MATHEMATICS PROJECT

 TOPIC– HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS WITH

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONTRIBUTIONS
OF INDIAN MATHEMATICIANS

 NAME OF THE STUDENT:- RAHUL ROY

 CLASS:- 12

 SECTION:-A

 ROLL NUMBER:- 19
 CONTENT
Carl Friedrich Gauss: "I have had my results for a long time: but I do not yet
know how I am to arrive at them."

Mathematics is one of the most important subjects of our life. Though the
basics of mathematics start from school but its usage continues till we
become adults and thus it can be said that maths has become an integral
part. Imagining our lives without it is like a ship without a sail.

Mathematics is possibly one of the most underappreciated sciences. It everywhere

in our lives, mathematics runs our computers, flies our aircraft, and protects our
information

But for such a major part of our lives, very few people can say that they know how
it is done, how the RSA encryption protects their e-mail, or even that 21 squared is
441 without going into tedious mental calculations or reaching for their calculator.

Contrary to popular belief, mathematics has a wide range of useful applications.

Those who would ask whenever they would need algebra, both linear algebra and
calculus is used extensively in computer programming and engineering. The fact is
that mathematics is integrated into almost every profession, every small part of our
lives.

So let us look at some people from Generation Common Era who actually gave rise
to the subject and made our lives a whole lot easier( read:- difficult)
 Aryabhata
\Aryabhata, आर्यभट (IAST: Āryabhaṭa) or Aryabhata I[2][3] (476–550 CE)[4][5] was the
first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian
mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include the Āryabhaṭīya (which
mentions that in 3600 Kaliyuga, 499 CE, he was 23 years old)[6] and the Arya-
siddhanta.

MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENTS:-

The place-value system, first seen in the 3rd-century Bakhshali Manuscript, was
clearly in place in his work. While he did not use a symbol for zero, the French
mathematician Georges Ifrah argues that knowledge of zero was implicit in
Aryabhata's place-value system as a place holder for the powers of ten
with null coefficients.[16]

 Aryabhata worked on the approximation for pi (π), and may have come to the
conclusion that π is irrational. In the second part of
the Aryabhatiyam (gaṇitapāda 10), he writes:
 caturadhikaṃ śatamaṣṭaguṇaṃ dvāṣaṣṭistathā sahasrāṇām
ayutadvayaviṣkambhasyāsanno vṛttapariṇāhaḥ.
"Add four to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule the
circumference of a circle with a diameter of 20,000 can be approached."

 This implies that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is

((4 + 100) × 8 + 62000)/20000 = 62832/20000 = 3.1416, which is accurate to
five significant figures.[19]

 In Aryabhatiya, Aryabhata provided elegant results for the summation of series of

squares and cubes
 Āryabhaṭa

Summation of series of squares and cubes

Area of Triangle
 Brahmagupta
Brahmagupta (born c. 598 CE, died c. 668 CE) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He is
the author of two early works on mathematics and astronomy: the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta (BSS,
"correctly established doctrine of Brahma", dated 628), a theoretical treatise, and
the Khaṇḍakhādyaka ("edible bite", dated 665), a more practical text.

MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENTS:-

1. Brahmagupta gave the solution of the general linear equation in chapter eighteen
of Brahmasphutasiddhanta,
The difference between rupas, when inverted and divided by the difference of the unknowns,
is the unknown in the equation. The rupas are [subtracted on the side] below that from which
the square and the unknown are to be subtracted.[14]which is a solution for the
equation bx + c = dx + e equivalent to x = e − c/b − d, where rupas refers to the
constants c and e.

2. In chapter twelve of his Brahmasphutasiddhanta, Brahmagupta provides a formula useful for

generating Pythagorean triples:
The height of a mountain multiplied by a given multiplier is the distance to a city; it is not
erased. When it is divided by the multiplier increased by two it is the leap of one of the two
who make the same journey.[22]
Stated geometrically, this says that if a right-angled triangle has a base of length a = mx and
altitude of length b = m + d, then the length, c, of its hypotenuse is given by c = m (1 + x) − d. And,
indeed, elementary algebraic manipulation shows that a2 + b2 = c2 whenever d has the value stated.
Also, if m and x are rational, so are d, a, b and c. A Pythagorean triple can therefore be obtained
from a, b and c by multiplying each of them by the least common multiple of their denominators.

3.Brahmagupta's most famous result in geometry is his formula for cyclic quadrilaterals. Given the
lengths of the sides of any cyclic quadrilateral, Brahmagupta gave an approximate and an exact
formula for the figure's area,
The approximate area is the product of the halves of the sums of the sides and opposite sides
of a triangle and a quadrilateral. The accurate [area] is the square root from the product of the
halves of the sums of the sides diminished by [each] side of the quadrilateral.[18]
So given the lengths p, q, r and s of a cyclic quadrilateral, the approximate area = (p + r/2 · q + s/2)
While, letting t = p + q + r + s/2,
The exact area is =√ (t − p)(t − q)(t − r)(t − s).

Although Brahmagupta does not explicitly state that these quadrilaterals are cyclic, it is apparent from
his rules that this is the case.[25] Heron's formula is a special case of this formula and it can be
derived by setting one of the sides equal to zero.
Brahmagupta

Brahmagupta’s Theorem on cyclic quadrilaterals

 Sridharacharya
Sridharacharya (Bengali: শ্রীধর আচার্;য c. 750 CE – c. 930 CE) was an Indian mathematician, Sanskrit pandit
and philosopher. He was born in Bhurishresti (Bhurisristi or Bhurshut) village in South Radha (at present
day Hughli) in the 8th Century AD. His father's name was Baladev Acharya and his mother's name was
Acchoka bai. His father was a Sanskrit pandit and philosopher.

MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENTS:-
He gave an exposition on the zero. He wrote, "If zero is added to any number, the sum is the same
number; if zero is subtracted from any number, the number remains unchanged; if zero is
multiplied by any number, the product is zero".

 In the case of dividing a fraction he has found out the method of multiplying the fraction by the reciprocal of
the divisor.
 He wrote on the practical applications of algebra
 He separated algebra from arithmetic
 He was one of the first to give a formula for solving quadratic equations.

SRIDHARCHARYA’S FORMULA FOR SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS:-

Let us consider

Multiplying both sides by 4a,

Subtracting

from both sides,

Then adding
to both sides,

Using it in the equation,

 Sridhara

Quadratic Equations and Roots

 Bhāskara II
Bhāskara[1] (also known as Bhāskarāchārya ("Bhāskara, the teacher"), and as Bhaskara II to avoid
confusion with Bhāskara I) (1114–1185), was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was born
in Bijapuraa in Karnataka.[2]

Bhāskara's work on calculus predates Newton and Leibniz by over half a millennium. [7][8] He is
particularly known in the discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to
astronomical problems and computations.

While Newton and Leibniz have been credited with differential and integral calculus, there is strong
evidence to suggest that Bhāskara was a pioneer in some of the principles of differential calculus. He
was perhaps the first to conceive the differential coefficient and differential calculus. [9]

MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENTS:-

Integer solutions of linear and quadratic indeterminate equations (Kuṭṭaka). The rules he gives are (in
effect) the same as those given by the Renaissance European mathematicians of the 17th century

A cyclic Chakravala method for solving indeterminate equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = y. The
solution to this equation was traditionally attributed to William Brouncker in 1657, though his method
was more difficult than the chakravala method.

The first general method for finding the solutions of the problem x2 − ny2 = 1 (so-called "Pell's
equation") was given by Bhaskara II.[14]

Solutions of Diophantine equations of the second order, such as 61x2 + 1 = y2. This very equation
was posed as a problem in 1657 by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat, but its solution was
unknown in Europe until the time of Euler in the 18th century.[13]

There is evidence of an early form of Rolle's theorem in his work

o If f(a)=f(b)=0 then f`(x)=0 for some x with a<x<b

A proof of the Pythagorean theorem by calculating the same area in two different ways and then
canceling out terms to get a2 + b2 = c2.[12]

In Lilavati, solutions of quadratic, cubic and quartic indeterminate equations are explained.[13]Solutions
of indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type ax2 + b = y2).
 Bhaskara

Bhaskara’s Equation

Illustration of infinity as the reciprocal of zero

 Madhava of Sangamagrama

Mādhava (c. 1340 – c. 1425) was an Indian mathematician and astronomer from the town believed to
be present-day Aloor, Irinjalakudain Thrissur District), Kerala, India.

He is considered the founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics. One of the greatest
mathematician-astronomers of the Middle Ages, Madhava made pioneering contributions to the study
of infinite series, calculus, trigonometry, geometry, and algebra.

He was the first to use infinite series approximations for a range of trigonometric functions, which has
been called the "decisive step onward from the finite procedures of ancient mathematics to
treat their limit-passage to infinity".

MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENTS:-

1. One of Madhava's series is known from the text Yuktibhāṣā, which contains the derivation and
proof of the power series for inverse tangent, discovered by Madhava.[13] In the
text, Jyeṣṭhadeva describes the series in the following manner:

“
The first term is the product of the given sine and radius of the desired arc divided by the cosine
of the arc. The succeeding terms are obtained by a process of iteration when the first term is
repeatedly multiplied by the square of the sine and divided by the square of the cosine. All the
terms are then divided by the odd numbers 1, 3, 5,.... The arc is obtained by adding and
subtracting respectively the terms of odd rank and those of even rank. It is laid down that the
sine of the arc or that of its complement whichever is the smaller should be taken here as the
given sine. Otherwise the terms obtained by this above iteration will not tend to the vanishing
magnitude.[14]

2. Madhava composed an accurate table of sines. Marking a quarter circle at twenty-four equal
intervals, he gave the lengths of the half-chord (sines) corresponding to each of them. It is believed
that he may have computed these values based on the series expansions: [4]
sin q = q – q3/3! + q5/5! – q7/7! +...
cos q = 1 – q2/2! + q4/4! – q6/6! +...

3.Madhava obtained from the power series expansion of the arc-tangent function. However, what is
most impressive is that he also gave a correction term, Rn, for the error after computing the sum up
to n terms. Madhava gave three expressions for a correction term Rn,[4] to be appended to the sum
of n terms, namely

Rn = (−1) n / (4n), or Rn = (−1)n⋅n / (4n2 + 1), or Rn = (−1)n⋅(n2 + 1) / (4n3 + 5n).

Where the third correction leads to highly accurate computations of π.
 Madhava of Sangamagrama

Madhava’s method for approximating π by an infinite series of fractions

 Srinivasa Ramanujan
Srinivasa Ramanujan FRS 22 December 1887 – 26 April 1920)[2] was an Indian mathematician who lived
during the British Rule in India. Though he had almost no formal training in pure mathematics, he made
substantial contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory, infinite series, and continued fractions,
including solutions to mathematical problems then considered to be unsolvable.

MATHEMATICAL ACHIEVEMENTS:-

In his notebooks, Ramanujan wrote down 17 ways to represent 1/pi as an infinite series. Series
representations have been known for centuries. Ramanujan came up with something much more
elaborate that got to

1/pi faster: 1/pi = (sqrt(8)/9801) * (1103 + 659832/24591257856 + …).

This series gets you to 3.141592 after the first term and adds 8 correct digits per term thereafter.
This series was used in 1985 to calculate pi to more than 17 million digits even though it hadn’t
yet been proven.

Taxicab numbers

In a famous anecdote, Hardy took a cab to visit Ramanujan. When he got there, he told
Ramanujan that the cab’s number, 1729, was “rather a dull one.”
Ramanujan said, “No, it is a very interesting number. It is the smallest number expressible as a
sum of two cubes in two different ways. That is,

1729 = 1^3 + 12^3 = 9^3 + 10^3.

This number is now called the Hardy-Ramanujan number, and the smallest numbers that can be
expressed as the sum of two cubes in n different ways have been dubbed taxicab numbers. The
next number in the sequence, the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two
cubes in three different ways, is 87,539,319.

The Hardy Aptitude Scale

Hardy came up with a scale of mathematical ability that went from 0 to 100. He put himself at
25. David Hilbert, the great German mathematician, was at 80. Ramanujan was 100.

When he died in 1920 at the age of 32, Ramanujan left behind three notebooks and a sheaf of
papers (the “lost notebook”) These notebooks contained thousands of results that are still
inspiring mathematical work decades later.
Srinivasa Ramanujan Book on Ramanujan’s Discovery

PAGES FROM RAMANUJANS LOST NOTEBOOK