that can be
absorbed as foods by plants, this is done naturally through bacterial decomposition, nitrogen
nodules on plant roots, or by lightning.
 Nodule - a tubercle formed on legume roots by nitrogen fixing bacteria of the genus rhizobium.
 Nutrient - a chemical element taken into a plant that is essential to the growth or reproduction of
the plant.
 Off-barring - the removal of soil from the sides of a row of plants preparatory to a hilling up
operation.
 Off-set - planting the-plants in a row are opposite the midpoint between those in the two adjacent
rows rather than being directly opposite each other.
 Osmosis - diffusion of substance through a cell wall or other membrane.
 Out cross - a cross to an individual not closely related.
 Oxidation - a chemical change involving addition of oxygen or its chemical equivalent, or involving
an increase in + or decrease in - valence.
 Palea - inner bract of a floret lying next to the caryopsis in grasses.
 Palmate - radicately lobed or divided.
 Panicle - an inflorescence with a main axis and subdivided branches, as in oats and sorghum.
 Parasitic – living in or on another living organism.
 Parthenogenesis - the development of a new individual from a germ cell without fertilization.
 Perennial - living more than one year but in some cases producing seed in the first year and every
season thereafter.
 Perfect flower - a flower having both pistil and stamen.
 pH - the designation for degree of acidity or hydrogen-ion activity.
 Phenotype - the organism as exemplified by its expressed characters.
 Photoperiod - the hours of daylight effective in causing physiological changes in plants.
 Photoperiodism - the response of plants to different day lengths or light periods.
 Phototropism - the growing or turning toward the light. The influence of light on the direction of the
different plant parts of a plant tends to grow.
 Phyllotary - the arrangement of leaves upon the stem.
 Pistil - the seed-bearing organ of a flower consisting of the ovary, style and stigma.
 Pistillate - provided with pistils but without stamens'
 Plant - any organism belonging to the plant or vegetable kingdom.
 Pollen - the male germ cells produced in the anther
 Pollination - the transfer of pollen from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the pistil.
 Primary root - a main root.
 Productivity (of soil) - the capability of a soil to produce a specified plant or sequence of plants
under a specified system of management'
 Profile - a vertical cross section of the soil through all its horizons and extending into the parental
material.
 Pure line - a strain of organism that is genetically pure because of continued inbreeding, self-
fertilization or other means.
 Parthenocarpy - fruit production without sexual fertilization'
 Pathology - the science or study of disease, its causes, and its controls.
 Photolysis - splitting of water into H+ and OH- , utilizing solar energy in the light reactions of
photosynthesis.
 Photoperiodic response - the flowering response of a plant in relation to the relative length of light
and dark periods, usually in terms of 24-hour day.
 Photophosphorylation - the production of ATP using the energy of light excited electrons produced
in the light reactions of photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis - the process of converting water and carbon dioxide into sugar using chlorophyll
and light energy accompanied by the production of oxygen by green plants.
 Pollen tube - a tube-like, structure developed by the tube nucleus in the microspore that helps
guide the sperm and endosperm nuclei through the stigma and style to the embryo sac.
 Polyploidy - a condition in which a plant has somatic cells with more than 2N chromosomes per
nucleus.
 Post emergence spray - a pesticide or herbicide spray that is after the crop has emerged from the
soil.
 Pre emergence – the timing of a chemical treatment applied before seedlings have appeared
above the soil surface.
 Pre-irrigation - irrigation before final seedbed preparation and planting; a method to insure
adequate moisture for the germination of crop seeds.
 Pricking off - the transplanting of seedlings from a seeded plot to a wider spacing when they are in
the cotyledon stage or have a couple of three leaves.
 Priming - the removal of the first fruits, roots or tubers that develop on a plant leaving the
remainder to mature.
 Ratoon - the crop harvested from regrowth as in sugarcane. '
 Rhyzobium - genus of bacteria that live symbiotically in the roots of legumes and fix nitrogen that is
used by plants.
 Rootstock - in asexual propagation, where the scion is attached to develop a new plant.
 Recessive - used in reference to the allelic form of a unit of heredity that, when present in a
heterozygous condition is not expressed.
 Relay crop - a crop which is planted in shortly before the first crop is to be harvested'
 Reaction - the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil expressed as pH.
 Rehilling - the replacement of soil about individual plants or a row of plants after some soil has
been removed from that location.
 Respiration - the process of absorption of oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide'
 Rhizome - a subterranean stem, usually rooting at the nodes and rising at the apex; a rootstock.
 Rill erosion - erosion producing small channels that can be obliterated by tillage.
 Root - the part of the plant.
 Saprophytic - living on dead organic matter.
 Seed - the ripened ovule enclosing a sedimentary plant and the food necessary for its germination'
 Segregation - separation of hybrid pyrogenic into the different hereditary types representing the
combination of the character of the two parents.
 Selection - the choosing of plants having certain characteristics for propagation'
 Selfed - pollinated by pollen from same plant'
 Seminal root - a root arising from the base of the hypocotyl.
 Sheet erosion - erosion by removal of a more or less uniform layer of material from the land
surface.
- Siblings - offspring of the same parental plants'
 Silage - forage preserved in a succulent condition by partial fermentation in a tight container.
 Silt - small soil particles of a diameter of 0.002 to 0.05 mm
 Single cross – the first generation hybrid between 2 inbred lines.
 Sod - plowed meadow of Pasture.
 Sequential planting - this is done by planting short season, drought tolerant crops after rice; more
especially upon failure of the rice crop due to pests'
 Soil - the natural medium for the growth, of land plants on the surface of the earth composed of
organic and mineral materials.
 Solum – the upper part of the soil profile, the A and B horizons
 Sow - to place seed in a position for growing.
 . Spore - single-celled reproductive bodies produced by fungi
 Stamen - the pollen bearing organ of a flower.
 Staminate - having stamens but no pistils'
 Starter solution - a liquid that contains dissolved fertilizer nutrients and is applied to plants to
facilitate growth.
 Stock - a supply of seed of a crop variety.
 Stolon – a modified propagating, creeping stem above ground fiat produces roots'
 Strain - a group of plants derived from variety.
 Straw – a dried remnants of fine stemmed plants from which the seed had been removed.
 Stubble - the basal portion of the stems of plants left standing after cutting.
 Subsoil - that part of Solum below plow depth or below the A horizon.
 Sucker - a tiller. A shoot produced from a crown or rhizomes or in tobacco, from auxiliary buds.
 Surface soil - the upper 12 inches or 30 cm of the soil, or in arable soils, the depth commonly
stirred by the plow.
 Symbiotic nitrogen fixation - the fixation of nitrogen by bacteria infesting the roots of legumes while
benefiting the legume crop.
 Saline soil - a soil containing excessive amounts of soluble salts.
 Scion - the aerial part of a plant that is transferred to a new rootstock in grafting'
 Sexual fertilization - the union of two haploid gametes to yield a single diploid zygote.
 Soil structure - the tendency of soil particles to clump together or form aggregates.
 Soil texture - the relative proportions of sand, si1t, and clay particles in soil.
 Spike - an inflorescence, common in the grass family, that has a central axis on which sessile
spikelet are born.
 Tiller - stem of a grass plant, which is a complete plant by itself.
  Tilt - used in reference to the overall physical condition of a soil, frequently regarding its suability as
a seedbed.
 Triploid - a specific case of polypecidy in which there are 3N chromosomes.
 Taproot - a single central root.
 Tassel - the staminate inflorescence of maize composed of panicle spikes.
 Taxonomy - the science of classification.
 Tendril - a leaflet or stem modified for climbing or anchorage, as in the pea,
 Tetraploid - having four times the primary chromosome member.
 Topsoil - the surface soil, usually the plow depth of the A horizon.
 Transpiration - the loss of moisture through the leaves.
 Transplants - small plant grown in a plant bed or flat, or are removed from a seeded row for
resetting in a new location.
 Tuber - a short, thickened subterranean branch'
 Unisexual - containing either stamens or pistils' but not both.
 Variation - the occurrence of differences among individuals of a species or variety.
 Variety - a group of individuals within a species that differ with the rest of the species.
 Vector - in biology, a carrier. A vector is generally an insect that carries pollen or disease causing
plant organism from to plant.
 Virus - ultramicroscopic protein bodies, the presence of certain types of which cause mosaic and
other diseases in plant tissue.
 Weed – a plant that in its location is more harmful than beneficial.
 Xerophyte - a plant adapted to arid conditions.
 Xylem - the woody part of a fibro vascular bundle containing vessels; the water-conducting tissue.
 Zygote - product of united gametes

NOTES:

 Types of Herbicides Based on Selectivity:

1. Selective will kill certain plants only at low concentration.

2. Non -selective will kill all plants.

 Based on Types of Action:

1. Contact will kill only the plant parts that were sprayed.
2. Systemic (Trans located) can travel inside the plant and therefore kill the whole plant.

Fertilizer Application:

1. Broadcast Method - fertilizer is applied uniformly over the entire area before planting or while the
crops are already growing.
a. Basal or pre-planting - fertilizer is broadcasted over the entire area followed by cultivation to mix
the fertilizer with the soil. Shallow plowing or harrowing is done two or three times to ensure even
distribution of the fertilizer applied.
b. Top-dressing - fertilizer is applied overhead on already growing seedlings. This should be
followed by overhead watering to remove fertilizer lodging on the leaves.

2. Localized fertilizer - is applied on a specific area near the seed or plant either in bands, in rows or
by hole method

a. Banding fertilizer - is applied in bands or strips on one or both sides of the rows of drilled
seeds on growing plants.

b. Row application - a moldboard plow is passed between rows of plants to make the deepest
portion of the furrow where fertilizer should be applied, the plow is again passed about three
inches away to cover the fertilizer and at the same time hill up the soil to the plants.

c. Hole method - applicable on bigger crops and sloping areas, this system makes use of a
pointed stake to make several peg holes around the plant or along the rows of crops.

3. Side dressing fertilizer - is applied between the rows close to the plants, simultaneous without
cultivation this is very effective during the developing stage of the plant when they feed on nutrients
very rapidly.

4. Foliar spray fertilizer - is applied on the upper portion of the plant particularly the leaves, this
method is done by dissolving the fertilizer first in water as prescribed and then sprayed to the
plants.

5. Tank system - knowing how much water is needed to irrigate a given area, t}e fertilizer and
applied is dissolved mixed in tank, as irrigation water passes through the tank, it is fed either into
pipes or pressurized sprinklers, through the canals through flooding, or through subterranean
system.

Herbicides (Also applicable to Insecticides)

1. To determine the amount of herbicide to be applied to one hectare.

Amount = rate desired (kg ai /ha) x 10

(kg or L) herbicide concentration (%)

2. To determine amount of herbicide to be applied to a given area.

Amount = rate desired (kg ai/ha) x area (sq. m) x 100

(Kg or L) herbicide concentration (70)

Amount = rate desired (kg ai/ha) x area (sq. m) x 10

(gm. or ml) herbicide concentration (%)

**to convert lb. / [US gal to % multiply by 12

 ** To convert lb/L mp gal to % multiply by 10
** To convert g/L to g divide by l0

3. To determine the Number of Plants/ Hectare

a. Square or Rectangular = Area or 10,000

Distance dl xd2

b. Triangular distance = Area x 0.866

dl xd2

c. Quincunx = Area + (L-l) (W-l)

dl x d2 dl d2

4. To determine Number of Grams of seed to sow per Row from a Given seedling Rate

Seed required = (seedling rate (kg/ha) x distance between rows (m) x row length (m)
10
PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE

Soil - a natural body composed of a variable mixture of broken and weathered minerals and decaying
organic matter and when containing the proper amounts of air and water. Supplies sustenance and gives
mechanical support of plants

Two Approaches to Study of Soils

1. Pedology - is the study of soil which puts more emphasis on the origin, characteristics,
classification and description.
2. Edaphology - is soil science which is more concerned with the practical utilization of soil and the
principles of maintaining its fertility.

Components of Soil
1. Mineral matter - 95-89% by weight
2. Organic matter - 2-5Yo by weight
3. Living organisms - fungi, algae, bacteria, and other microorganisms
4. Air -'various gases as oxygen, CO2, H2, and others
5. Water - with dissolved materials in it

5 Principal Factors Involved in Soil Formation

1. parent material
2. climate
3. Relief
4. biotic factors
5. time

Soil profile - vertical section from the surface downward to the bedrock, individual layers are regarded as
horizons.
These are further classified as follows:

A horizon - the surface soil

B horizon - the sub-soil
C horizon - the substrata or the parent material

The horizons above the parent material are collectively called the Solum.
The unconsolidated materials above the bedrock are called the regolith.

Soil Parent Materials

Minerals - are naturally occurring elements or inorganic compounds in solid state, with definite
chemical composition, unique crystalline structure, and certain physical properties.
Types of Rock Forming Minerals

1. Ferro magnesium - when silicate materials combine with ions of iron and magnesium, these are
very dark or black and have higher specific gravity than the other rock-forming minerals. Examples
are olivine, augite, hornblendes, and biotite.

2. Non-ferromagnesian - are minerals that do not contain iron and magnesium. Examples are
muscovite, feldspar and quartz.

3. Sulfide rock-forming minerals - are formed by direct union of an element with sulfur. Examples
are pyrite, chaloocite, galena and sphalerite.

4. Oxide - minerals formed by direct union of an element with oxygen.

5. Carbonate and sulfate rock-forming minerals - carbonate and sulfur ions are present. Examples
are dolomite. Magnesite, anhydrite, and gypsum.

Soil forming rocks

1. Igneous - are called as the ancestors of all rocks, wore one hot molten liquid mass known as
magma which subsequently cooled into firm hard rocks. The process by which magna solidifies is
called crystallization. Examples are granite, rhyolite, obsidian, basalt, gabbro, peridotite, andosite,
and diorite.

2. Sedimentary - are formed when deposits of gravel, sand, and mud which products of chemical
and mechanical are weathering. Through sedimentation and lithification, layer and layer of
sediments of gravel, sand and mud are transformed into hardened layers. Examples are
conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone or shale, limestone, chalk, dolomite, evaporites, and coal.

3. Metamorphic - are products of the reaction of very high temperature and pressure on sedimentary
and igneous rocks. Metamorphism is the process whereby rocks to achieve equilibrium with
conditions other than those under which they were originally formed. Examples are slate, schist,
amphibolite, gneiss, marble, quartzite, and anthracite
Soil Texture refers to the relative proportion of various size groups of individual soil grains. It is determined
by the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay fractions present in the soil.

Mechanical Analysis is the separation and percentage evaluation of the different soil particles in the soil.
The method most commonly used in particle size analysis is fractionation, which refers to any process used
in sorting the soil particles into distinct classes according to size. Sieving and sedimentation are the most
common fractionation methods.

Classification of Soil Separates

1. USDA Classification
Separates Diameter limits in
Very coarse sand 2.0 – 1.0
Coarse sand 1.0 – 0.5
Medium sand 0.0 – 0.25
Fine sand 0.25 – 0.10
Silt 0.05 – 0.002
Clay below 0.002

2. ISS (International SoiI Science Society)

Coarse sand 2.0 – 0.2
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02
Silt 0.02 – 0.002
Clay below 0.002

Classification of Soils Based on Texture

1. Loam - where neither sand, silt, or clay is predominant
2. Sandy loam - there is slight predominance of sand particles.
3. Silt loam - slight predominance of silt particles.
4. Clay loam - clay particles are predominant.

Soil Structure - is the arrangement of individual particles and their aggregates into certain distinct
or clear patterns.

Influences of Soil Structure

1. aeration
2. capillarity
3. erosion
4. percolation
5. activity of organisms

Porosity varies with the following factors

1. soil structure
2. shape of particles
 3. soil texture
4. amount of organic matter
5. compactness
Porosity refers to the percentage of the soil volume which is not occupied by the solid portions of
the soil.

Soil consistency refers to the manifestation of physical forces of cohesion and adhesion acting
within the soil at various moisture contents.

Forms of Soil Consistency

1. Sticky - the property of stickiness or adherence to various objects.

2. Plastic - properties of toughness and the capacity to be muddled.
3. Soft - characterized by friability'
4. Harsh - characterized by hardness.

Friability refers to the ease of crumbling of soils. Plasticity is the property of soil which enables clay to
change shape without cracking when it is subjected to deforming stress.
Puddlability is the susceptibility of soils to puddling. Puddling is defined as the reduction in the apparent
specific volume of a soil by doing mechanical work upon it' soil colloid is the tiniest of all soil particles, so
very small that it can be seen only under an electron microscope, colloid has the ability to absorb plenty of
water and is responsible for causing many soils to become plastic or sticky when wet.

Soil colloid is the tiniest of all soil particles, so very small that it can be seen only under an electron
microscope, colloid has the ability to absorb plenty of water and is responsible for causing many soils to
become plastic or sticky when wet.
Illustration of PH Ranges

Very mode mode very

_____Strong strong rate slight slight rate strong strong
pH 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
range
If soil is acid, and one desires to raise the pH, one can displace hydrogen ions by adding Ca++ (by
liming). However, if the soil is alkaline, and one desire to lower the pH, one can add sulfur, ferrous sulfur, or
aluminum silicate or silicate slags (by acidulating)

Causes of Soil Acidity

1. Increase of organic acids released by roots and decaying organic matter

2. Increased inorganic acids such as hydrated silicates.
3. Continuous removal of bases such as Ca, Mg, K, etc. by crops with accompanying release of H
and Al ions.
4. Continuous application of fertilizers containing acid radicals such as sulfate, nitrate, etc.
5. Leaching of bases due to heavy rainfall
Causes of Formation of Saline Soils

1. Excessive evaporation with low rainfall

2. High water table with high salt concentration
3. Release of bases from the decomposes

Ways to Minimize Excessive Saline-Alkali Soils

1. Wash salt out by irrigation and drainage if feasible
2. level the land if it is in small scale
3. develop a good structure by addition of large amounts of organic matter
4. Use acidulating materials such as sulfur, iron, and aluminum sulfates, as well as silicate slags to
lower the pH.

Soil Colors
1. Black soils - generally caused by the presence of organic matter
2. Red soil,- varies from very red to dark reddish brown, light brown, and yellow brown this soil
contains plenty of iron and with good drainage
3. Gray soil - the color is due to poor organic matter or very low iron content, gray soil is either low in
fertility, poor in drainage or both
4. White soil - poor in organic matter, or very low in iron. In low rainfall areas may contain excess
Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) or Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4)
5. Air Capacity of Soils - is defined as the quantity of air in the soil which remains after the soil has
been saturated with water to the point of absolute water capacity.

Air Capacity of Soils - is defined as the quantity of air in the soil which remains after the soil has been
saturated with water to the point of absolute water capacity.

The mean composition of soil air is as follows:

N2 = 79.2 % O2 = 20.6% CO2 = 0.25 %

Classification of Soil Water

1. Hygroscopic water - water which has been absorbed from an atmosphere of water vapor as a
result of attractive forces in the surface of the particles.
2. Capillary water - is held by the surface tension forces as a continuous film around the panicles and
in the capillary spaces.
3. Gravitational water - is not held by the soil but drains under the influence of gravity.

Soil Water Classification Based on Energy Relation

1. Oven dry - the equilibrium tension of the moisture at oven dryness is 10,000 atmospheres.
2. Air dry - the amount of water at air dryness is somewhat variable, and is not available to plants.
The moisture dryness is held with a force of 1000 atm.
 3. Hygroscopic coefficient - determined by placing an air-dry soil in a nearly saturated atmosphere at
25.C until it absorbs no more water. This tension is equal to a force of, 31 atm. Water at this
tension is not available to plants.
4. Wilting percentage - is held with a force of 15 atm. Wilting point or wilting coefficient also indicates
the percentage moisture content of a soil at which a plant wilts and will not be able to recover.
5. Field capacity - is the capacity of soil to retain water against the downward pull of the force of
gravity. Determination of soil water is done on soil with good drainage two or three days after
soaking in order to reduce evaporation losses.

Organic matter - are the remains of plants and animals in varying stages of decomposition.

Importance of organic matter

1. Source of Plant nutrients.

2. Enhances the formation and stabilization of soil structure and porosity
3. Source of growth stimulator, such as vitamins, Auxins, and antibiotics.
4. Source of carbon which serves as source of energy for the growth of soil microorganisms and
plants

Humus - is the end product of decomposition'

Importance of Humus
1. Increases water holding capacity of the soil
2. has a very high CEC
3. has a buffering effect on the soil
4. acts in oxidation and reduction processes
5. source of energy
6. acts as cementing agent in the formation of stable soil aggregate

C:N Ratio refers to the proportion of Carbon and Nitrogen in fresh organic matter, humus, and whole soil
The C:N Ratio has significant importance in agriculture, because the proportion of carbon and Nitrogen in
organic matter affects its decomposition.

Biochemical Transformation of N in Soil

1. Ammonification is the transformation of organic nitrogenous compounds into ammonia.

2. Nitrification is an aerobic process involving the production of Nitrates from Ammonium salt.
3. Denitrification is the process of converting soil Nitrate into gaseous Nitrogen or Nitrous oxide.

Elements required in Plant Nutrition

Major - Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium
Minor-Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulfur, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Copper,
Boron, Zinc, Sodium, Cobalt, Vanadium, Silicon, and Aluminum.
Mechanism of Nutrient Uptake
1. through leaves from atmosphere
2. Soil solution through roots
3. Exchangeable ions on the surface of clay and humus particles through the roots
4. from readily decomposable minerals through the roots

The Role of the Various Mineral Elements in Plants

a. Nitrogen

 vigorous vegetative growth

 dark green coloring
 more succulence

b. Phosphorus

 increase it root growth proliferation

 increase in the number of tillers in cereals
 hastens ripening of fruits
 encourages seed formation
 gives strength to the straw and helps prevent lodging
 known to improve plants' resistance to diseases

c. Potassium
 carbohydrates metabolism and formation, and translocation of starch
 metabolism and synthesis of protein
 control and regulation of activities of various essential mineral elements
 activation of various enzymes
 adjustment and stomatal movement and water relation

Deficiency Symptoms

a. Nitrogen
 sickly Yellowish green color
 slow, dwarfish growth
 Drying up of leaves which start at the bottom of the plant. progressing upward

b. Phosphorus
 purplish leaves, stems and branches
 Slow growth and late maturity
 Small slender stalk and low yields of grain, fruit and seed

c. Potassium
 Lower leaves scorched or burned on margins and tips.
Fertilizer Classification and Use

Fertilizers are any materials organic and inorganic or artificial which are necessary!' for the vigorous and
healthy growth of plants.

Classification as to 0rigin
1. Natural (natural deposits)
2. Artificial (manufactured)

As to Reaction
I. Neutral - potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, superphosphate
2. Basic - wood ash sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate
3. Acidic - ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, urea

As to composition

1. straight
2. combined
3. complete

SOME AGRONOMIC AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Agronomic Crops

Common Name Scientific Name

Rice Oryza sativa

Corn or maize Zea mays
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
Wheat Triticum aestivum
Barley Hordeum sativum
Millet Setaria italica
Soybean Glycine max
Mongo or mungbean Vigna radiata
Peanut Arachis hypogaea
Tapilan or Rice Bean Vigna umbellata
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata
Kadyos or Pigeon Pea Cajanus cajan
Singkamas or Yambean Pachyrrhizus erosus
Sweet Potato Ipomoea batatas
Gabi Colocasia esculenta
Kenaf Hibiscus cannabinus
Jute Corchorus oletorius
Corchorus capsularis
Ramie Boehmeria nivea
Cotton Gossypium hirsutum
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum
Sunflower Helianthus annuus
Napier Pennisetum purpureum
Guinea grass Panicum maximum
Para grass Brachiaria mutica
Parigola grass Digitaria decumbens
Kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum
Alabang X Decanthium aristatum
Centro or Centrosema Centrosema Pubescens
Tropical Kudzu Pueraria jayanica
Ipil – ipil Leucaena leucocephala
Townsville stylo Stylosanthes humilis
Perennial stylo Stylosanthes guyanensis

Horticultural Crops

Common Name Scientific Name

Pechay Brassica napus

Mustard Brassica juncea
Lettuce Lactuca sativa
Celery Apium graveolens
Kangkong Ipomoea aquatico
Cabbage Brassica oleracea var capitata
Chinese cabbage Brassica pekinensis

KEY TO MALOR PHILIPPINE CROPS

SCIENTIFIC NAME LOCAL NAME

Field Crops

1.1 Cereals -
Rice Oryza sativa palay
Corn Zea mays mais
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor batad
Wheat Triticum aestivum trigo

1.2 Seed Legumes –

Mungbean Vigna radiata mungo
Balatong
 Peanut Arachis hypogaea mani
Soybean Gycine max utaw
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata paayap, kibal
Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan kadyos
Rice bean Vigna umbellata Tapilan
Lima bean Phaseolus lunatus patani

1.3 Roots/tuber
Cassava, manioc Mahinot esculenta kamoteng kahoy
Greater yam Dioscorea alata ube
Lesser yam Dioscorea esculenta tugui
Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas kamote
Irish potato Solanum tuberosum patatas
Or white potato
Taro Colocasia esculenta gabi
Tannia Xanthozoma sagittifolium gabing San Fernando
gabing Cebu

1.4 Fiber
Cotton Gossypium hirsutum bulak
Jute Corchorus capsularis saluyot, pasao
Ramie Boehmeria nivea ramie

1.5 Industrial
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum tubo
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum tabako

Horticultural Crops

2.1 Vegetables
2.1.1 Leafy
Mustard Brassica juncea mustasa

Pechay Brassica chinensis Pechay

Swamp cabbage Ipomoea aquatico Kangkong
Asparagus Asparagus oficinalis asparagus
Lettuce Lactuca sativa letsugas
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata repolyo
Celery Apium graveolens apyo, seleri, kinchay

2.1.2 Roots/Stems/Bulbs
 Carrot Daucas carota karot
Radish Rhapanus sativus labanus
Yam bean Pacchyrrizus erosus singkamas
Garlic Allium sativum bawang
Onion Allium sepa sibuyas

2.1.3 Legumes
Snap bean Phaseolus vulgaris habichuelas
Yardlong bean Vigna ungulata sitao
Bush sitao Vigna unguiculata sitao
Lima bean Phaeolus lunatus patani
Winged bean Psopocarpus tetragonubolus calamismis

Lablab bean Dolichos lablab batao

Horse radish Moringa oleifera malunggay
Pea (sweet) Pisum sativum sitsaro guisantes
(Green)

2.1.4 Solanaceous

Eggplant Solanum melongena talong

Lady’s finger Hibiscus esculantus okra
Tomato Lycopersicon esculantum kamatis
Sweet peper Capsicuum anuum sili

2.1.5 Cucurbits/vines
Cucumber Cucunis sativus pipino
Watermelon Citrullus lanatus pakwan
Muskmelon Cucumis melo milon
Whitegourd Lagenaria ciceraria upo
Bittergourd Momordica charantia ampalaya
Ribbed gourd Luffa acutangula patola
Wax gourd Beniscasa hispida kondol
Squash Cucurbita maxima kalabasa
Chayote Sechium edule sayote

2.2 Fruits

2.2.1 Tree fruits

Avocado Persea Americana avocado
Bread fruit Actocarpus communis rimas
 Chico Manilkara zapota tsiko
Citrus Citrus madurensis kalamansi
C. reticulata sintunis
C. grandis suha, lukban
Durian Durio zibethinus duryan
Guava Psidium guajava bayabas
Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus langka, nangka
Lanzones Lansium domesticum lanzones
Mango Mangifera indica mangga
Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana mangosteen
Papaya Carica papaya papaya
Rambutan Naphelium lappaceum rambutan
Santol Sandoricum koetjape santol
Soursop Annona muricata guayabano
Starapple Chrysophylum caimito caimito
Sweet sop Annona squamosa atis

Technical Definitions of Crop Categories

1. Field crops - herbaceous plants grown in cultivated fields with more or less extensive system of culture.

1.1 cereals - yield starchy grains

1.2 seed legumes - yield dry beans
1.3 roots tubers -yield enlarged roots/stems
1.4 fibers - yield fibrous stem, fruits
1.5 industrial - includes drug sugar and oil - yielding crops

Horticultural crops - garden crops grown under systems of intensive culture in relatively small areas.

2.1 Vegetables - edible succulent plant or plant part, not sweet fruit except melon, not dry grain, not
ordinarily staple.
2.1.1 leafy -yield succulent leaves
2.1.2 roots/ stems/ bulbs - yield specialized succulent pafls other than leaves
2.1.3 tegumes - yield edible fresh pods
2.1.4 solanaceous - yield edible fresh fruits
2.1.5 Cucurbits/ vines - Viny crop. Yielding edible fresh fruits.

2.2 Tree fruits - plants/trees yielding edible, fleshy fruits, usually perennials.
2.3 Nuts - trees yielding dry single-seeded fruits.
2.4 Small Fruits - vielding relatively small fleshy fruits.
2.5 Plantation Fruits - fruits plant grown in relatively large areas.
2.6 Plantation Crops - usually perennial crops, yield products requiring primary processing before use.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

Multiple Choice:

1. Nitrate Phosphate (NP) is one of the many form of commercial fertilizer with a typical grade of
a. 20 – 20 - 0 b. 0-0-47 c.16 – 0 – 0 d. 0 -40 -0 e. 95 – 88 % by weight

2. The mineral matter in the soil is

a. 98 - 85 % by weight b. 96 -90 % by weight c. 90 – 89 % by weight
d. 95 – 89 % by weight e. 95 -88 by weight

3. It is the process by which land is left idle or un crop for one more reason to accumulate moisture,
destroy weeds and allow decomposition of crop residues
a. Rationing b. fallowing c. idling d, mulching e. AOTA
4. They are chemicals that are not toxic but when mixed with insecticides increases their efficiency.
a. Surfactants c. effective chemicals
b. Catalysts d. phytochemicals

5. The behavior of soil different moisture content when pressure it is exerted to it is called
a. Soil consistency c. soil cohesion e. soil structure
b. Soil aggregates d. soil texture
6. Pyrite , Chaloocite, Sphalerite are example of rock forming minerals called
a. Ferromagnesian c. non-ferromagnesian e sulfide
b. Carbonate and Sulfate d. oxide

7. It has the property of soil which enables clay to change slope without cracking when it is subjected
to deforming stress.
a. Puddability c. plasticity e. consistency
b. Permeability d. friability

8. Chinese cabbage is a common name for

a. Brassica napus c. Brassica oleracen e. Brassica sativa
b. Brassica juncea d. Brassica pekinensis

9. Photoperiodism is the response of plants to different_____________.

a. Time of the day
b. Amount of solar radiation
c. Day lengths of light periods
d. Amount of light exposure
e. Photosynthetic activity of plants

10. The scientific name of macapuno is:

a. Lycopersicon esculentum
b. Solanum melongena
c. Cocos nucifera
d. Elacis guineensis
e. Corchuros oletorius