Engr. Mary Jane C.

Calagui, PhD
 METHODOLOGY &
WEEK TOPIC EVALUATION TOOLS
STRATEGY
1 Review of Thermodynamics Principle
Power Systems Lecture/ Slide Assignment
Rankine Cycle Presentation /Seatwork
2 Internal Combustion Engines
Exercises
Lecture/ Slide Assignment/Seatwork
Air Standard Cycle
Presentation /Exams
Quiz 1
3 Refrigeration Systems
Lecture/ Slide
Reverse Rankine Assignment/Seatwork
Presentation/Boardwor
Exercises /Exams
ks
Quiz 2
4 Vapor Compression Cycle
Lecture/Slide Assignment/Seatwork
Quiz 3
Presentation /Exams
Liquefaction
5 Preliminary Examination Exams
 METHODOLOGY &
WEEK TOPIC EVALUATION TOOLS
STRATEGY
6 Exergy Analysis
Availability
Lecture/ slide
7 Irreversibility
Presentation/
Quiz 1
Boardwork
8 Exergy Balance Equation Assignment/Seatwork
9 Applications /Exams
Quiz 2
10 Chemical Equilibrium Lecture/ Slide
Reaction Coordinates Presentation/Boardwor
11 Industrial Reactions ks
Quiz 3
Midterm Examination
 METHODOLOGY &
WEEK TOPIC EVALUATION TOOLS
STRATEGY
12 Introduction to Solution Thermodynamics Lecture/ Slide
Partial Molal Properties Presentation/Boardwor
13 Excess/Residual Properties ks
Quiz 1
14 Activity and Fugacity Lecture/ Slide Assignment/Seatwork
15 Virial Coefficients Presentation/Boardwor /Exams
Quiz 2
16 Generalized Compression Lecture/ Slide
17 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Presentation/Boardwor
Quiz 3
18 Final Examination
❑ Saturation temperature
❑ Subcooled liquid (ex: water at
60oC and 101.325kPa)
❑ Compressed liquid (ex: water
at 100oC and 110kPa)
❑ Saturated liquid/Saturated
vapor
❑ Superheated vapor(ex: steam
at 200oC and 101.325kPa)
❑ %moisture; quality
❑ Critical point
❑ Sensible heat
❑ Latent heat
Specify whether the steam is wet, dry, or
superheated for the following conditions:
1.P= 15.0 Mpa, T = 310oC
2. T = 200oC, P = 1.44 Mpa
3. T = 220oC, P = 2.318 Mpa
4. T = 250oC, v = 54.2 x 10-3m3/kg
5. P = 4.0 Mpa, s = 5.897kJ/kg-K
 The ideal Rankine Cycle is composed of the
following processes:
 1 - 2: Isentropic expansion in the engine; S=C
 2 – 3: Constant pressure rejection of heat in the
condenser; P=C
 3 – B: Adiabatic pumping; S=C
 B – 1: Constant pressure addition of heat in the
steam generator, P=C
Note:
a). In the ideal cycle, the state of steam
leaving the steam generator and entering the
engine are the same as well as the state of
feedwater leaving the pump and entering the
steam generator. This means that there is no
pressure drop and no heat leakage in the
steam line and feedwater line.
b). The quantity of the working substance
within the system is constant. This implies
that there are no leakages in the system.
 Heatadded, QA
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
QA + hB = h1
QA = h1 - hB
 HeatRejected, QR
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
h 2 = h 3 + QR
QR = h2 – h3
 Engine Work, W
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
h1 = h 2 + W
W = h1 – h2
 Considering the change in Kinetic Energy,
h1 + K1 = h2 + K2 + W
W = h1 – h2 + K1 – K2
 Pump Work, WP
Exact Pump Work:
Ein = Eout
h 3 + W P = hB
WP = hB – h3
 Approximate Pump Work
The state of feedwater leaving the pump is that
of a compressed liquid. Very often, compressed
liquid tables are not available, hence, the
properties of a compressed liquid are not easily
obtainable. Therefore, the exact pump work is
difficult to determine.
The following assumptions are made in the
determination of the approximate pump work.
✓ Water is practically an incompressible liquid.
Therefore, v3 = vB
✓ The change in internal energy is negligible.
uB = u3
 Approximate Pump Work
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
u3 + Wf3 + WP + = uB + WfB
WP = WfB – Wf3
WP = PB vB – P3v3
WP = v3 (PB - P3)

 Net Cycle Work, WNET

WNET = Gross Work – Pump Work

WNET = W – WP
WNET = h1 – h2 - WP
 Another method of determining the net cycle
work is obtaining it from the T-s Diagram.
WNET = area 1–2–3–B–1
= area (1–2–3–B–1) - area (2–3–b–c–2)
= QA - QR
= (h1 - hB ) – (h2 – h3 )
= h2 – h1 – (hB – h3 )
= h1 – h2 – WP
 Thermal Efficiency, eC
 Steam Rate, m

Steam rate is the mass of steam used to

perform a unit work or the mass flow rate of
steam consumed to produce a unit of power.
For good design, a lower value of steam rate
is desired. A lower value of steam rate means
that a smaller quantity of steam is needed to
develop the desired power output.
 Let:
P = power output, kW
W = work done by a kg of steam, kJ/kg
M = steam rate, kg/kWh
By definition:

But:
Then;

For the Ideal Rankine Cycle:

The ideal Rankine Engine is either a steam
turbine or a steam engine. The difference
between an ideal Rankine Engine and an
ideal Rankine Cycle is that an ideal engine
does not include pump work since it is
concerned only with all the processes
occurring inside the engine. On the other
hand, the ideal cycle must include pump
work because the pump is needed for the
completion of the cycle. And for the engine
to be ideal, the expansion process should
be isentropic.
 Work, W
W = h1 – h2
 Thermal Efficiency, ee
The definition of thermal efficiency does not
directly applies to an engine because no heat is
added to it. Instead, it is charged with the
enthalpy of steam entering the engine and
credited with the enthalpy of saturated liquid at
the condensing temperature.
When applied to an engine, the thermal
efficiency, e=W/QA becomes e=W/EC where EC is
energy chargeable against the engine.
 EC = (enthalpy of steam entering the engine) –
(enthalpy of saturated liquid at the condensing
temperature)

 Steam Rate, me
 Heat Rate, HR
Heat rate is the energy chargeable per unit
of work or the rate of energy chargeable per
unit of power.
 Heat Rate, HR

 Relation between ee and HR

 As can be seen from the resulting
equation (previous slide), the
thermal efficiency is inversely
proportional to the heat rate. This
means that the lower the heat rate,
the higher the thermal efficiency
and the higher the heat rate, the
lower the thermal efficiency.
 Any presence of the following conditions will
transform the ideal cycle into an actual one.
1. Pressure drop in the steam generator.
2. Pressure drop in the steam line (1-1’).
3. Pressure drop in the condenser.
4. Pressure drop in the feedwater line (B-B’)
5. Heat losses in the steam line.
6. Heat losses in the turbine/engine.
7. Irreversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine.
8. Inefficient pump.
9. Subcooled condensate.
 Heat Added, QA
QA = h1 - hB’

 Heat Rejected, QR’

QR’ = h2’ - h3’

 Engine Work, W’

➢ Irreversible adiabatic expansion from 1’ – 2’

W’ = h1’ - h2’

➢ Polytropic expansion from 1’ – 2’

Ein = Eout
h1’ = h2 + W’ + QLoss
W’ = h1’ – h2’ - QLoss
 Pump Work, WP’

where: nm = pump mechanical efficiency

 Actual Cycle Thermal Efficiency, ec’

 If during the expansion process, the steam
undergoes a process other than isentropic
process, the engine is said to be an actual one.
➢ Engine Analysis
▪ Work, W’
W’ = h1’ - h2’
▪ Energy Chargeable against the engine, EC’
EC’ = h1’ - hf3’
▪ Thermal Efficiency, ee’
1. Turbo-generator is a generator driven by a
turbine.
2. Ideal work, W, is the work done by the steam
during a reversible adiabatic expansion process
in the turbine.
3. Indicated or actual fluid work, W1 or W’, is
the work done by the steam during an
irreversible adiabatic expansion or polytropic
expansion process in the turbine.
4. Brake work, WB, is the useful work, i.e., the
available work at the engine shaft.
5. Combined Work, WK, is the electrical energy
available at the generator outlet.
 Ideal Thermal Efficiency, e

 Indicated Thermal Efficiency, ei

 Brake Thermal Efficiency, eb

 Combined Thermal Efficiency, ek

Note: e> ei > eb > ek

 Ideal Steam Rate, m

 Indicated Steam Rate, m1

 Brake Steam Rate, mb

 Combined Steam Rate, mk

 Indicated Engine Efficiency, ni

 Brake Engine Efficiency, nb

 Combined Engine Efficiency, nk

 Turbine/Engine Mechanical Efficiency, nme

 Generator Efficiency, ng
 Ideal Heat Rate, HR
HR = (m) (EC)

 Indicated Heat Rate, HRi

HRi = (mi)(EC)

 Brake Heat Rate, HRb

HRb = (mb)(EC)

 Combined Heat Rate, HRk

HRk = (mk)(EC)
Example 1:
Steam is generated at 4.10 MPa and 440°C
and condensation occurs at 0.105 MPa.
(a) For a Rankine engine operating between
these limits, compute the thermal efficiency
and the heat rate.
(b) Considering that a Rankine cycle occurs
between the same limits, determine QA, QR,
WNET, and eC.
(c) What mass flow rate is required for a net
output of 30, 000 kW?
 Moisture is harmful to the blades of the
turbine. It causes erosion and cavitations of
the turbine blades. As have been observed in
the previous cycle, the moisture content
increases during the later stages of the
expansion process. One solution to this
problem is by reheating the steam after
partial expansion in the turbine. Reheating
minimizes the efficiency of the cycle.
Steam is usually withdrawn and reheated by
few degrees before the saturation point.
 The ideal reheat cycle with one stage of
reheating is composed of the following
processes:
 1-2: Partial isentropic expansion in the turbine,
S=C
 2-3: Constant pressure resuperheating in the
reheater, P = C
 3-4: Complete isentropic expansion in the
turbine, S = C
 4-5: Constant pressure rejection of heat in the
condenser, P = C
 5-B: Adiabatic pumping process, S = C
 B-1: Constant pressure addition of heat in the
boiler, P = C
 Heat
Added, QA
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
QB + hB = h1
QB = h1 - hB
 Reheater
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
QRH + h2 = h3
QRH = h3 – h2
 Therefore:
QA = QB + QRH
QA = h1 - hB + h3 – h2
 For a given number of stages of reheating,

Where: n = number of reheaters

 HeatRejected, QR
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
h 4 = h 5 + QR
QR = h4 – h5
 Engine Work, W
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
h 1 + h 3 = h2 + h 4 + W
W = h1 – h2 + h3 - h4

 Another means of determining engine work is by

getting the sum of the work done by the steam
during the different stages of expansion.

W = W1-2 + W3-4

W = h1 – h2 + h3 - h4
 Pump Work, WP
Approximate Pump Work
WP ≈ vf5 (PB – P5)
Exact Pump Work:
Ein = Eout
h5 + WP = hB
WP = hB – h5
 Net Cycle Work, WNET
WNET = Engine Work – Pump Work
WNET = h1 – h2 + h3 - h4 – WP

 Another method:
WNET = QA - QR
= (h1 - hB + h3 – h2) – (h4 – h5)
= h1 – h2 + h3 – h4 – (hB – h5)
= h1 – h2 + h3 – h4 – WP
 Thermal Efficiency, ec

WNET = h1 – h2 + h3 - h4 – WP
QA = h1 - hB + h3 – h2
But
hB = h5 + WP
QA = h1 – h2 + h3 – h5 – WP

 Steam Rate, mc
mc = 3600/ WNET ,in kg/kWh
 The ideal reheat engine ignores the pressure
drop in the reheater. The engine is an ideal
one whether there is or there is no pressure
drop in the reheater for as long as the
expansion process is an isentropic one.
 Engine Analysis
➢ Work, W
W = h1 – h2 + h3 - h4
➢ Steam Rate, me
me = 3600/ W
 EnergyChargeable against the engine, EC
General equation which is applicable to a
reheat engine only.
EC = enthalpy of steam entering the
engine - enthalpy of saturated liquid at
the condensing temperature + ΣQRH
For the given engine:
EC = h1 - h5 + QRH
= h1 - h5 + (h3 – h2)
= h1 - h2 + h3 – h5
 Any presence of the following conditions will
make the ideal reheat cycle an actual one.
➢ Pressure drop in the boiler/steam generator.
PB’ ≠ P1; P1< PB’
➢ Pressure drop in the steam line (1 – 1’).
P1’ < P1; P1 ≠ P1’
t1’ < t1; t1 ≠ t1’
➢ Pressure drop in the reheater.
P2’ < P3’; P2’ ≠ P3’
➢ Pressure drop in the condenser.
P4’ ≠ P5; P5< P4’
➢ Irreversible adiabatic expansion process.
s2’ ≠ s1’ and s4’ ≠ s3’
QLoss = 0, but
s2’ > s1’ and s4’ > s3’
➢ Polytropic expansion process.
QLoss = 0 and s1’ ≠ s2’ and s4’ ≠ s3’
➢ Heat losses in the steam line (1 – 1’)
➢ Inefficient pump.
Pump efficiency < 100%
➢ Pressure drop in the feedwater line.
PB’ < PB
 Heat Added, QA’
QA’ = QB’ + QRH’
QA’ = (h1 – hB’) + (h3’ – h2’)
 Heat Rejected, QR’
QR’ = h4’ - h5’
 Engine Work, W’
W’ = h1’ – h2’ + h3’ – h4’
If irreversible adiabatic expansion process
or,
W’ = h1’ – h2’ + h3’ – h4’ – QLoss
If polytropic expansion process
 Net Cycle Work, WNET’
WNET’ = W’ – WP’
 Actual Pump Work, WP’

 Thermal efficiency, eC’

 If the expansion process is no longer
isentropic, the engine is said to be an actual
one.
 Engine Analysis
➢ Work, W’
W’ = h1’ – h2’ + h3’ – h4’
➢ Energy Chargeable against the engine, EC’
EC’ = h1’ – hf5 + QRH’
= h1’ - hf5 + (h3’ – h2’)
 Thermal efficiency, ee’

 Steam Rate, me’

 Heat Rate, HR’

HR’ = (me’)(EC’)
 Introduction
The thermal efficiency of a simple power plant
is less than fifty percent (50%). This means that
more than half of the heat added to the water
in the boiler is just wasted and rejected in the
condenser. In order to utilize some of these
heats that would have been wasted and rejected
in the condenser, part of the throttle steam is
extracted or bled for feedwater heating after it
has partially expanded in the turbine. The
extraction/ bled points occur near the saturation
state. The process of heating feedwater in this
manner is called regeneration and the cycle
governing it is the REGENERATIVE CYCLE.
 Increase in thermal efficiency
By definition, e=WNET/Q . Examining the
equation, the two ways of increasing the thermal
efficiency are (a) by increasing the net cycle
work and (b) by reducing the heat supplied, QA’ .
The temperature of feedwater entering the
boiler in the regenerative cycle (tB5) is higher
than that of the original Rankine cycle (tB). Since
the feedwater enters the boiler at a relative
high temperature, a smaller quantity of heat is
needed to transform it to steam than without
the regenerative feedwater heating. This in
effect tend to increase the thermal efficiency.
 Increasein thermal efficiency
It is true that the net work done per
kilogram of the throttle steam in the
regenerative cycle is less than that of the
Rankine cycle as the consequence of the
extraction of steam for feedwater heating.
This tends to decrease the thermal
efficiency. But the rate of decreased in the
heat supplied, QA’ is faster than the
reduction rate in the net cycle work, WNET.
Therefore, the net result of this is an
increase in thermal efficiency.
 Decrease in the moisture content during the
later stages of expansion.
It is a fact that the quality of exhaust steam
for both cycles are the same, i.e., x2
(Rankine cycle) = x3 (Regenerative cycle).
But the quantity of exhaust steam decreases
in the regenerative cycle as the result of the
bleeding process. Therefore, the moisture
content decreases.
Plant Layout of Regenerative Cycle With One
Stage of Extraction for Feedwater Heating
 Basis: 1kg of throttle steam
▪ Mass of Bled Steam, m
Mass Balance:
min = mout
mB4 + m = 1
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
mh2 + mB4hB4 = m5h5
mh2 + (1 - m)hB4 = (1)h5
 Alternate Method:
Heat Balance:
Heat from bled steam = Heat to feedwater
m(h2 –h5) = mB4(h5 –hB4)
m(h2 –h5) = (1-m)(h5 –hB4)

The condensate pump work is often small so that it

can be neglected. Neglecting condensate pump work,
hB4 = h4

It can now be said that for any feedwater heater

using direct contact type (open heaters).
 mass of bled steam = mass of feedwater leaving
the heater

(General Equation)
 Neglecting pump works
h6 ≈ hB6
h5 ≈ hB5
Applying the general equation for
determining the quantity of bled steam,
 Heat Supplied, QA
Pump:
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
WP2 + h5 = hB5
Where: WP2 = vf5 (PB5 – P5)
Boiler:
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
QA + hB5 = Eout
QA = h1 - hB5
But:
hB5 = h5 + WP2
Therefore:
QA = h1 - h5 - WP2
 HeatRejected, QR
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
(1 - m)h3 = QR + (1 - m)h4
QR = (1 - m)(h3 – h4)
 Engine Work, W
Energy Balance:
Ein = Eout
h1 = mh2 + (1 - m)h3 + W
W = h1 - mh2 - (1 - m)h3
= h1 - mh2 - (1 - m)h3 + h2 - h2
= (h1 - h2) + (1 - m)h2 - (1 - m)h3
W= (h1 - h2) + (1 - m)(h2 – h3)
 Another method:
W = ΣW (stage work)
W = W1-2 + W2-3
= (h1 - h2) + (1 - m)(h2 – h3)
 Total Pump Work, ΣWP
ΣWP = WP1 + WP2
WP1 = vf4 (PB4 – P4)
WP2 = vf5 (PB5 – P5)
 Approximate Total Pump Work
ΣWP = vf4 (PB5 – P4)
 Net Cycle Work, WNET
WNET = W – ΣWP
WNET = (h1 - h2) + (1 - m)(h2 – h3) - ΣWP
 Thermal efficiency, eC
 Engine Analysis
Work, W
W = (h1 - h2) + (1-m)(h2 – h3)
 Energy Chargeable, EC
The engine is charged with the enthalpy of steam entering
the engine and credited with the enthalpy of feedwater
leaving the last heater assuming that all the bled steam
are used for feedwater heating.
EC = Enthalpy of steam entering the turbine - Enthalpy of
feedwater leaving the last heater
For the given cycle
EC = h1 – h5
 Thermal efficiency, ee
 Any presence of the following conditions will make an
ideal cycle an actual one.
➢ Pressure drop in the boiler.
P1< PB5’
➢ Pressure drop in the steam line (1-1’)
P1’< P1
➢ Pressure drop in the condenser.
P4< P3’
➢ Pressure drop in the bled steam line.
P2’’< P2’
➢ Pressure drop in the feedwater line.
PB5’< PB5
➢ Heat losses in the steam lines (1-1’) and (2’-2’’).
➢ Heat losses in the turbine
➢ Inefficient Pump
➢ Heat losses in the heaters.
Plant Layout of Actual Regenerative Cycle with One Stage
of Extraction for Feedwater Heating
 Heat Added, QA’
QA’ = h1 – hB5’

 Heat Rejected, QR’

QR’ = (1-m’)(h3’ - h4)

 Mass of Bled Steam

 Engine Work, W’
W’ = (h1’ – h2’)+(1-m’)(h2’ – h3’)
 Pump Work, WP’
WP’ = ΣWP
= WP1’ + WP2’

 Net Cycle Work, WNET’

WNET’ = W’ – WP’
 Thermal Efficiency, EC’
➢ eI = nIe
Proof:

➢ eB = nBe
Proof:
➢ eK =nKe
Proof:

➢ eK =ngnmeI
Proof: eK = ngnmeI
➢ nm = mI/mB
Proof:

➢ nm = eB/eI
Proof:
➢ ng = eK/eB
Proof:

➢ nK = nInmng
Proof: