DIGESTION

Dr. Madikiza
OLS 2001
 Digestive System
1. Mouth
Salivary glands Mechanical and
Secretes enzymes chemical processing
that digest (chewing reduces size
carbohydrates of food; saliva digests
carbohydrates)
Liver 2. Esophagus
Secretes Transports food
molecules
required for 3. Stomach
digestion of fats Mechanical and
chemical processing
(digestion of proteins)

Gall bladder 4. Small intestine

Stores secretions Chemical processing
from liver; empties and absorption (digestion
into small intestine of proteins, fats,
carbohydrates; absorption
of nutrients and water)
Pancreas
Secretes enzymes 5. Large intestine
and other materials Water absorption
into small intestine and feces formation
 SEROSA

Lymph nodule

Villi

Lumen

Blood vessels

SUBMUCOSA

Nerve fibers MUCOSA

Epithelial cells
Goblet cells (mucus)
Connective tissue
Smooth muscle
Inner circular fibers
MUSCLE LAYER
Outer longitudinal fibers
 Digestion
• Digestion is a process whereby organic foods are mechanically and
chemically broken down into small units for absorption
• Two types of digestion:
-Intracellular : occurs within a body cell
-animals that don’t have a digestive system
-food is taken inside through phagocytosis
-food wastes are extruded from cell by exocytosis
Disadvantage! Only particles small enough to be phagocytized can be
accepted
-all cells must be capable of secreting all necessary enzymes, and of
absorbing the products in their cytoplasm

-Extracellular : occurs outside body cells

-Takes place in all animals that have an alimentary canal
 The Role of Digestive Enzymes
What are enzymes? Substances produced by living cells, capable of
speeding up specific chemical reactions, but unaltered itself in the
process. It is a biological catalyst.

Digestive enzymes hydrolases

Hydrolysis: is the process of breaking chemical bonds by adding the

components of water.

Proteins  amino acids

Carbohydrates  simple sugars
Fats (lipids)  glycerol and fatty acid
 The main steps in the (Extracellular) digestive
process

• Mechanical- intake of food via the mouth

• Movement- food must be moved along the alimentary
tract.
• Secretion- fluid, digestive enzymes, acid, bile, mucus
into GI tract
• Digestion- mechanical or chemical break down of food
into subunits, resulting in nutrient molecules
• Absorption- movement of nutrient molecules across the
mucosal layer of alimentary tract and into the blood and
lymph and to cells
• Elimination- removal of indigestible molecules
 Motility in the alimentary canal

a) Peristalsis
series of relaxation and contractions of
smooth muscles that serve to force
food through the alimentary canal
- prevalent in oesophagus and
stomach

b) Segmentation
this is the alternate constriction of rings
of smooth muscle of intestines, that
constantly squeeze back and forth.
-Prevalent in small intestines
 Esophagus
Circular
muscles
contract,
Longitudinal
muscles contract

Food
bolus

Sphincter Sphincter
closed open

Stomach Stomach
 Receiving Region: The mouth
• Consists of: mouthparts (jaws, teeth)
- buccal cavity and pharynx
- 3 pairs of salivary glands (sublingual glands, parotid
and submandibular glands)
Salivary glands
2 types of cells- serous cells- produce watery fluid that
contains digestive enzyme, ions and mucin.
-mucous cells- secrete a thick liquid called mucus, which
binds food particles and acts as a lubricant.
• Parotid gland- contains only serous cells
• Submandibular gland- both serous and mucous glands
• Sublingual gland- contains mostly mucous cells
 Saliva contents:

Water- 97%

Mucin – mucus like protein – holds food particles together

for easy swallowing

Salivary amylase - carbohydrate-splitting enzyme

• salivary glands secrete salivary amylase that begins
carbohydrate digestion

Bicarbonate ions- maintains pH of mouth 6.5 -7.5

• Protects teeth from acid producing bacteria

Lysosome- inhibit bacterial growth and tooth decay

How do we swallow food?
 Swallowing of food
• Voluntary phase:
- tongue and jaws push bolus into pharynx.

• Involuntary phase:
- Presence of bolus in pharynx stimulates “swallowing reflex”
1. No swallowing- epiglottis up
- Glottis open
- Air flows to trachea and lungs
2. Swallowing- reflex triggered when bolus reaches pharynx
3. Larynx moves upwards
-epiglottis tips over glottis, prevention of food from entering
trachea
4. Oesophageal sphincter relaxes , bolus enters oesophagus
5. Larynx moves downwards and opens the breathing passage
6. Waves of muscular contractions (peristalsis) move bolus
through oesophagus to stomach
 Digestion in the stomach
• Functions: store food, start digestion and regulates movement of
chyme into the small intestines
• Stomach has the cardiac sphincter and a pyloric sphincter
• The stomach walls (mucosa) have gastric pits that lead to gastric
glands (tubular glands)
• Gastric glands (tubular glands) secrete gastric juice
• Three types of cells line the gastric glands:
chief cells- secrete pepsinogen
parietal cells- secrete HCL
goblet (mucous) cells- secrete mucous for protection of cell lining
Pepsinogen is an inactive form of pepsin
– Pepsin is a protease, a protein-splitting enzyme, that is only
active in an acid medium (pH= 1.6- 2.4)
– Pepsin splits peptide bonds in a peptide chain of protein
molecule
Anatomy of the stomach
 Terminal Digestion and Absorption Region:
The Intestines
• ~6m in length
• Intestines have minute finger-like projections called villi.
• Each cell lining the intestinal wall is covered by short microvilli
• The villi, microvilli and intestinal folds increase the surface area
of the intestines.
 Digestion in the small intestines
Pancreas  pancreatic juice
1. Sodium bicarbonate: neutralise acidic chyme in
small intestines

2. Pancreatic enzymes:
Proteases  Trypsin, Chymotrypsin & Carboxypeptidase
Amylase Pancreatic amylase
Lipase  Pancreatic lipase
Nucleases  pancreatic nucleases
Proteases  proteins  peptides  amino acids

Amylase polysaccharides  disaccharides 

monosaccharides (e.g. glucose)

Lipase  fats  triglycerides  fatty acids +

monoglycerides

Nucleases  RNA & DNA  nucleotides 

nitrogenous bases, sugars, phosphates
Digestion in the small intestines
Liver  bile production

Bile:

• contains: water, bile salts, phospholipids

(lecithin) and pigments (bilirubin)
• stored and concentrated by gallbladder
• Gallbladder delivers bile to duodenum via bile
duct
 Functions of the liver
• Bile production
• Store fat-soluble vitamins and iron
• Store glucose as glycogen after a meal, converts
glycogen to glucose between meals
• Manufacture plasma proteins
• Synthesise and store some lipids
• Converts ammonia into urea
• Destroy worn out red blood cells
 Digestion in the small intestines
Membrane (intestinal) enzymes:
• Protease  Aminopeptidase

• Amylase  Disacharidases Maltase

Sucrase
Lactase
Digestion in the small intestines
Membrane (intestinal) enzymes:
• Aminopeptidase: split amino acids from the
amino end of peptides
• Disacharidases: split 12 C sugar into 6C units
1. Maltase = maltose glucose + glucose
2. Sucrase = sucrose fructose + glucose
3. Lactase = lactose  glucose + galactose
 Absorption of proteins and sugars in the
small intestines
• Carbohydrates are absorbed as simple sugars (glc, frc, gal)
• Proteins are absorbed as amino acids
• Both sugars and amino acids transported to blood capillaries
by active transport and facilitated diffusion
 Absorption of fats in the small intestine

• Fats are absorbed as fatty acids and monoglycerides, but not

taken directly to blood vessels.
• Fatty acids and monoglycerides + bile salts = micelles
• Micelles transport then release fatty acids and monoglycerides
into surface of mucosal layer and they diffuse into membrane
• Fatty acid monoglycerides resynthesized into triglycerides
• Triglycerides are coated with proteins chylomicrons
• Chylomicrons exit cell by exocytosis and enter lacteals
• fat droplets enter lymphatic system  enter blood system near
heart
How are nutrients digested and transported
out of the small intestines?
Hepatic portal system
• Nutrient rich blood is
carried by the hepatic
portal system directly
from the digestive
organs to the liver via
the hepatic portal
vein.
 Water Absorption and Concentration of
Solids Region: Large intestines
• Includes the cecum, colon,
rectum & anal canal
• Cecum has a projection known
as the appendix, that may play
a role in fighting infections
• Functions of large intestine:
-absorb water to prevent
dehydration
-absorbs vitamins (B complex and
K) produced by intestinal
bacteria
-forms and rids the body of faeces
through the anus