Opto-electronic (photo) Devices:

 the device which are depend on light for their operation

or which produce light when excited electrically are
known as Opto-electronic devices or photo devices.
 We will discuss the photo devices such as LDR,
photodiode, phototransistor, LDR, etc. in this chapter.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):

 Photoconductive cell or a light dependent resistor (LDR)
makes use of the principle of photoconductivity.
 It is a semiconductor device in which resistance is
dependent on the intensity of incident light.
 The resistance of the LDR will decreases with increases
in the intensity of incident light.
 The construction of LDR is as shown in figure 1.16.1(a)
and its symbol is as shown in figure 1.16.1(b).

Construction of LDR:
  As shown in fig. 1.16.1(a). A light sensitive material such
as cadmium sulphide (CdS) is deposited on a ceramic
substrate.
 Then the substrate along with the photosensitive layer
of CdS is enclosed in a metal container. Contact leads are
brought out for external connections as shown in fig.
1.16.1 (a).
 Light is incident on the lights sensitive material through
the glass cap or lenses which is added at the top of this
assembly

Principle of operation:
 As shown in Fig 1.16.1(c), when light is incident on the
photosensitive material, the events take place in the
following sequence.
 The incident photons collide with the atoms of the light
sensitive semiconductors material and impart energy to
them.
 Due to energy, the valance electrons will cross the
forbidden energy gap and enter into the conduction
band.
 Due to more number of electrons entering the
conduction band, the conductivity of the material
increases and resistance decreases. Thus the resistance
of the photoconductive material decreases with
increases in the intensity of light.
Application of LDR:
Analog application:
1. Camera exposure control
2. Auto slide focus-dual cell
3. Photocopy(Xerox) machines-density of toner
4. Colorimetric test equipment
5. Densitometer
6. Automated rear view mirror

Digital applications:
1. Automatic headlight dimmer in cars
2. Night light control
3. Oil burner flame out indicator
4. Street light control(automatic turning on or off the street
lights.)

Photodiode:
Operation:
  The light is always focussed through a glass lens on the
junction of photodiode.
 As the photodiode is reverse biased, the depletion
region is quit penetrated on both sides of the junction,
as shown in the fig 1.17.1(a)
 The photons incident on the depletion region will impact
their ions present there and generate electron hole
pairs.
 With increase in the light intensity, more number of
electrons pairs are generated and the photocurrent
increases. Thus photocurrent is proportional to the light
intensity.

Photodiode characteristics:
 The photo diode V-I characteristics are as shown in fig.
1.17.2(a) and the variation of photocurrent with light
intensity as shown in fig. 1.17.2(b).
 Dark current: it is the current flowing through a
photodiode in the absence of light.(see fig. 1.17.2(a).
minority carries, and hence increases with increase in
temperature.
 The reverse current Iλ (photocurrent) depends only on
the intensity of light incident on the junction. It is almost
independent of the reverse voltage.
Application:
1. In the cameras for sensing the light intensity.
2. In the fiber optic receiver.
3. In light intensity meters.
4. Object counting system.

Phototransistor:
 A photodiode cannot provide any amplification action.
Phototransistor can provide the internal current
multiplication and generate a large output signal.
 The light is allowed to fall on the collector base junction
of the transistor. The photocurrent produced there acts
as the base current of the transistor and gets multiplied
β times.
 The construction and circuit symbol of phototransistor
as shown in fig 1.18.1(a) and (b) respectively.

Construction and biasing:

 The construction is as shown in the fig 1.18.1(a). The
base collector region of the phototransistor is
responsible for the generation of photo base current.
Therefore in the construction of the transistor, the base
collector area is kept as large as possible.

 The base terminal is sometimes not brought out and the

photo transistor acts as a two terminal device but if the
base terminal is brought out then it acts as a
conventional transistor.
 The base terminal is generally Left Open are connected
to ground through a large value resistor. The biasing of
the phototransistor is otherwise same as that of a
conventional transistor.
  Dark Current: in absence of light a small thermally
generated current Iceo flows through the device. It is the
nA range. The dark current should be as small as
possible.
 In presence of light. The base current produced (Iλ) is
directly proportional to the intensity of light. The
collector current is β times this base current. The
phototransistor is biased as shown in fig. 1.18.2(b)
 The output characteristics of a phototransistor are as
shown in fig. 1.18.2(a). They are very much similar to
those of a convectional transistor.
 These characteristics have been drawn for different light
intensities. As the light intensity increases, the optically
produced base current also increases which in turn
increases the collector current.

Application of phototransistor:
Light sensitive relay:
 The light sensitive relay is as shown in fig. 1.18.3(a)
phototransistor turns ON when a sufficient light is
incident on it.
 It supplies the base current to the transistor Q2 . The
collector current of Q2 flow though the relay coil &
energizes it.
 Does the relay gets energized in the presence of light
transistor Q2 acts as a switch i.e. in saturation of cut off.

Darkness Sensitive Relay:

 The darkness sensitive relay is as shown in fig. 1.18.3(b).
As soon as the light incident on the phototransistor Q1 is
cut off, is collector voltage increases to VCC .
 This will turn the conventional transistor Q2 ON and the
relay will be energized. Thus the relay energized in the
absence of light.