Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951

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Applied Thermal Engineering

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Research Paper

Combustion and NOx emission characteristics of dual-stage lean premixed T

flame
⁎
Wenhua Zhao, Penghua Qiu , Li Liu, Wenkai Shen, Yajin Lyu
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, 92 West Dazhi Street, Harbin 150001, People’s Republic of China

H I GH L IG H T S

• Dual-stage lean premixed combustion is proposed to improve combustion performance.

• Heat and mass transfer in flame is found to sometimes help combustion stability.
• Dual-stage lean premixed flame can burn at a fairly low global equivalence ratio.
• NO emissions can be significantly limited for the arrangement of secondary flame.
x

A B S T R A C T

Premixed flames have shown different behaviors while operating with inhomogeneous equivalence ratio. This property can be used to improve the performance of
premixed flames. Present work proposed the idea of dual-stage lean premixed (DLP) combustion, which constructs lean premixed flames with equivalence ratio
staged radially. Laminar DLP flames were built in a coaxial jet burner. The combustion and NOx emission characteristics of DLP flames were analyzed and compared
to the homogeneous cases. Results showed the arrangement of DLP combustion allows more heat to support the ignition of secondary premixed gas, which is located
in periphery and has a lower equivalence ratio. So, the DLP flames can reach a fairly low global equivalence ratio compared to homogeneous cases. Besides, the
secondary flame can produce a certain number of intermediate products during combustion, which will reduce NOx into N2, helping limit the NOx emissions of the
overall combustion. In short, the idea of DLP combustion may provide new thinking for the development of clean combustion.

1. Introduction sometimes the premixed equivalence ratio needs to be increased to

As environmental pressure increases and relevant regulations be-
come more stringent, low-pollution combustion has attracted more at-
tention in recent years. The lean premixed (LP) combustion is con-
sidered a promising technology having great advantage of low NOx
emissions [1–3]. The premixed gases entering LP combustors are
burning with very low equivalence ratios, which can avoid high com-
bustion temperature to prevent the generation of thermal NOx [4–6].
However, many problems appearing in operation also limit the ap-
plicability of this technology [7]. Usually, to obtain a better environ-
mental performance, the equivalence ratio of premixed gases entering
LP combustors needs to be set at a leaner value, which is around about
0.65 [8,9]. Then the flame temperature can be controlled within a
suitable range to reduce pollutant emissions from combustion cham-
bers. However, in un-rated conditions, such as start-up and shutdown
processes, or other low-load cases, if the LP combustors still maintain a
lower equivalence ratio, flameout trend in combustion zone will grow
stronger, and flame stability may decreases drastically [10]. So
improve the combustion stability. As a result, the environmental per-
formance of combustors will be degraded at the same time. Therefore,
ensuring stable combustion and low pollutant emissions of LP com-
bustors under non-rated conditions has become a key issue in the de-
velopment of LP combustion technology.
This work seeks to improve the performance of lean premixed
flames by optimizing combustion organization. So the dual-stage lean
premixed combustion has been conceived. It belongs to a development
of staged combustion. And the biggest difference from traditional pre-
mixed flame is the inhomogeneity of equivalence ratio in the combus-
tion zone. As shown in Fig. 1, there are two types of flames with dif-
ferent equivalence ratios arranged in a DLP combustion zone. Both of
them are lean, but the central primary flame has a higher equivalence
ratio, which can help stabilize overall combustion. The other one lo-
cated at the periphery, which is called secondary flame, has a lower
equivalence ratio. It may be even lower than the lean flammability limit
of the fuel. The secondary flame is so lean that must burn with the
supports from primary flame. But it can introduce more air into

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: qiuph@hit.edu.cn (P. Qiu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.113951
Received 29 August 2018; Received in revised form 14 May 2019; Accepted 13 June 2019
Available online 14 June 2019
1359-4311/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Zhao, et al.
Reburning fuel
Primary
gas DLP flame MILD combustion
Secondary gas
combustion zone to help reduce the generation of NOx. With inlet
parameters set properly, the DLP flames can combust at low global
equivalence ratios and low NOx emissions. Furthermore, DLP flame is a
dual-channel combustion mode, which means it can provide more ad-
justing methods for un-rated load. However, the combustion intensity
of secondary flame is so weak that some incomplete combustion pro-
ducts may be generated there. So, a stream of reburning fuel is in-
troduced downstream. When it is mixed with the flue gas from previous
unit, another combustion zone will be built. The combustion environ-
ment there is characterized by high temperature and low oxygen, which
is consistent with the conditions of moderate or intense low-oxygen
dilution (MILD) combustion. MILD combustion is reported to be low-
pollution and highly stable [11–13]. There will be very little NOx
generated in this section, and the incomplete combustion products from
upstream can also complete the combustion. Generally, the DLP com-
bustion can be seen as an exploration of the practical application of
inhomogeneous premixed flame.
In fact, the DLP flame provides high temperature flue gas for
downstream MILD combustion. It acts in a sense as a pre-combustion
section. It has been reported that the amount of NOx formed in initial
segment of axially multi-stage MILD combustor often dominates the
final exit NOx level [14,15]. So, in the DLP-MILD system shown in
Fig. 1, the primary role of DLP flame is to ensure low NOx emissions
while providing suitable flue gas for downstream combustion.
The DLP combustion is a combined combination of premixed gas
with different equivalence ratios. Many studies have reported that the
flames propagating in inhomogeneous premixed gas have clear differ-
ences with that in homogeneous cases. Kyritsis [16–18] studied ex-
perimentally the combustion characteristics of laminar stratified flame.
When flames were propagating in premixed mixture along the
equivalence ratio gradient. It was found that the stratified flame has a
faster propagation speed than the one in homogeneous mixture with the
same local equivalence ratio. Moreover, stratified flames were found
have the ability to propagate in a premixed gas with equivalence ratio
far below the lean flammability limit of the fuel. Cruz [19] and Le-
cordier [20] found the same phenomenon in their respective researches.
Bartolucci [21] used a LES approach to investigate the main driving
mechanisms of partially stratified charge combustion. Lipatnikov [4]
summarized recent investigations in the influence of mixture in-
homogeneity on flame propagation. Zhang [22] carried out numerical
simulations to study flame propagation in laminar stratified fuel-air
mixtures. The results confirmed that it is the transport of heat and ra-
dicals in combustion zone, which is referred to as back-support effect,
which makes the stratified flames exhibit differences from homo-
geneous flames with the same equivalence ratio. Triple flame is another
kind of inhomogeneous combustion, which propagates in the direction
perpendicular to equivalence ratio gradient [23–25]. It was first ob-
served by Philips [26]. Subsequent research on triple flame found its
propagation speed to be even faster than the laminar stoichiometric
premixed flame [27,28]. Owston [29] studied the structure and pro-
pagation behavior of triple flame numerically and found that the triple
flame has greater width, which means greater stability. The transport of
intermediate radicals in combustion zone may extend the flammability
limits. Kim [30,31] experimentally proved that the gradient of pre-
mixed equivalence ratio has a direct effect on the combustion state of
triple flame. In summary, these characteristics of triple flame can all be
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Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of DLP combustion.
Exhaust
attributed to the inhomogeneous equivalence ratio of premixed gas.
The research on both stratified flame and triple flame has shown
that equivalence ratio inhomogeneity can significantly change the
combustion performance of premixed flame. The extra heat and radicals
transferred from fuel-rich flame have a profound impact on the fuel-
lean one. They can not only speed up the flame propagation but also
extend the flammability limit. The DLP flame has something in common
with them both, which is the interaction between flames of different
equivalence ratios. However, their combustion parameters and appli-
cation conditions are still quite different. What kind of combustion and
emission characteristics will be in the DLP flame is still unknown. And
this is just the primary research issue of current work. Previous study
has shown qualitatively that the DLP flames can get a fairly lower
global equivalence ratio, which provides a possibility to improve the
combustion stability of lean premixed flame in industrial combustor
[32]. This work conducts a further study on DLP flame to get better
understanding on the interaction between primary and secondary
flames as well as its combustion and emission characteristics. The result
can provide theoretical support for the application of DLP combustion
in practical equipment, and on the other hand enriches the scope of
research on inhomogeneous combustion.
2. Experimental method
First, it should be noted that although most flames in industrial
combustors are turbulent [33], the research on DLP flame should start
from laminar conditions. Generally, flames under different flow con-
ditions may exhibit combustion states with some differences. But in the
initial stages of research, it is necessary to simplify the combustion
model to reduce the research difficulty, as done in some other com-
bustion studies. This is for the purpose of avoiding influence from
turbulent fluctuation to capture the information inside flames more
accurately. Therefore, a laminar dual-stage combustion experimental
setup was established in this study, as shown in Fig. 2. The burner was
mainly composed of two tubes which were arranged coaxially. The
central tube, through which primary premixed gas entered, had the
inner and outer diameters of 4 and 6 mm respectively. The inner dia-
meter of annular tube was 27 mm. Secondary premixed gas flowed
along the ring channel formed by the two tubes into combustion zone.
The two premixed gases were ignited in the nozzle and a DLP flame
would be built in the manner of coaxial jet. Besides, a piece of sintered
metal foam was installed near the outlet of secondary channel to ensure
uniform flow. The nozzle of central tube is 2 mm higher than that of
annular tube for the convenience of observation and photographing. A
cubic fire shield with 200 mm side length was arranged outside the
burner to prevent disturbance from external environment and collect
the combustion products for testing. In the gas supply section, methane
with a purity of 99.99% and air were provided respectively by high
pressure gas cylinders. The gas flow rates were controlled by four mass
flow controllers with measurement inaccuracy below 1%. Moreover,
before entering burner, the premixed gases would be heated to 300 K in
a water bath. Thermal insulation measures were also done outside the
pipes and burner for heat preservation. So, the premixed gases could get
a consistent preheated temperature before burning [34].
Throughout the experiment, the mean velocity of primary premixed
gas at the burner exit plane ranged from 0.5 to 1.0 m/s, and the primary
W. Zhao, et al.
Exhaust
Sampling
tube
Sightglass
DLP flame
Flame shell
Central tube
Secondary
Annular tube gas
Primary gas
IDcentral : 4 mm
ODcentral: 6 mm
IDannular: 27 mm
Combustor
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of experimental system.
Fig. 3. Photos of flames with vpri = 0.7 m/s, φpri = 0.95, vsec = 0.2 m/s: (a)
φsec = 0, (b) φsec = 0.3, (c) φsec = 0.5.
equivalence ratio was fixed at 0.85, 0.9, 0.95 or 1.0. Such parameter
setting could ensure a stable cone primary flame. The diameter of an-
nular tube was much larger than that of central tube, so the secondary
flame was more sensitive to external disturbances. To avoid it from
shaking or showing asymmetry, the secondary stream needed to be kept
at a relatively low outflow speed. So its value was set in the range of
0.10.4 m/s. In addition, the secondary equivalence ratio ranged from
0.2 to 0.5, which was less than the lean flammability limit of CH4, so as
to meet the concept of DLP combustion.
At the start, air was first introduced into the experimental system.
After the igniter was in place, the fuel flows with set values would be
turned on. When the DLP flames could keep burning steadily without
assistance from igniter, the measurement could begin. In this work, the
main measuring objects include temperature distributions, pollutant
emissions and flame morphology. A Pt-6% Rh/Pt-30% Rh thermocouple
with accuracy of ± 0.5% of the reading was utilized to measure the
radical temperature distributions at different heights. It had the wire
diameter of 0.1 mm and the head diameter of 0.2 mm. The thermo-
couple was mounted on a translation stage whose displacement error
was within 0.3 mm. The measured data have been corrected in post-
processing for the thermal radiation loss from thermocouple head. The
compositions and corresponding concentrations of combustion products
were analyzed online using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(accuracy, 0.01%). The NOx emissions of DLP flames were calculated
and compared with that from homogeneous premixed flames. A Canon
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Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951
FT-IR
Camera
Canon 60D
EF 35mm
Water bath
300K
Mass
MFC
MFC
MFC
MFC
flowmeter
Methane Air
Reacting gas
Supply system
EOS 60D Digital SLR Camera equipped with 35 mm prime lens was used
to capture flame images to study the influence of premixing parameters
on flame morphology. The resolution in combustion zone was about
30 pixels/mm. The boundaries of DLP flames from photos were iden-
tified based on the flame brightness gradient in radial direction. The
maximum gradient locations of different heights were defined as the
flame reaction zone boundary. Its variation with premixed parameters
will be further discussed in the following to investigate the character-
istics of DLP combustion.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Interaction inside DLP flame
Fig. 3 shows the difference between Bunsen flame and DLP flame. In
Fig. 3(a), the secondary stream was air, so there was only a cone pri-
mary flame burning on the nozzle. But when a premixed gas was in-
troduced into the annual tube, a ring of light flame, the secondary
flame, would form in periphery. Fig. 3(b) and (c) clearly show the dual
structure of DLP flames.
A characteristic of DLP flame is the secondary flame, which burns
with an ultra-lean equivalence ratio. To have a deep understanding of
this phenomenon, the radical temperature distributions of DLP flame at
different heights were measured, as shown in Fig. 4. An apparent
monotonic change in temperature can be found across the combustion
zone. The location of secondary flame has been remarked in the figure.
But the presence of secondary flame does not cause temperature in-
crease in its vicinity. The primary flame has a higher combustion
temperature due to its higher equivalence ratio. So there must be a
radial heat transfer between the two branches of DLP flame.
Sohrab [35] studied and summarized the combustion characteristics
of asymmetric counterflow premixed flames. As shown in Fig. 5(a),
when the two opposite flows have different equivalence ratios, due to
their different combustion temperatures, there will be a temperature
gradient along the central axis, which can make the leaner flame gain
extra heat from downstream. This thermal assistance allows the pre-
mixed gas to burn with an equivalence ratio even below the lean
flammability limit. Furthermore, when the parameters of asymmetric
counterflow flames meet some certain conditions, the lower flame may
W. Zhao, et al.
Fig. 4. Temperature distribution of a DLP flame.
cross stagnation surface and burn on the other side, as shown in
Fig. 5(b). Sohrab called it negative flame. Because the flame is propa-
gating in the same direction with flow velocity, which means that the
flame has a negative flame speed. Generally, the reactants can be
supplied to flame front for combustion through both diffusion and
convection. It is obvious that the convection transport cannot work
anymore for a negative flame, and diffusion of reactants now becomes
the only way to sustain the combustion [35].
Compared with asymmetric counterflow premixed flames, although
the primary and secondary flames are arranged in parallel, DLP flames
still have close similarity with them. In the following, DLP flames will
be analyzed with reference to previous research results on asymmetric
counterflow flame. The secondary premixed gas has an equivalence
ratio below the lean flammability limit, so it is impossible to maintain a
stable combustion by its own hear release. But the existence of primary
flame provides the possibility for its occurrence. Because of the radial
temperature gradient formed in combustion zone, the secondary pre-
mixed gas near central axis can be heated by primary flame. As a result,
with support of extra heat, the ultra-lean premixed gas is ignited and
forms a ring flame. Fig. 6 shows the structures of a usual 1D laminar
premixed flame and the secondary flame. The curves denote changes in
reactant concentrations or temperature across the flame. Similar to
Fig. 5, it is the support from primary flame that provides the possibility
for secondary premixed gas to burn with an ultra-lean equivalence
Fig. 5. Temperature profiles of CH4/air counterflow premixed flames: (a) Asymmetric flames; (b) Negative flame [35].
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Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951
ratio. The only difference from asymmetric flames is that the heat
support for secondary flames does not come from downstream, but from
the side.
When secondary flow flows out of the nozzle, its velocity can be
considered parallel to the central axis. There is a large crossing angle
between flame front and flow lines in the root zone of secondary flame.
This part of flame can get reactants mainly through convection. But in
Fig. 3(b) and (c), it can be seen clearly that the secondary flame has a
long tail flame. As developing downstream, the tail flame keeps parallel
to central axis or shrinks towards center. Generally, combustion heat
release causes gas volume expansion, which means an outward velocity
component may exist in the area between primary and secondary
flames. As a result, convection transport can no longer provide re-
actants for the secondary trail flame as it does for the upstream part.
But one side of secondary trail flame is high-temperature combustion
products and the other side is secondary premixed gas with a certain
concentration of fuel. That means a fuel concentration gradient and a
temperature gradient exist in radical direction at the same time. The
both gradients are in opposite directions. Heat and fuel then will be
transported from both sides to the middle zone by conduction and
diffusion respectively. This situation is similar to the negative flame. So,
on the periphery of primary flame, the secondary trail flame will form
wherever parameters reach ignition conditions. The combustion pro-
ducts diffuse outward as flowing downstream. However, as secondary
flame develops downstream, the temperature in central area decreases
gradually due to heat dissipation, and the combustion products also
gather around the flame front. It becomes more and more difficult for
secondary flame to obtain heat and fuel. Then the flame weakens gra-
dually and goes out eventually.
Through the analysis above, it can be concluded that the shape of
secondary flame is determined together by the distributions of tem-
perature, velocity and fuel concentration. Different parts of secondary
flame have different characteristics. The upstream root flame can be
treated as a laminar premixed flame supported by extra heat. While the
combustion process of downstream tail flame is principally affected by
the transport of heat and reactants. Although its fuel and air are pre-
mixed, the flame is more like diffusion-controlled. These two parts can
be roughly divided from the point at the largest diameter of secondary
flame.
3.2. Secondary flame morphology
The secondary flame, which has an ultra-lean equivalence ratio, is
an important part of DLP flame. Its combustion state may be related to
the overall combustion performance. The further study on DLP flame
can begin with the morphology of its secondary flame. In the
W. Zhao, et al.
Fig. 6. Schematic showing the difference of flame structure: (a) usual premixed flame, (b) secondary flame.
Fig. 7. Influence of primary velocity on the morphology of secondary flames.
experiment, excess secondary premixed gas was introduced into the
combustion zone, which was for the purpose of giving secondary flame
the maximum room for development. This can also be found from Fig. 3
that the inner diameter of annular tube was much larger than the dia-
meter of secondary flame.
The method of determining flame boundary has been introduced in
previous section. Yet, for the convenience of analysis, a rectangular
coordinate system was added to flame images. Its original point was
located at the nozzle center of central tube. The r and h axes re-
presented the radial and axial distances respectively. In Fig. 7, the in-
fluence of primary velocity on secondary flame morphology is shown.
The curves denote the shapes and positions of secondary flames under
different conditions. It can be found that as the primary velocity in-
creases, the secondary flame extends and has a larger radius. That is
because higher velocity means more premixed gas is introduced. As a
result, the flowing section of combustion products generated by pri-
mary flame increases. Then the secondary premixed gas will contact
with central high-temperature flow on a larger area, which make it
have higher proportion to be ignited. On the other side, the position
where two gases meet is moving outward. This will also affect the
morphology of secondary flame. In summary, the primary velocity has
positive influences on secondary flame radius.
Generally, a fuel-lean flame with higher equivalence ratio usually
has the higher combustion temperature, which means more heat can be
transferred outward. However, Fig. 8 shows that the change in primary
equivalence ratio does not have obvious effect on secondary flame. The
explanation for this is that the primary gas flow is constant during the
variation. So the contact area provided by central high-temperature flue
gas with secondary premixed gas remains basically unchanged. At the
same time, the slight change in temperature is not enough to have a
significant effect on the peripheral combustion. As a result, no obvious
change is found in secondary flame.
To quantitatively characterize the combustion state of secondary
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Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951
flame, burning proportion, which was defined as the proportion of
secondary premixed gas that was involved in combustion, was calcu-
lated through the contents of carbonaceous components in combustion
products. Table 1 shows the results of two types of secondary gases
combined with different primary flames. From the table it can be seen
that the burning proportions increase significantly with the primary
flow velocity, but change little with its equivalence ratio. This trend is
consistent with previous analysis, confirming its accuracy.
Fig. 9 shows the influence of secondary velocity on its flame shape.
It can be found that the secondary flame having higher outflow velocity
is more expanded. In fact, the gas around secondary flame is always
being replaced while burning. The part close to flame front is a mixture
of fresh premixed gas and combustion products diffused from secondary
flame. And the replacement process will accelerate as the flow rate is
increasing. This means the combustion products diffusing outward from
inner can be taken away more quickly, and that more fuel is brought in.
As a result, the secondary flame burns more intensely and has a larger
radius.
The premixed equivalence ratio of secondary flame has a direct
effect on its combustion state, which can be confirmed from Fig. 10.
The secondary flame entails external support to keep burning for its
ultra-lean state. So, as secondary equivalence ratio increases, the pre-
mixed gas becomes easier to get ignited. More fuel is involved in the
combustion, making the flame radius larger. And the effect will be
especially noticeable whenφsec reaches 0.5. Because the value is very
close to the lean flammability limit of CH4. Very little heat or radicals
support is enough for its combustion.
Because the flow of secondary fuel entering combustion zone in
above experiment was changing, the burning proportion of secondary
premixed gas introduced in previous section no longer applied here. To
quantitatively analyze the combustion of secondary flame under dif-
ferent premixing parameters, the concept of igniting ratio was defined.
It is the flow ratio of secondary fuel involved in combustion to primary
W. Zhao, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951

Fig. 8. Influence of primary equivalence ratio on the morphology of secondary flames.

Table 1 equivalence ratio. So, the global equivalence ratio was introduced to
Burning proportions of secondary premixed gas (%). characterize the overall flame. It was calculated based on the amounts
φpri vpri (m/s)
of fuel and air that were involved in combustion from both streams.
Table 3 shows the calculated data of DLP flames under different com-
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 binations. It is very clear in the table that the flames are burning at a
fairly low φg. More notably, sometimes it can even get below the lean
(a) vsec = 0.3 m/s, φsec = 0.4
0.85 23.9 26 27.3 — —
flammability limit of the fuel.
0.9 24.4 26.7 28.3 30.3 31.1 In a single-stage lean premixed jet flame, the coflow air on outside
0.95 26.2 28.3 30.6 31.2 32.7 does not take part in combustion. So, the flame is burning just at its own
1 26.2 28.4 30.5 31.5 33.2 premixed equivalence ratio. Besides, the minimum equivalence ratio
(b) vsec = 0.2 m/s, φsec = 0.5 can be reached is affected by jet velocity. In previous study, it was 0.9
0.85 54.9 56.9 57.9 59.8 59 that a single-stage jet flame could occur with the outflow velocity of
0.9 55 55.1 55.7 56.8 58
0.6 m/s. If its equivalence ratio was further reduced, the flame would
0.95 51.3 53.6 56.1 59.1 61
1 51.5 52.9 54.3 53.9 55.4
go out. However, in Table 1, primary velocity being 0.6 m/s, the DLP
flame can even burn at a global equivalence ratio of 0.32. It is because
the central high-temperature zone created by primary flame is sur-
fuel. The igniting ratio is also a quantitative assessment of the ignition rounded by secondary flow, which can make the most combustion re-
capacity of primary flame. As shown in Table 2, the data here reflects leased heat be used to ignite peripheral ultra-lean premixed gas, in-
that more secondary premixed gas will take part in combustion when it volving them into overall combustion. So the DLP flame can get a fairly
has higher equivalence ratio or outflow velocity. This trend is consistent low global equivalence ratio. It is one of the most important differences
with the results of previous analyses. between DLP flame and homogeneous combustion. Generally, the
From above analysis, it can be summarized that the combustion achievement of low equivalence ratio for premixed flames also means
state of secondary flame is mainly affected by the amount of fuel sup- wider applicability and higher combustion stability. So, the DLP com-
plied to flame front and the contact area with primary flame. When bustion provides more ideas for industrial usage of gaseous fuels.
more fuel is transported to secondary combustion zone, it becomes
easier to ignite. Larger contact area means more heat and radicals are
communicated. So the secondary flame can burn more intensely and 3.4. Nox emissions of DLP combustion
have larger radius.
It should be noted that excessive secondary gas was introduced into When the primary flames are burning without secondary coflow, or
burner during this experiment. This was for purpose of learning the with that of only air, common cone flames will be formed at the nozzle.
combustion characteristics of DLP flames more accurately. Hence, the At this moment, the NOx contained in combustion products are all
secondary premixed gas did not burn well and had a relatively low generated by the primary flames. Table 4 shows the NOx emissions
burnout rate here. However, if DLP flame is actually applied to com- levels corrected to 15% O2 from stoichiometric primary flames of these
bustion equipment, the flow of secondary premixed gas would be set at cases. The NOx generated by premixed CH4/air flames are mainly
a reasonable value to ensure its exhaustion. thermal NOx which are temperature dependent. It can be found from
Table 4 that the NOx concentration decreases as primary velocity in-
creases, whether there is air coflow or not. It is because faster outflow
3.3. Global equivalence ratio of DLP flame velocity can reduce the residence time of flux gas in high-temperature
zone, thus resulting in a decrease in production of NOx. In addition, air
Equivalence ratio is an important characteristic parameter of pre- coflow can accelerate heat loss from central flame and lower the tem-
mixed flame. The minimum value that can be achieved reflects the perature, affecting the formation of NOx in combustion zone.
stability of the flame to some extent[36]. However, there are two types Table 5 shows the NOx emissions of DLP flames with different
of premixed gases involved in a DLP flame and each one has its own parameters. Note that some secondary premixed gas remains in the

6
W. Zhao, et al.
Fig. 9. Influence of secondary velocity on the morphology of secondary flames.
combustion products of DLP flames. While because of the low methane
content, the excess secondary gas can be seen as a dilution, just like the
excess air. So, after the NOx concentrations were corrected to 15% O2,
impact of excess secondary premixed gas on the data accuracy had al-
ready been eliminated. Comparing Table 4 and Table 5, it can be found
that the emissions of DLP combustion were generally much lower than
that of homogeneous premixed flames. In fact, when there is only pri-
mary flames burn on the burner, NOx in combustion products is mainly
thermal NOx, which is mostly generated in the central high-temperature
region. As secondary premixed gas enters, the secondary flame forms.
However, parameters of primary flame do not change during this pro-
cess, so the high temperature condition in central region still exists.
Furthermore, secondary flame can weaken heat loss from primary
flame, meaning more thermal NOx should be generated there theore-
tically. But on the contrary, DLP flames release less NOx than single-
stage flames. Although the secondary flame has a low combustion
temperature, its limitations on the generation of NOx can only be lim-
ited to itself. So, there must be some other reasons for the reduction of
overall NOx emissions.
In the experiment, few CO was detected in the combustion products
of single-stage flames. While it abounded for DLP flames. This means
that the combustion of secondary flames was not fully completed. Many
other intermediate products might also be generated along with CO in
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Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951
combustion zone. So, the environment around secondary flame was
somewhat similar to the reburning zone of natural gas reburning
technology, which is used to reduce NOx emissions from fossil fuel
combustion. Excessive air in combustion zone prevents the secondary
flame from forming reducing atmosphere as in the reburning zone of
furnace, but substances such as CO, H2, C and CnHm can still be pro-
duced in large quantities due to the low temperature. These inter-
mediates can reduce NOx to N2, and finally limit the NOx emissions of
DLP flames. However, if secondary equivalence ratio was set to 0.5, the
secondary flame could burn more intensely. As a result, the generation
of hydrocarbon intermediates around secondary flame would be wea-
kened. And the increase in flame radius also made the intermediates
more difficult to be transported from outside to central high-tempera-
ture zone. So the concentration of NOx in combustion products rose.
The above analysis is also reflected in Table 5. In summary, it can be
concluded that the combustion state of secondary flame plays an im-
portant role in controlling NOx emissions. If the parameters are set at
reasonable values that sufficient intermediates can be provided by
secondary flame, the NOx emissions of overall combustion may get ef-
ficiently limited.
In addition, compared to the common pilot-main premixed flame,
DLP combustion has some similar aspects, but essential differences also
exist. The LP combustor controls combustion temperature by limiting
W. Zhao, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951

Fig. 10. Influence of secondary equivalence ratio on the morphology of secondary flames.

Table 2 Table 3
Igniting ratios of primary flame to secondary premixed gas. Global equivalence ratios under different premixed gas conditions.
φpri vpri(m/s) vsec(m/s) φsec φpri vpri(m/s) vsec(m/s) φsec

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

0.95 0.6 0.2 0.77 1.06 2 4.49 0.95 0.6 0.2 0.36 0.45 0.5 0.55
0.95 0.6 0.3 1.11 1.49 2.66 6.32 0.95 0.6 0.3 0.32 0.41 0.48 0.53
0.95 0.6 0.4 — 2.06 3.11 8.28 0.95 0.6 0.4 — 0.39 0.47 0.53
1 0.6 0.2 0.88 1.19 2.14 4.59 1 0.6 0.2 0.35 0.44 0.49 0.55
1 0.6 0.3 1.22 1.7 2.7 7.24 1 0.6 0.3 0.31 0.4 0.48 0.53
1 0.6 0.4 1.69 1.88 2.97 8.95 1 0.6 0.4 0.28 0.4 0.47 0.53
1 0.7 0.2 0.62 0.93 1.73 3.44 1 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.47 0.51 0.56
1 0.7 0.3 0.87 1.47 2.39 5.27 1 0.7 0.3 0.35 0.42 0.49 0.54
1 0.7 0.4 1.17 1.67 2.68 7.3 1 0.7 0.4 0.32 0.41 0.48 0.53

the equivalence ratio of premixed gas, and hence prevents the gen-
eration of thermal NOx. Besides, a pilot diffusion flame is usually placed
in the core to improve the stability of combustion. But the fuel allocated
to pilot flame often accounts for a small share, because the higher
combustion temperature of pilot flame will degrade the environmental
performance of overall system. By contrast, the DLP combustion ac-
tively builds equivalence ratio gradient in radial direction. Combustion
intermediates from secondary flame are the key to reducing NOx gen-
erated. Moreover, the central primary flame not only provides supports
for secondary flame, but it is also an important part of the combustion.

8
W. Zhao, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 160 (2019) 113951

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