EnergyInstUK-Guidance On Bolted Joints

Guidelines for the management of
the integrity of bolted joints

for pressurised systems
2nd edition
An IP Publication
Published by the Energy Institute
Issued under licence to BP employees only.

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OWNERSHIP
NORAFIMAN ABDUL RAHMAN

PIPING ENGINEER (FLANGE MANAGEMENT)
REFINERY & CRACKER (UPT-3 QAQC DEPT)
PETRONAS REFINERY AND PETROCHEMICAL CORPORATION SDN. BHD. (PRPC)

Mobile Phone: +60 (11) 2869 4557
Email: norafiman.abdrahman@petronas.com.my
“TOWARDS ZERO LEAK STARTUP”
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ISBN 978 0 85293 461 6

GUIDELINES FOR THE
MANAGEMENT OF THE INTEGRITY OF BOLTED JOINTS
FOR PRESSURISED SYSTEMS

GUIDELINES FOR THE
MANAGEMENT OF THE INTEGRITY OF BOLTED JOINTS
FOR PRESSURISED SYSTEMS
May 2007
Second edition
Published by
ENERGY INSTITUTE, LONDON
The Energy Institute is a professional membership body incorporated by Royal Charter 2003
Registered charity number 1097899
Endorsed by
Oil & Gas UK, HSE OSD and the ECITB

The Energy Institute gratefully acknowledges the financial contributions towards the scientific and
technical programme from the following companies:
BG Group Murco Petroleum Ltd

BHP Billiton Limited Nexen
BP Exploration Operating Co Ltd Saudi Aramco
BP Oil UK Ltd Shell UK Oil Products Limited
Chevron Shell U.K. Exploration and Production Ltd
ConocoPhillips Ltd Statoil (U.K.) Limited
ENI Talisman Energy (UK) Ltd
ExxonMobil International Ltd Total E&P UK plc
Kuwait Petroleum International Ltd Total UK Limited
Maersk Oil North Sea UK Limited
Copyright © 2007 by the Energy Institute, London:

The Energy Institute is a professional membership body incorporated by Royal Charter 2003.
Registered charity number 1097899, England
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The information contained in this publication is provided as guidance only and while every reasonable care has been
taken to ensure the accuracy of its contents, the Energy Institute cannot accept any responsibility for any action taken,
or not taken, on the basis of this information. The Energy Institute shall not be liable to any person for any loss or
damage which may arise from the use of any of the information contained in any of its publications.
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negligence.
ISBN 978 0 85293 461 6

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CONTENTS
Page
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................................. vii
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................. ix
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Bolted joint technology and practice ............................................................................................................ 3

2.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Types of bolted joints ............................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Bolted pipe joint components ................................................................................................................... 4
2.4 Principles of joint assembly and disassembly ........................................................................................... 6
2.5 Controlled tightening of joints .................................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Bolted joint reliability ............................................................................................................................. 10
2.7 Integrity testing....................................................................................................................................... 14
3 Criticality assessment .................................................................................................................................. 17

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 17
3.2 Assessing the risks with bolted joints ..................................................................................................... 17
4 Training and competence ............................................................................................................................ 21

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 21
4.2 Competence management ....................................................................................................................... 21
4.3 Training .................................................................................................................................................. 21
4.4 Ongoing competence .............................................................................................................................. 22
4.5 Training in engineering construction skills (TECSkills) ........................................................................ 22
4.6 Vocational qualifications ........................................................................................................................ 22
4.7 Independent accreditation organisations ................................................................................................. 22
5 Records, data management and tagging .................................................................................................... 27

5.1 Joint identification .................................................................................................................................. 27
5.2 Records and data management ............................................................................................................... 28
5.3 Review.................................................................................................................................................... 29

Contents Cont.... Page
6 Management of leaks ................................................................................................................................... 31

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 31
6.2 Engineering risk assessment of leaks ..................................................................................................... 31
6.3 Stages at which leaks occur .................................................................................................................... 32
6.4 Corrective actions ................................................................................................................................... 32
6.5 Definition and detection of leaks ............................................................................................................ 32
6.6 Managing leaks and repairs .................................................................................................................... 34
6.7 Learning from leaks................................................................................................................................ 34
7 In-service inspection .................................................................................................................................... 37

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 37
7.2 Risk assessment ...................................................................................................................................... 37
7.3 Degradation mechanisms ....................................................................................................................... 37
7.4 Inspection techniques ............................................................................................................................. 37
7.5 Defect mitigation measures .................................................................................................................... 38
vi

FOREWORD
The first Issue version of this document has its roots set in the upstream oil and gas industry being part of the
HSE/industry drive to reduce the incidence of hydrocarbon leaks on offshore installations. Leaking joints have been
the main cause of hydrocarbon releases on the UKCS offshore sites and there exists similar concern for the vast
number of facilities handling petrochemical and other hazardous material on main land sites.
In 2005, the UKOOA (now Oil & Gas UK) led Installation Integrity Working Group (IIWG) requested that the
Energy Institute manage the review and revision of the Joint UKOOA/IP Guidelines for the management of the
integrity of bolted pipe joints first issued in June, 2002. This project required the formation of a cross-industry Work
Group (WG) many of whom were from that used to compile Issue One. Others included those from the parent IIWG
members, consultants and representation from the industry training organisation, ECITB.
The revision exercise was part of the programme of work undertaken by the IIWG which included development and
promotion of industry good practices and suitable performance measures. The principal deliverables of this Work
Group were an Asset Integrity Tool Kit and review and revision of guideline documents one of which was for the
management of integrity of bolted pipe joints. It is therefore considered that this Guideline will provide valuable
advice to assist operators manage plant integrity for any installation employing bolted joints.
During the review process, the WG elected to widen the scope to include bolted joints used within pressurised
systems and not just pipe joints as is the case for Issue One, and to ensure that the document is applicable to onshore
industries as well as offshore oil and gas.
This document has been compiled as guidance only and is intended to provide knowledge of good practice to assist
operators develop their own management systems. While every reasonable care has been taken to ensure the
accuracy and relevance of its contents, the Energy Institute, its sponsoring companies, section writers and the Work
Group members listed in the Acknowledgements who have contributed to its preparation, cannot accept any
responsibility for any action taken, or not taken, on the basis of this information. The Energy Institute shall not be
liable to any person for any loss or damage which may arise from the use of any of the information contained in any
of its publications.
This Guideline will be reviewed in the future and it would be of considerable assistance for any subsequent revision
if users would send comments or suggestions for improvements to:
The Technical Department,

Energy Institute,
61 New Cavendish Street,
London
W1G 7AR
e: technical@energyinst.org.uk
vii

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As Work Group members, the Institute wishes to record its appreciation of the work carried out by the following:
Sub Group Champions, who have managed the coordination and compilation of designated sections through
leadership of their respective volunteer sub-groups and through providing authorship expertise:
Stuart Brooks BP Exploration Operating Company Ltd.

Rod Corbet Rotabolt
Anderson Foster Total E&P UK plc
Jim MacRae Nexen Petroleum UK Ltd.
Robert Noble Hydratight
Sub Group members, who have provided valued input into their designated sections:
Blair Barclay ECITB

Keith Dunnett CNR International
Bill Eccles Bolt Science (Hytorc)
Alan Gardner Consultant
Tim Jervis Shell Exploration & Production
Gary Milne Hydratight
Phillip Roberts Shell Exploration & Production
Ravi Sharma HSE
Mike Shearer Lloyds Register EMEA
Lawrence Turner Shell Exploration & Production
Mark Williams Klinger UK Ltd
Pat Wright RGB Ltd.
Assistance was also provided by the following other Work Group members:
Gwyn Ashby Mitsui Babcock

Peter Barker Marathon Oil
Arunesh Bose Lloyds Register EMEA
Martin Carter BHP Billiton
Kevin Fraser IMES
Norrie Hewie Hess Corporation
Gavin Smith Novus Sealing
Roy Smith Hytorc
Jan Webjorn Verax
ix

Liaison with other organisations was provided by:
EEMUUA Andrew Pearson

IMechE Pressure Systems Group Chris Boocock
Oil & Gas UK (formerly UKOOA) Bob Kyle
Technical authorship and editing:
Phil Smith ODL
The revision/review project was coordinated and managed by Keith Hart FEI, Energy Institute, Upstream Technical
Manager.
The Institute also wishes to recognise the contribution made by those who have provided comments on the Draft
document which was issued during an industry consultation period.

1
INTRODUCTION
A bolted joint is one of many critical components of a for bolted joints in pressurised systems. Individually the
pressurised system. Dependent upon the contents and sections of this document provide details of what is
pressure of the system, leakage or failure of a bolted considered good practice in the key areas of ensuring
joint can have potentially catastrophic consequences. To joint integrity. Together they provide the framework for
meet this challenge, every operator of pressurised a management system.
systems should have in place a system to positively and This document is not intended as a design guide for
actively manage the integrity of bolted joints. It is bolted joints, but as a guide to how to manage joints
expected that such a system will be built around the during construction and commissioning phases and
principle of continuous improvement (see Figure 1.1). through their operational life. It provides a framework
This document describes the principles and good to achieve this based on working with a correctly
practice for the establishment of a management system designed joint.
ANALYSIS,
LEARNING AND OWNERSHIP
IMPROVEMENT
MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY
OF LEAKS AND PRACTICE
IN-SERVICE CRITICALITY
INSPECTION ASSESSMENT
RECORDS, DATA
TRAINING AND
MANAGEMENT
COMPETENCE
AND TAGGING
Figure 1.1: Essential elements of a management system

GUIDELINES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE INTEGRITY OF BOLTED JOINTS FOR PRESSURISED SYSTEMS
The following are considered essential elements of in the past, ideally from original construction of the
a management system which must be applied to ensure joint, linked to the design specification of the joint.
that the system is implemented and remains effective: Providing and recording traceable data encourages
best practice at the time of the activity, and will
— Ownership provide useful planning data for the next time the
There should be an identified owner of the joint is disturbed.
management system, responsible not only for its
implementation and ongoing maintenance, but also — In-service Inspection
for communicating its aims and objectives Learning from both positive performance and
throughout the organisation. The owner should incidents is important. A management system
state the expectations for the system and monitor its should include the means for gathering relevant
effectiveness. data on joints which are successful and those that
have incidents or leakage issues. These should be
— Technology and Practice collected by everyone involved in bolted joints, and
Good practice with regard to selection and control periodically reviewed and analysed to establish
of assembly, tightening and assurance of bolted trends, issues and improvement opportunities.
joints should be applied. Understanding of the
theory and practice of bolted joints and — Management of Leaks
development of appropriate procedures should be The objective of a correctly designed and installed
encouraged throughout the organisation. bolted joint is to provide a long-term tight seal and
prevent ingress or egress of fluids through the joint.
— Criticality Assessment However, leaks can occur and managing the
The range of services, pressures and conditions investigation and repair of the leak is essential to
which bolted joints experience varies considerably. avoid recurrence. It can also provide useful data for
Each joint should undergo a criticality assessment prevention on other projects.
which will determine the levels of inspection,
assembly control, tightening technique, testing, — Analysis, Learning and Improvement
assurance and in-service inspection relevant to the Analysis of leakage and inspection data coupled
joint. with formal reviews of the management system
should occur at agreed intervals by the owner and
— Training and Competence users. Results obtained from commissioning,
Everyone with an influence on joint integrity in the incident analysis and in-service inspections should
organisation should be aware of the management be used to generate ideas for continuous
system, its objectives, expectations and effects on improvement.
project planning and day-to-day working. Good Easily monitored but meaningful performance
awareness needs to be maintained. Any staff standards should be put in place at launch to
working on bolted joints should be appropriately quantify the contribution being made by the
trained and competent. management system and evaluate user satisfaction.
Feedback on good practice in integrity issues and
— Records, Data Management and Tagging causes and solutions to incidents should be
The certainty of achieving joint integrity increases provided both internally and to industry to
if historical data exist on the activities carried out contribute to continuous improvement.

2
BOLTED JOINT TECHNOLOGY

AND PRACTICE
2.1 OVERVIEW Pipework and pressure systems are designed to
meet varying operational conditions. In order to avoid
This section gives a brief outline of how joints work and failure, it is very important that the relevant piping
provides guidance on the safe and efficient assembly specifications for materials and components are adhered
and disassembly of flanged joints and clamps. It also to in full.
discusses basic proposals for integrity testing. The There are many types of bolted joint and only some
scope of these Guidelines covers all pressure-containing of the more commonly used are mentioned here but as
joints including pipelines, pressure vessels such as mentioned previously, the basic reliability parameters
reactors and heat exchangers, associated valves and and procedures applied are the same for all.
other pressure-containing equipment. Due to operating
conditions with heat exchangers and reactors,
particularly temperature gradients, different metal joint 2.2 TYPES OF BOLTED JOINTS
components and thermal and pressure cycling, a higher
level of control and assurance of bolt load is generally 2.2.1 Flange joints
required compared to, for example, piping joints
subjected to static pressure only. The principles set out The most common type of joint is made up of two pipe
are generic in nature and not exclusive to pressure flanges to ASME B16.5 design code, between which a
containment applications; they can be applied to bolted gasket is compressed by the installed bolting. Similar
joints subjected to other service conditions such as arrangements are used for other codes such as API 6A,
fatigue, vibration and structural loading. BS 1560 and MSS SP 44. The piping material
The flanged joint is deceptively simple yet, in specification will detail the codes and materials to
common with the welded joint, its integrity relies on a construct the facility.
number of parameters including the basic design, The principle of a bolted joint is based on the
structural and metallurgical quality of its components bolting delivering sufficient joint compression and
and achieving the required design clamp force on gasket seating stress to withstand maximum service
assembly. Important to meeting these assembled design pressure and forces. This is when the bolting is under
objectives is the selection of suitable installation tensile load as illustrated in Figure 2.1. For integrity a
procedures and tools that are applied by competent minimum level of operational gasket seating stress must
operators. be maintained throughout joint service, therefore the
The importance of planning the joint assembly, design bolt load/compression target on installation
preparation of all components, procedures, tooling and should allow for creep, relaxation, uncertainty over
ensuring application of the correct methodology is service loadings and the tolerances of components and
essential. tools used.

Figure 2.1: Working principle of bolted flange joints
2.2.2 Compact flanges 2.2.3 Clamped connectors
Various types of compact flanges have been developed Clamped connectors (see Figure 2.2) use a split clamp
by specialist manufacturers. Some use gasket to join the pipe. Hubs at the ends of the pipe have
arrangements similar to the metallic ring joint whereas tapered shoulders sloping towards the joint and the
others use metal to metal, gasketless contact and the clamps have tapered faces, which form a wedging
joint becomes a static entity with minimal flange action to close the two hubs together. The hubs have
rotation potential. Such compact flanges tend to be internal sloping faces which bear on taper ring gaskets,
characterised by the sealing area being positioned closer causing them to be distorted elastically and form a seal.
to the pipe bore thereby reducing bolt and working load
eccentricity and subsequent end load on the bolts. This
is a preferred bolted joint design feature and can result 2.3 BOLTED PIPE JOINT COMPONENTS
in smaller, lighter flange sizes and a reduction in bolt
diameter, quantity or strength grade. The design 2.3.1 Flanges and clamped connectors
philosophy can vary from type to type so the
manufacturer should always be consulted for advice on Like pipes, flanges and clamped connectors operate
joint sealing, design bolt tension and installation under varying conditions of temperature and pressure.
procedures. The most critical area on a flange or clamped connector
is its sealing face, on which the gasket or seal ring seats
to form a pressure retaining seal (see Figure 2.3 on
page 7). It is therefore imperative that the sealing face’s
Hub
surface finish complies with the design specification or
Clamp the manufacturer’s recommendations. It must be
protected at all times and free from damage, grease and
protective coatings.
Seal On ASME B16.5 type flanges, the nut seating area
ring at the back of the flange must be clean and of a smooth
finish to reduce friction unless stated in the
manufacturer’s specification. Flanges, blinds and flange
facings should be in accordance with the relevant flange
code or manufacturer’s proprietary requirements.
Flanges are marked to identify the size, pressure
rating and flange material, as shown in Figure 2.4 on
Figure 2.2: Clamped connector page 7. The pipe schedule used with the flange should

BOLTED JOINT TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE
also be marked. Corresponding bolts and nuts also carry the double jacketed gasket is intended to go against
material identification marking. These should conform this face; this is an important assembly feature.
to the relevant fastener specification.
— Kammprofile
2.3.2 Gaskets and seal rings This is a solid metal ring having a serrated tooth
form profile on both faces. A covering layer of
Correct gasket or seal ring selection and installation are graphite or PTFE is applied which compresses into
important and only those specified in the piping material the serrated surface as the gasket is loaded. These
specification should be installed. The gasket creates the are used increasingly for heat exchanger flanges
seal between the two flange faces and contains the (see Figure 2.5 on page 7).
internal pressure of the joint.
As with flanges, gaskets and seals can be marked to 2.3.2.3 Metallic
identify principal characteristics, as shown in Figure 2.5 These are made from one or a combination of metals in
on Page 7. a variety of shapes and sizes for high temperature and
There are three main types of gasket: non-metallic, pressure usage. The metal ring fits into grooves that
semi-metallic and metallic. Application selection is have been machined into the flange faces. Due to the
dependent on service conditions. high application pressures, the seating stresses and
corresponding bolt tension are necessarily large to give
2.3.2.1 Non-metallic sufficient deformation to overcome flange surface
These are made from elastomers, cork, compressed imperfections and distort against the groove surfaces so
fibres, plate minerals and PTFE. Usually the material as to overcome high service pressures. Oval and
sheet is cut to the shape of the flange sealing face. They octagonal types (see Figure 2.7 on page 7) are
are generally used for low to moderate pressures and commonly used in oil and gas applications under ASME
temperatures and see wide chemical service including B16.20 and API 6A. RX rings are perceived to be self-
acid and alkaline applications. energising whilst the BX type are designed to fit into a
recess that allows metal to metal contact when the
2.3.2.2. Semi-metallic flanges are tightened.
These combine a combination of non-metallic filler for
compressibility and metal for strength. They are 2.3.2.4 Specific seal rings
typically used for higher temperature and pressure These will be found on proprietary equipment
applications compared to the non-metallic types. manufacturers’ joints and should be assembled and
Common types include: tightened in accordance with the manufacturer’s
specification.
— Spiral wound
These gaskets are constructed with spirally wound 2.3.2.5 All gaskets
metal and soft filler (see Figure 2.6 on page 7). A Gaskets and seal rings should be suitable for their
wide range of metals can be used for the winding intended operating conditions and be capable of
strip and support rings as well as various filler providing a seal under the varying loads imposed by
materials. On raised face flanges, the gaskets have fluctuations in pressure and temperature. Depending
an outer support ring which locates inside the bolt upon the application, the main requirements are any or
PCD. They can also be supplied with an inner ring all of the following:
for higher pressure system usage. The inner ring is
also used where high process flow rates or abrasive — Hardness and compressibility.
media are found; the inner ring reduces turbulence — Flexibility.
at the pipe bore. On spigot or recess flanges a — Resistance to heat.
simple sealing element gasket is used with no — Resistance to pressure.
additional support rings. — Resistance to corrosive action.
— Metal jacketed Under no circumstances should gasket compound or

These clad gaskets have been traditionally used on grease be applied to the gasket or flange faces. Note that
heat exchangers. A variety of metals can be used to for some clamp connectors, the manufacturers
encase a soft filler material. It should be noted that recommend that the seal ring be lubricated.
some heat exchanger flanges have stress raising Gaskets and seal rings should be:
'nubbins' on one face and the non-seamed face of — Stored in their original packing until required.

— Kept horizontal and flat. The number of reuses and subsequent life of the
— Where applicable, left on their individual backing bolt should be based on the level of assurance provided
boards until immediately prior to fitting. by the tightening methodology selected. Greater
reusability and longest service life will be provided
Specific difficulties can arise with insulating gasket sets where the bolt tension requirement is assured by using
and appropriate precautions should be taken if these are a load control measurement system with the selected
to be used. tightening tool. If the bolt is suspected of being
overloaded or yielded during a previous installation, it
2.3.3 Bolting should never be reused.
Correct bolt selection, procurement and installation are

crucial and only the bolt type as specified in the 2.4 PRINCIPLES OF JOINT ASSEMBLY AND
equipment material specification should be installed. DISASSEMBLY
On ASME B16.5 type flanges, for example, the
bolts are designed to carry pressure end load at the 2.4.1 Identification of joint and selection of
gasket and also provide the load required to compress correct components
the gasket into the flange face in order to effect a seal.
Bolt diameters and lengths are specified in the Ensure the correct materials are available, matching
relevant flange code and should also be stated on the those detailed in the piping specification, including:
fabrication/erection detail drawing. Bolt lengths may
have been increased to allow for bolt tensioning — Flanges of correct size, type, material and rating.
equipment, or spades, spacers, drip rings and wafer — Bolts of correct size, material, and length for
valves, and the associated extra gaskets. Although the flange and tightening method.
amount of specified bolt protrusion may vary there must — Nuts of correct grade and size.
be sufficient protrusion for full thread engagement. — Correct thread lubricant.
Many specifications call for a protrusion length of three — Correct gasket is available.
thread pitches through the nut. Where hydraulic
tensioners are used a minimum of one bolt diameter 2.4.2 Inspect the components and flange faces
must protrude through the nut to enable safe and
effective tensioner operation. Ensure that:
The bolt and nut grades and manufacturer’s
identification should be stamped on both and should be — Components and flange faces are clean and
correctly identified before they are used (see Figure 2.8 undamaged and of the correct surface finish.
on page 7). They should both be in compliance with the — Nuts and bolts are clean and free running but not
equipment material specification. The selected fastener sloppy on threads.
material and diameter must provide sufficient elastic or — Gaskets are clean and free of damage.
yield strength capacity to safely sustain the design load
requirement, service bolt loads and any compensatory 2.4.3 Assemble the components
overloads needed from the tightening method.
Coatings such as hot dipped galvanising and PTFE Components should be assembled in accordance with
should also comply with the appropriate coating the procedure relevant to the joint type and
standard. Bolts with different coatings should not be specification, and the tightening method to be used.
used on the same flange joint.
Bolts, nuts and washers used for joint make-up Ensure that:
should be clean, rust free and undamaged. Fasteners can
be considered for reuse after considering their service — Bolts are lubricated on threads.
history, operating environment and original risk — Nuts to be tightened are lubricated on the spot
assessment. Any service coating must be in good faces.
condition and still provide 100% fastener surface — Bolts are set correctly in the flange to allow for the
coverage. This is especially important for correct thread protrusion and fitting of tools.
PTFE/Organic barrier coatings. Section 7 provides — Gasket is centred correctly.
guidance on in-service inspection.

Figure 2.3: Example of flange face configuration
Figure 2.4: Flange identification markings
Figure 2.5: Kammprofile gasket with Figure 2.6: Schematic of typical spiral
Ident and class marking wound gasket
Figure 2.7: Type R octagonal ring type joint Figure 2.8: Stud point and nut showing
identification markings

2.4.4 Alignment The following precautions should be taken when

breaking a joint:
Flanges should align initially in the un-stressed
condition without any external forces applied unless 1. Ensure beyond all doubt that the line or piece of
stipulated within the design (e.g. cold spring). ASME equipment being worked upon has been correctly
Piping Code B31.3 (1999 Edition) 335.1.1(c) stipulates isolated and vented to atmospheric pressure, and
that flange faces shall be aligned within 1 mm in 200 flushed and purged if appropriate.
mm measured across any diameter, and flange bolt 2. Ensure that all safety precautions and work permit
holes should be aligned within 3 mm maximum offset instructions are in place and are strictly adhered to.
(see Figure 2.9). However, this is considered to be a 3. Take a position upwind of the flange whenever
maximum and best practice is to use half this tolerance, possible. Never stand in line radially with the
thereby making the alignment tolerance 0,5 mm in 200 flange face. Release the bolt furthest away,
mm. In general, because of the many variables involved, allowing any residual pressure of gas or liquid to
company standards should be set as to allowable blow away from you. Do not remove the nut and
misalignment, but large forces should be avoided. It is bolt at this stage.
recognised that misalignment greater than that specified 4. Continue to release the remaining flange nuts, but
here, particularly on pipework connected to non-load- do not separate them from the bolts until the flange
sensitive equipment, may be acceptable. joint has been fully broken.
However, pulling the flanges into position could
cause unacceptable loads and deflections in other parts Note: It could be the fifth or sixth bolt to be released
of the system, and means that bolt load is being used to before the seal is broken.
pull the flanges together instead of to compress the
gasket. If additional force greater than can be applied by CAUTION: For pressure energised seals on compact
a single person is required, where flange misalignment flanges or hub connectors, care must be taken that the
or pulling together is excessive or outside the company joint is released before removing the bolts. Personnel
standards, or where considerable loads are required to should also be aware of the risk of pipe spring or sudden
correct the misalignment, then the appointed Technical movement as bolt loads are released.
Authority should be consulted and the outcome
recorded.
2.5 CONTROLLED TIGHTENING
2.4.5 Breakout OF JOINTS
Before tightening of the joint is considered, it is The objective of any tightening is to achieve a correct
necessary to consider breakout. It may be that the joint and uniform clamping force in the joint. The operator
has already been assembled and tightened before, for needs to know the bolt load or bolt stress value required
example as part of a test programme during irrespective of what parameter he will be measuring
construction, or the joint is being opened as part of a during the tightening cycle. He also needs to know the
maintenance programme after a period in service. tightening methodology selected.
1 mm
3 mm
1 mm
Angular offset Centre-line offset
Figure 2.9: Alignment tolerances

The bolt load or stress will have been calculated to Lubricant must be properly applied to 'working'
be suitable for the joint and its service conditions. These surfaces only. This includes the bolt threads and the
details should be obtained from the record and data bearing faces of the nuts.
management system for the site (see Section 5). Any
changes in the flange system such as its size, type and 2.5.1.2 Tightening
material could change the bolt stress requirement and Torque tightening should be carried out sequentially, in
subsequent selection fastener material/diameter stages to 100% of specified full torque, using the cross-
selection. Similarly any gasket change could also bolt tightening method. Typically three stages of 30%,
change the design bolt load. Any such changes must be 60% and 100% are used. It is important that the flange
checked with a Technical Authority. is brought together evenly to prevent overloading of the
Hot dip galvanised bolting could change the thread gasket at any point and this should be monitored at all
dimensions and this should be considered when times during the process. Once the first 100% level has
selecting the correct tensioner or torque tool. been achieved a check pass should then be carried out
On completion of tightening, the joint should be on all bolts using a clockwise pass to ensure all bolts are
tagged and details recorded in accordance with the site’s at the final torque level. If a bolt load assurance system
records and data management system. is used then the final tightening cycle or check is
The following points are specific to the relevant measured by bolt load. It is possible that the use of a
tightening technique. bolt load assurance method can reduce the number of
intermediate, pre-torque cycles.
2.5.1 Torquing specific considerations The joint will continue to settle under load and
the number of passes at 100% will be influenced by the
2.5.1.1 Lubricant type of joint and its gasket type. For example, cut
Regardless of the torque tool used, lubricant has a gaskets and most ring type joints can be considered as
significant effect on the achieved bolt load or stress for 'soft' joints whereas metallic gaskets such as spiral
a given torque. A known good quality lubricant, suitable wound types can be considered as 'hard' joints. A soft
for service and of proven coefficient of friction must be joint may require more torque passes to reach the
used. It is recommended that where possible sites adopt required bolt load in all bolts.
a single lubricant policy; this avoids the opportunity for Figure 2.10 shows cross bolt torque tightening
confusion. sequences from ASME PCC1.
Extra care needs to be taken with high friction
surface coatings.
8 1 16 1
8 9
4 1
12 5
4 5
4
4 Bolt 8 Bolt 16 Bolt 13
Flange Flange 14 Flange 3

6 3
6 11
2 3
2 10 7
7 2 15
Figure 2.10: Cross bolt torque tightening sequence

2.5.2 Hydraulic tensioning specific considerations
2.5.2.1 Key requirements

Hydraulic tensioning involves the use of a number of
tensioners simultaneously to tighten a joint. The number
of tensioners and passes must be known to determine
operating pressures. When tensioning, it is important to
ensure that the correct bolt tensioning procedure is used
in order to obtain a secure and long-lasting leak-free
joint. Usually bolts are tensioned in alternate phases
using specified hydraulic pressures, taking into account
the load loss factor. In high risk joints where a load
control system is used a more streamlined procedure is
possible.
Flanges should be checked for squareness after
each tensioning phase. Confirm the bolt load with a
break loose/check pass. Where load control systems are
used this basic check is not required.
Bolt lengths need to be increased by one bolt
Figure 2.11: Use of multiple torque tools diameter distance to accommodate the hydraulic jack.
Hot dip galvanised bolting could change the thread
dimensions and this should be considered when
2.5.1.3 Use of multiple torque tools selecting the correct tensioning tool. This should be
Multiple torque tools can be used on a joint to help notified to the tensioning company at an early stage.
flange faces keep parallel during the tightening process.
As with hydraulic tensioners, the use of multiple tools 2.5.2.2 Tensioning pattern or cover
can also reduce the effects of elastic interaction causing Ideally tensioning should be applied simultaneously to
variation in the residual bolt load achieved. The use of all studs in one operation. Where this is not possible,
multiple tools can also increase joint assembly speed. tensioning should be applied in phases using two
In a typical application four torque tools are different pressures, followed by a break loose/check
connected to a hydraulic pump and arranged evenly pass, as shown in Figure 2.12. Where a load assurance
spaced around the joint as shown in Figure 2.11. When system is used the break loose/check pass is not
these bolts are tightened, the tools are then moved to the necessary.
bolts that lie equidistant between the previous tool
positions, should there be an odd number of bolts
between the tools. When there is an even number of 2.6 BOLTED JOINT RELIABILITY
bolts between the tools, the bolts that are nearest the
equidistant location are tightened next. On the first pass, 2.6.1 Reliability factors
typically 30% of the final torque is applied to the bolts.
This first cycle is important in pulling flange faces The reliability of a bolted joint is dependent on three
parallel and achieving satisfactory gasket seating. key factors:
The tightening procedures are dependent upon the
individual supplier of the equipment. An example of a — Joint/flange design and calculated bolt load.
procedure is for 50% of the bolts to be tightened in the — Joint component quality.
first pass followed by a second pass in which all the — Correctly assembled and installed design bolt load.
bolts are tightened to full torque. A third checking pass
is then made to ensure that the effects of elastic These three factors are critical to joint reliability.
interaction are minimised. However the methodology Measure and control these factors and bolted joint
may vary for differing vendors and therefore the reliability is assured.
procedures must be checked with the supplier. Once the bolt design load objective has been
Where space permits and when there are sufficient established the operator needs to consider the criticality
tools and equipment available, it is possible for all bolts of the joint in terms of operating pressures, process
to be tightened simultaneously to their final torque value fluids and health and safety. This will determine the
thereby eliminating the need for intermediate steps. level of assurance required on installed bolt load, and
10

A B
A B
A B
A B
1st Pass at Pressure ‘A’ 2nd Pass at Pressure ‘B’
Figure 2.12: Tension tightening sequence
selection of tightening control methodology to achieve capacity of all joint components – bolt, gasket and
the design objective. flange – is also an important assessment to avoid
The design of the joint is outside the remit of this overloading and damage from the tightening forces used
document; however, it is intended to provide a in achieving the residual design load and subsequent
management system that can gather the correct service loads. Calculation methods based on VDI 2230
information from the design specification and apply (Systematic calculation of high duty bolted joints) take
techniques, procedures and systems, to manage the joint into account these different loading conditions. One
in line with design objectives. The following notes are such design code, EN1591 (Flanges and their joints.
provided for information on that basis. Design rules for gasketed circular flange connections.
Calculation method), is specific to pressure-containing
2.6.2 Bolt load calculations flanged joints but certain gasket performance data are
required from the gasket manufacturers for the
It is crucial that the design bolt load required to seal the calculation. Gasket manufacturers also provide design
joint has been calculated using an approved method and bolt loads for various standard flange ratings based on
is known prior to joint installation. The value for each the gasket performance data.
joint and the source of the value should be recorded in
the site’s record and data management system. This 2.6.3 Bolt tightening
facilitates consistency and traceability and allows
conscious decisions to be made regarding bolt load The purpose of tightening a bolt is to stretch the bolt
should an issue arise with a joint. (like a spring) within its elastic limit such that in trying
The recognised codes generally provide a method to return to its original size it imparts a clamping force
for calculation based on operating conditions such as on the flange.
pressure and temperature. The most frequently used Bolted joints can be tightened by a number of
code is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. It techniques. Torsional based methods range from the
is relatively simplistic in predicting gasket performance. simplest low cost spanners through to impact, manual
The latter is an important factor and it has been and hydraulic wrenches. These apply a torsional force
recognised that more realistic and definitive gasket to generate tensile loading in the bolt. Bolt tensioners
performance data are required. Both in USA and Europe are different in that the bolt is loaded by applying a
gasket testing is being conducted, the results of which direct axial tensile force with hydraulic jacks to stretch
will be incorporated into an updated ASME code in the the bolt. Some of this stretch is then captured by the
future. turning down of the permanent nut. A mechanical
There are other service loads acting upon the joint variation on this method uses torque tightened small
which can be just as significant as the internal pressure. diameter screws going through the flange’s load bearing
Transverse vibration, axial cyclic fatigue and structural nut and reacting against a jacking washer, thereby
loading all come into play. The joint can also suffer tensioning the bolt.
relaxation or increase in compression dependent on None of these systems directly measures the
component materials and temperature. The strength achieved bolt load. However steps can be taken to
11

improve correlation between actual residual bolt load system. Torque values for particular bolt sizes can be
achieved and the tightening system’s power input of found within specific operators’ standards or, in the case
torque or initial hydraulic pressure. Robust procedures, of proprietary manufacturers’ connectors, from their
well maintained, calibrated tooling and the use of catalogue or from approved bolting service providers.
competent operating personnel help improve the When selecting values great care must be taken to
correlation. ensure that the same lubricant or anti-seize compound
Totally uncontrolled tightening with spanners is not is used as stated in the data sheet from the management
a preferred option for tightening any size of bolt. system. The actual lubricant friction factor must be
However, where a risk assessment identifies a recorded. Many sites find it advantageous to specify one
significant risk and where a superior tightening method lubricant for all bolt torquing operations. Elastic
is not possible, e.g. in a space too restricted for torque interactions in the joint can significantly affect the
or tensioning equipment, spanners can be used with a residual bolt load achieved through torque tightening.
load control system. These effects can be reduced by simultaneously
tightening a number of bolts in the joint with multiple
2.6.3.1 Torque tightening torque tools similar to hydraulic tensioning
Torque control methods such as impact wrenches have methodology. This procedure is detailed in 2.5.1.3.
far less load control than hydraulic wrenches. For the
smaller bolts (< 1", M24) calibrated and maintained 2.6.3.3 Hydraulic tensioners
hand torque wrenches will generally provide good When joint conditions are favourable and all bolts in a
practice for controlled torque tightening. joint are tightened simultaneously, hydraulic tensioners
The variation in a torque reading and the resultant can provide a consistent bolt tension. Whilst the bolt
bolt load is dependent on many factors e.g: tension, or preload, is known through the hydraulic
pressure applied, the residual bolt load at the end of the
— Friction in the fastener mating interfaces. tightening cycle is subject to the amount of relaxation
— Fastener quality e.g. nicks, thread laps, general that occurs on load transfer. The latter depends on a
damage etc. number of factors, some joint related, some tool related
— Tolerances in bolt, nut and flange dimensions. and others 'fitter' related, e.g:
— Tolerances in bolt, nut and flange material and
mechanical properties. — Tolerances in bolt, nut, flange and gasket material
— Operator competence. properties.
— Accuracy of the torque application device. — Tolerances in bolt, nut, flange and gasket
— Bolt diameter. dimensions.
— Surface coatings and lubrication. — Operator skill and control of technique.
— Load loss factors during the process.
Great care has to be taken in evaluating the frictional — Calibration of pressure gauges.
conditions and resultant friction factor used in the — Correctly maintained tensioning system.
torque tension equation to improve the reliability in
correlation between torque and bolt load. The choice of Two specific types of load loss factors to be considered
lubricant, surface coating and fastener quality can when calculating the required level of compensatory
improve the torque/ bolt load variation. One new hydraulic overload pressurisation are Tool Load Loss
hydraulic torque system uses a hardened washer Factor (TLLF) and Flange Load Loss Factor (FLLF).
introduced under the load bearing nut such that its TLLF occurs in all tensioning cases, whereas FLLF
design provides system reaction and reduces bending does not occur in 100% tensioning.
stresses associated with traditional torque reaction
against the adjacent bolt or joint structure. The washer — Tool Load Loss Factor
has a specially prepared bearing surface that is intended
to improve friction consistency, in the nut bearing When the load is applied to the tensioner it stretches the
interface face, and bolt load variation. bolt and lifts the permanent nut clear of the surface.
Whilst the load is held by the tensioner the nut is then
2.6.3.2 Torquing process turned back against the flange surface. When the
It is vital to ensure that the correct bolt torque figures tensioner pressure is released the load transfers from the
are available prior to making up a flange joint. These tensioner to the threads of the nut. In taking up the load
should be stored along with the source of the bolt load the threads deflect resulting in a loss of load. This factor
calculation in the site’s record and data management is allowed for in the calculation of applied load.
12

Note: This means that with hydraulic tensioning a and for ensuring that tools are used by personnel
higher load than the residual design load should always competent and trained in their use. Such procedures
be applied. should be specific to the equipment employed.
— Flange Load Loss Factor 2.6.5 Load control systems – Assured bolt load
Flange Load Loss Factor only occurs when less than The selection of control of installed bolt load through
100% tensioner coverage is used. torque, hydraulic pressure or direct through a load
When using only 50% cover (e.g. eight tensioners control system, should be dependent on the risk
on a 16 bolt flange) when the second pass is applied, the assessment. Assured bolt load provides assured joint
gasket undergoes further compression, effectively reliability assuming the design and component quality
relieving some of the load in the bolts tightened by the and assembly are also assured.
first pass. By tightening the first pass to a higher load, Selection of an appropriate tightening methodology
i.e. adding on FLLF, the need for more than one pass at with bolt load assurance will provide the minimum risk.
the second pass pressure can be avoided. Risk increases if bolt load assurance is not provided.
It should be noted that when two passes are used It is recommended that any load control system is
the combination of FLLF and TLLF may mean that the 100% load test calibrated to ensure all bolts tightened in
applied bolt stress is greater than the yield stress of the the joint are loaded correctly and to the system’s
bolt. An alternative technique such as multiple passes at assured accuracy tolerance.
the second pass or pass B pressures may then be Several techniques are commercially available to
required. control and assure bolt load, as set out below.
Careful use of load factor curves to predict the
above factors and realistic selection of the system for 2.6.5.1 Direct length measurement
short, medium and long grip length joints can improve This method uses mechanical extensometry to measure
the correlation between compensatory overload the bolt extension. Accuracy is dependent on the level
pressurisation and the residual design load target. As of physical load test calibration carried out. A readily
indicated above, the number of jacks selected for the available technique is the indicating rod bolt type. A rod
tightening can improve the load transfer relaxation is inserted into a drill hole in the bolt that runs the
situation, particularly with respect to joint elasticity fastener’s complete length. The rod is anchored at the
effects. opposite end to where the measurement takes place. At
the measuring end a precise datum face is machined
2.6.3.4 Tensioning process leaving the rod end flush with the bolt face. Relative
The hydraulic tensioning values needed to achieve the displacement of the rod compared to the bolt face is
residual design load derived from 2.6.2 should be measured and calibrated against bolt load by physical
obtained from the record and data management system. load test.
Tool pressures must be specific to the tool used. The
bolt tensioning operation must be carried out in 2.6.5.2 Ultrasonic direct length measurement
accordance with the tension equipment manufacturer’s This method determines the stress by measuring the
specified procedure and the load loss factors should be time of flight of an acoustic pulse travelling from one
recorded. Ideally tensioning should be applied end of the stud or bolt to the other. The time will vary
simultaneously to all studs in one operation. Where this depending on the extension and the stress in the stud or
is not possible, tensioning should be applied in phases bolt. The monitored time is proportional to the bolt
using two different pressures as described 2.5.2.2. extension and stress and can be converted to provide an
output as a bolt tension or stress as required. The pulse
2.6.4 Equipment and tools is generated by a hand-held processing unit and is
independent of the tightening method.
In order to improve flange integrity and safety in Accuracy is dependent on precise datum faces
operation, it is important that pneumatic and hydraulic machined at each end of the fastener, the level of
torque/tensioning equipment meets the required physical bolt load/extension load testing carried out and
specification and is maintained and calibrated as a operator skill. It is recommended that only skilled
minimum on an annual basis or more often if operatives are used to carry out this technique. 100%
circumstances warrant it. Gauges should be calibrated load test calibration can provide accuracy results similar
prior to extended use. to mechanical methods. Calibration by calculation only
There should be clearly defined procedures stating provides the least degree of accuracy.
who is responsible for ensuring that tools are calibrated
13

2.6.5.3 Load monitoring sensors Pressure testing should be carried out to a documented
There are several load monitoring sensors commercially procedure which complies with the HSE Guidance Note
available. These include capacitance, fibre optic and GS4 'Safety in pressure testing'. Additional guidance
strain gauge techniques that take the form of sensor can be found in the OCA 'Guidance Notes of Good
inserts placed into a converted bolt. Another type is the Contracting Practice – Pressure Testing'.
compression load cell that fits like a washer under the
nut or bolt head. One load cell monitors any change in 2.7.1.1 Standard pressure (strength) test
the nut face stress using an amorphous material. Other On newly constructed or installed pipework and
types use strain gauges in the cell structure. pressure equipment, company standards will normally
Signals from all types of sensors can be read by a conform to a relevant design code such as ASME
hand-held device or hard-wired logging systems; they B31.3. The objective of a strength test is to prove the
have future potential for remote signal monitoring. The quality of materials and construction of the equipment
sensors are particularly useful where there is a need to before it enters service or re-enters service following
continuously monitor bolt load in service. significant repair. This test is carried out at a specified
pressure above the design pressure – detailed within the
2.6.5.4 Mechanical load indicating bolts relevant design code.
These comprise standard bolts converted to monitor bolt Pressures are typically 1,25 to 1,5 times the design
load. The bolt has a pin with a rotor attached, anchored pressure for hydrostatic tests or 1,1 times for pneumatic
in an axial drill hole. The rotor air gap is set to rotate testing.
freely until a specified bolt load is achieved. The This is a strength test of the system and whilst it
indicator is enclosed in a protective cap. Simple finger will indicate some issues with joints it does not provide
feel of this cap determines bolt load status. Tension is assurance of the integrity or in-service reliability of the
indicated at make-up and throughout the life of the joint. bolted joint.
Variations of this technique include a dual indicating
maximum/minimum load range system as well as a 2.7.1.2 Leak test
visual indication system. Leak testing may be carried out on equipment prior to
strength testing. In this case, testing should be limited
to a pressure not exceeding:
2.7 INTEGRITY TESTING — 10% of design pressure.
The combination of the procedures and processes Leak testing is normally carried out on equipment in
recommended in this document together with order to prove the integrity of joints disturbed after a
appropriate testing prior to going on line and in-service strength test has been successfully completed or during
inspection programmes described in Section 7 will subsequent maintenance work. In this case, testing
provide the highest level of assurance. Testing is not a should be limited to a pressure not exceeding:
substitute for correct assembly and controlled
tightening. It should be standard practice to assemble — 110% of design pressure, or
and control-tighten joints correctly the first time to — 90% of relief valve set pressure if still in place and
eliminate rework and minimise downtime. un-gagged.
2.7.1 Levels of pressure testing NB – on older equipment, the strength test is likely to
have been carried out several years earlier.
Once the joint has been tightened and certified, and
details recorded in the record and data management 2.7.1.3 Service test
system, the joint should be subject to an integrity test A service test is one which is normally carried out on a
prior to going into service. The level of testing is joint where it has not been possible or practicable to
determined by the operator and will normally comprise carry out a leak test first. Service tests are carried out
one or more of the following: with the pressure system in service, normally during
start-up. The test is normally carried out (but not
— Standard pressure (strength) test. necessarily always) at maximum normal operating
— Leak test. pressure using the process fluid as the test medium,
— Service test. supplemented by water or inert gas from an external
— Functional test. source if necessary. The scope of service testing is to
demonstrate joint integrity for any joints where leak
14

testing is not reasonably practicable, i.e. witness joints. configuration of the system, and the hazards associated
with the introduction of high pressure testing equipment
2.7.1.4 Functional test would be greater than the hazards associated with
This test is normally carried out at the working pressure service testing.
using a suitable test medium. Its objective is to ensure Where this method is proposed it should only be
that the equipment and its components function properly carried out in accordance with a company procedure for
e.g. valve cycling. service testing and a written justification must be
recorded and a risk assessment carried out.
2.7.1.5 Testing mediums
Hydraulic test mediums (incompressible fluids) are 2.7.2 Test recording
commonly treated water, glycol or diesel. These have
low stored energy; however, there can be material The type of test, specification and acceptable leakage
compatibility issues which require consideration e.g. rate criteria should be determined and documented by
chlorides on stainless steel. the operator based on the criticality assessment already
Pneumatic test mediums (compressible fluids) are carried out on the joint to determine the assembly and
commonly nitrogen with a helium trace, air or steam. tightening assurance specification.
Results of tests should be recorded in the record
Safety Note and data management system.
Strength testing is almost always carried out using
liquids (hydrostatic or hydraulic testing). Although 2.7.3 Witnessed joints and reverse integrity
pressure testing using a liquid is not without risk, it is testing
by far the safer method and should be used wherever
practicable. Pressure testing using air, steam or gas Where joints have no means of isolation to allow leak
(pneumatic testing) is more dangerous because of the testing of the installed joint, such as the last connection
higher energy levels involved. on an open flare line, or where a large number of joints
The energy released during a total failure of makes it impracticable or unreliable to conduct a leak
equipment containing compressed air can be up to 200 test, the operator should regard this as a higher risk joint
times the energy released by the same test if water was in his criticality assessment and therefore consider a
used as the test medium. Pneumatic strength testing number of additional steps including:
should never be carried out using flammable gas.
Pneumatic leak testing to 10% of design pressure — Witnessing assembly of the joint.
can be used to find small but significant leaks in — Witnessing controlled tightening of the joint.
equipment which will contain flammable gases and/or — Applying a load assurance system to assure the
liquids. required bolt tension has been achieved.
Caution should also be taken when carrying out — Using a reverse integrity test using a proprietary
hydrostatic testing at low ambient temperatures (<7°C) gasket. This is based on the principle of
to avoid the risk of brittle fracture. pressurising the annular space above and below the
Refer to the HSE Guidance Note GS4 'Safety in seal ring using a test gas, usually nitrogen.
pressure testing' and the associated research report for
further details. Witnessed joints should be highlighted in the record and
data management system, including the results of any
2.7.1.6 Testing using process fluid or gas tests or witness inspections.
For process hydrocarbons systems, although it is not the
preferred means of testing, under certain conditions it 2.7.4 Joint failure during integrity testing
may be considered appropriate to carry out testing with
the service fluid rather than with water, nitrogen or Where a joint fails an integrity test, then applying more
some other medium. This should only be considered bolt load alone is not the answer. Investigation and
where it can be clearly demonstrated that it is analysis in accordance with the measures described in
impractical to carry out leak testing due to the Section 6 should be carried out.
15

16

3
CRITICALITY ASSESSMENT
3.1 INTRODUCTION safety and environmental aspects of the local and distant
environment.
There is a variety of bolted joints involved in For onshore, this will often be part of the Control of
pressurised systems, ranging from low pressure joints Major Accident Hazard (COMAH) assessment for the
containing water or compressed air to high pressure site.
joints containing steam, hydrocarbons or explosive or For offshore, Safety Case, PFEER and Pipeline
poisonous gases. Although every joint should be Safety Regulations will apply. The UK Health and
designed and installed to safely contain the pressure and Safety Executive OIR/12 database contains useful
contents specified, it is logical that joints at higher information to enable offshore industry operators to
pressure or with hazardous contents will require develop their risk assessment.
additional vigilance due to the potential consequences Risk may also occur with joints containing
of failure. harmless fluids e.g. water, which would damage
The criticality of a joint may have an effect on a building fabric or product, or risk interaction with
number of areas addressed in the management system electrical installations if they leaked.
including: There are a number of areas which will affect the
criticality of the joint. These can be grouped as follows:
— Choice of tightening method.
— Choice of personnel assembling and tightening the 3.2.1 Leak potential
joint.
— Level of bolt load assurance. One method of determining the criticality of a joint is to
— Level of records and data stored against the joint. consider the potential for a leak. The potential for a leak
— Level of inspection and testing prior to entering will increase with:
into service.
— Level of testing and inspection in service. — Process and test pressures.
— Cyclical load.
— Vibration load.
3.2 ASSESSING THE RISKS WITH — Low temperature.
BOLTED JOINTS — High process temperature.
— Structural load.
The level of risk will primarily be based on the service — Corrosive environment.
conditions the bolted joint is exposed to, along with the — Aggressive environment.
impact any release would have on the operational, — Unknown conditions of any sort.
17

3.2.2 Service fluid 3.2.4 Local factors
The contents of the pressure system have a major effect Local factors must always be considered when assessing
on the criticality of the joint and should be considered a joint’s criticality. Table 3.1 describes some of the
in determining the level of inspection, control and factors which may occur at individual joint level.
testing applied to the joint. A joint’s criticality will
increase if the contained service is: 3.2.5 Joint criticality rating
— Hydrocarbon. The criticality of the joint is shown in Table 3.2. The

— Corrosive. criticality level can be determined by considering all of
— Explosive. the factors identified in 3.2.1 to 3.2.4. The operator
— Poisonous or noxious. should use the level of criticality to set standards and
— Radioactive. specifications for:
— High temperature.
— Environmental contaminant. — Joints which will be included in the management
— Expensive. system.
— The level of inspection and assurance at assembly
Such joints would often be viewed as at least of medium stage.
criticality. — The level of personnel who will control tighten the
joints.
3.2.3 Loss potential — The control tightening method.
— The level and method of bolt load assurance.
The criticality may also increase if loss of the service — The level of inspection during the controlled
would render the plant inoperable. For example a fire tightening stage.
service line, although having safe contents, would cause — The type and level of integrity test prior to entering
a plant shutdown if inoperable. Similarly a cooling into service.
water system for a computer plant could be highly — The type and level of in-service inspection.
critical.
The loss potential may also increase with pipe size
and the area through which it runs.
Table 3.1: Local factors
Factor Problem
Vibration or slug flow If severe may cause joint to loosen
Cyclic temperature If severe may cause joint to loosen
Substitute materials to those in Compatibility not guaranteed
Piping Specification
Local joint history If this individual joint is misaligned or difficult to close, or if this type of
joint is problematic on this site
Untested joints Cannot be leak tested prior to start-up (e.g. tie-in points)
Vendor package joints Often assembled and tightened to vendor’s system, outside of asset
system
Exception on joint Flange face marked, piping load, history of leakage with root cause
unidentified
18

CRITICALITY ASSESSMENT
Table 3.2: Joint criticality – Examples of criteria used and controls applied
Joint Criticality Controls

— Joint identified and recorded in database
— Assembly not witnessed but carried out to a procedure by trained and competent
contractor
Low — Bolt loads taken from database
— Controlled tightening applied by use of hand torque wrench or torque wrench
— Tightening carried out by competent personnel (see Section 4)
— Integrity test by local arrangement
— In-service testing includes visual inspection
— Joint identified and recorded in database
— Assembly witnessed or a sample of joints witnessed and carried out to a procedure
by trained and competent personnel
— Bolt loads taken from database
— Controlled tightening applied by use of hand or hydraulic torque wrench or tensioner
Medium by competent personnel
— A sample of joints witnessed by specialist personnel
— Integrity test may include nitrogen helium or similar
— In-service testing in accordance with the techniques described in
Section 7
— Consider use of load assurance
— Joints uniquely identified in database and identified as High criticality
— Assembly by specialist contractor or witnessed by specialist contractor
— Controlled tightening using hydraulic tensioner or hydraulic wrench with load
High assurance system by specialist personnel
— Integrity test using nitrogen helium or similar prior to entering into service
— In-service inspection at higher level in accordance with the techniques described in
Section 7
3.2.6 Sample risk assessment selections effective procedure than tensioning. The shorter grip
length joint also makes the tensioner less reliable as a
Assured design bolt load on installation by measuring control system. By thoroughly researching the friction
with a load control system provides assured joint factor for the preferred lubricant and taking into account
reliability or minimum risk with any tightening the surface coating and bolt quality, torque tension
technique. Under the same joint conditions reliability variations may be reduced.
will be less assured and risk will increase by using only
the tightening technique. Selection is down to the ANSI B.16.5 600LB 10 INCH; HAZARDOUS FLUID.
operator’s risk assessment, past history of the joint and 1,1/4 in. Hydraulic tensioner tightening
associated life cost of the techniques available to him.
These examples are not intended to be prescriptive but Whilst the 1.1/4 in dia bolt could be tightened using a
show possible methodology selection subject to an hydraulic wrench, it may have insufficient control to
operator’s individual situation. provide a reliable level of bolt load. The service
conditions in terms of pressure, temperature and
ANSI B.16.5 150 LB 5 INCH; HAZARDOUS FLUID. contained fluid provided intermediate risk. The bolt
¾ in. bolt Torque tightening; torque control; known low diameter and grip length were such that the hydraulic
friction lubricant for friction factor control. tensioner could provide sufficient bolt load for joint
reliability under service conditions.
The operator may decide this application does not We could have this same 600 lb flange but service
warrant the use of a load control system. The smaller temperatures could be high (350°C plus) and/or cycling.
diameter means that torque tightening is a more cost This could present an increased risk such that assurance
19

is needed on installed bolt load. For this a load control 3.2.7 Record the criticality assessment
system is used with hydraulic tensioner tightening to
minimise the risk of a leak. The joint risk criticality should be recorded in the
records and data management system (see Section 5).
ANSI B.16.5 900LB 16IN, HAZARDOUS FLUID. Before work on any joint (e.g. design, modification
1,5/8 in. Hydraulic tensioner tightening; load control or maintenance) the risk criticality should be identified
system. and recorded. If the risk criticality has not already been
identified and recorded, a criticality assessment should
Some operators link tightening method selection to bolt be performed and recorded in the records and data
diameter. For example, hydraulic tensioners are usually management system.
specified for diameters 1,1/8 or 1,1/4 diameter and
above. The larger the diameter, the more effective 3.2.8 Risks to personnel
tensioners become compared to torque in terms of
providing tightening power with variation in bolt load. It is important to note that assembly of flanged
The higher pressure, pipe diameter and process gas in connections involving the use of high pressure hydraulic
this situation results in the operator regarding risk as tools and systems will present a level of inherent risk to
'high'. Therefore assurance on installed bolt load is the operator which if not assessed, controlled and if
necessary and a load control system is required to possible mitigated, may result in a serious incident. For
ensure design objectives are achieved on installation. It all flange assembly operations the risks during assembly
would be quite feasible however to select a hydraulic should be fully and formally assessed, the selection of
torque wrench with a load control system for this methods and tooling reviewed, hazards identified and
application. where possible, the risks mitigated on the basis of the
Tightening method selection based on bolt ALARP (As Low As Reasonably Practical) principle.
diameter; whilst satisfactory for general 'rule of thumb' All personnel involved should be made fully aware of
on low and some intermediate risk standard ANSI the potential dangers of accidental leakage of high
flanges, the policy could be problematic for non pressure hydraulic fluid from the tools and systems
standard joints especially those where the bolt diameter deployed.
to clamp length ratio is relatively small (less than four During training of personnel, it should be
to one for example). Where one would normally emphasised that the risks from high pressure fluid
nominate tensioning for a larger bolt diameter, the latter systems are constantly present during the tightening/
situation could result in the target bolt load being loosening procedures. The need for constant observation
practically unreachable due to joint elasticity. The and inspection of the equipment throughout the whole
higher compensatory hydraulic overload may be outside operation should also be stressed.
the elastic capacity of the bolt or even the capacity of
the hydraulic jack itself.
20

4
TRAINING AND COMPETENCE
4.1 INTRODUCTION maintain joints, or to supervise or assess such

work.
All personnel carrying out work on bolted joints should — Includes a process to assure that third party vendors
be trained and competent to a level appropriate to the and contractors can demonstrate that their
required technical skills and failure risks of the joint personnel are managed using equivalent systems to
involved. Similarly, supervisory personnel and assessors equivalent competence standards.
should also be trained and competent to ensure they are
aware of the issues involved in achieving a leak-free
joint. 4.3 TRAINING
The skill levels that individual companies use will

4.2 COMPETENCE MANAGEMENT depend on a number of variables. For example, a
company with a large number of personnel may decide
Control of the competence of people working on bolted on a number of skill levels appropriate to the type of
pipe joints is a critical factor in achieving joint integrity. work an individual may perform. Other companies may
Hydrocarbon release incident data for the UK offshore decide to train all their personnel to a higher level as a
oil and gas industry indicate that poor bolted pipe joint matter of course. This approach is particularly relevant
make-up is a major cause of leaks, and a review of to remote sites where it is imperative to have personnel
historical causes confirms that the skills and practices with the necessary skills available at all times. As such,
used have not given leak-free joints. Therefore an the training specifications for the following Engineering
important element of a management system is to ensure Construction Industry Training Board (ECITB)
that any person working on a given joint has been TECSkills units have become the benchmark standards
trained and assessed as competent to perform the task. for the UK offshore oil and gas industry:
Fundamental to the demonstration of personnel
competence is the provision of a documented PF010 Jointing Pipework using Flanged Joints (Hand
competence management system that: Torque Tightening).
PF015* Assembling and Tightening Bolted Flanged
— Contains clear standards for recruitment, training, Connections.
development and ongoing competence assessment. PF018 Assembling and Tensioning Bolted
— Is based upon, equivalent to or better than a Connections.
nationally or industry-recognised technical PF019 Assembling and Tightening Bolted
standard. Connections (Hydraulic Torque Tightening).
— Provides demonstrable capability for all staff *
superseded by PF018 and PF019
personnel who might be expected to make, break or
21

Schemes operated by individual companies should be training. It is rooted in the Engineering Competence
aligned with these or equivalent specifications. Such Standards (ECS) based on national occupational
schemes should also address those individuals used standards for the engineering construction industry.
during turnarounds and periods of high activity whose Successful completion of TECSkills On-the-Job
core function is not assembly and tightening of bolted Performance Units or equivalent units from other
joints. Independent Accreditation Organisations (IAOs) (see
4.7) can contribute to the evidence requirements of
vocational qualifications. An occupationally competent
4.4 ONGOING COMPETENCE coach and IAO representative support the learner in the
attainment of new skills and knowledge when
Successful completion of an appropriate training course undertaking training or performing these units.
is only the first step towards gaining and demonstrating In response to the UK oil and gas industry, the
competence. The course should be followed up by an ECITB developed training and performance units
agreed training and assessment plan between the coach PF010, PF018 and PF019 for assembling and tightening
and learner, which will establish whether the training bolted flanged connections. These units form part of the
has been effective and identify gaps in the learner’s TECSkills training programme for training pipe and
skills and knowledge. Together with a logged record of mechanical fitters, hence the PF title.
experience and a site assessment, this can lead to a
recognised qualification such as the ECITB’s TECSkills
units PF010, PF018 and PF019 (see 4.5). These units, 4.6 VOCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
with supporting material, may contribute as evidence
towards obtaining a vocational qualification unit (see A vocational qualification (e.g. National or Scottish
4.6). Vocational Qualification – N/SVQ) is effectively a
An example of the competence requirements for portfolio-based validation process that will include
authorised bolt tightening personnel is given in Table onsite assessment by an occupationally competent
4.1. assessor. No training is necessarily required to take a
To assist in demonstrating ongoing competence, a vocational qualification. The qualification is based on
record should be maintained of each individual’s evidence of competence by a variety of techniques,
mechanical jointing performance. This should comprise including documentary evidence, questioning, site
details of the types of joints the individual has worked observation and testimonials. A competent assessor will
on (including evidence that a representative sample of easily identify weak candidates.
joints have been made up in the presence of a competent The standard of candidate able to pass a vocational
assessor), whether the joints have performed qualification is controlled by the awarding body in line
satisfactorily, and details of any further training with national guidelines.
required. It is the responsibility of the individual to
maintain this certified history and to have it formally
validated by an approved assessor. If there is no record 4.7 INDEPENDENT ACCREDITATION
of successful past work within a 12-month period it is ORGANISATIONS
recommended that an assessment is performed to
identify any re-training requirements. Examples of bodies who can be contacted for advice are
An example of a mechanical jointing performance given below. There are many other agencies and
record is shown in Figure 4.1. individual companies which are available to provide
training. However, it is essential to ensure that the
training they provide is to a recognised standard.
4.5 TRAINING IN ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION SKILLS (TECSKILLS) ECITB (Engineering Construction Industry Training
Board)
The ECITB’s Training in Engineering Construction SEMTA (Science, Engineering and Manufacturing
Skills training programme (TECSkills) is an example of Technologies Alliance)
a flexible training scheme for craft and other site API (American Petroleum Institute)
operatives to cater for both initial and skill enhancement
22

Table 4.1: Competence requirements for authorised bolt tightening personnel
Key Requirement
Training provided should include knowledge of the specific joint types employed at the worksite. Operators
should ensure that any training carried out on their behalf meets with this requirement.
Knowledge Base
Awareness of:
— Health and safety precautions
— Pressure, temperature and hostile environmental factors (such as corrosion and vibration) on the
degradation of bolted assemblies
— Factors which result in bolt load variation
— Applied and residual loads
— The effect of different lubricants on friction losses
— The relative accuracy of different methods of tightening
— The techniques for application of tensioned bolt loading
— Joint assembly methods and tightening procedures
— The need to check gaskets, nuts and stud bolts against specification
— Safety precautions when handling and removing Compressed Asbestos Fibre (CAF) gaskets
— The requirement to tag and complete records for assembled joints
— The need to:
- Check the compatibility of the selected torque tools and equipment capacity prior to use
- Top up oil levels in hydraulic pumps
- Clean and protect tools and equipment from corrosion
Understanding of:
— The principles of joint component sealing action
— The principles of bolt elongation and tensile stress
— The function of gasket or seal types
— The importance of correct bolt loading
— The effect on bolt load and seal compression using different methods of tightening
— The importance of using the correct lubricant
— The importance of the correct selection of joint components to comply with the design specification
— The correct sequence and number of tightening passes required for torque and tensioned bolts
— The principles and techniques used for direct bolt length measurement
— The need for and using reporting procedures when defects or faults in bolt tightening equipment or its
assembly are identified
— The principles of preparing bolted joint connections for assembly
— The need for seal face cleanliness and for nuts to be free-running
— The effect of joint alignment and gap uniformity on residual bolt loading
— The importance of gasket storage, handling, preparation and installation
— Good installation practice for bolting, washers and nut orientation for tightening method and equipment
to be used
— The need to report variances from design specifications and tightening procedures
— The principles and requirements for the safe selection, calibration, installation and use of hydraulic
torque and bolt tensioning equipment
— The principles of carrying out bolt de-tensioning and joint breakout safely and correctly
— The importance of attending product-specific training and following the manufacturer’s procedures for
proprietary joint types
— Why mixing components from different equipment manufacturers is prohibited
— The principles of inspection after tightening and the procedures and techniques to be used such as 'break
loose' tests (check passes) and bolt tightness 'tap-test'
— The requirements for the storage, preparation, maintenance and calibration of torque tools and bolt
tensioning equipment for its safe use
23

Table 4.1: Competence requirements for authorised bolt tightening personnel (cont’d)
Ability to:
— Recognise and rectify faults with torque or tensioning equipment
— Interpret joint or flange manufacturer identifying marks
— Identify defects, distortion and surface irregularities on flange sealing faces and threads
Demonstrated Application of Knowledge

Demonstrate ability in:
— Preparation of all joint components
— Correct selection and assembly of joint components
— Diagnosis and rectification of problems with hydraulic equipment
— Selection and correct installation of hydraulic torque or tensioning equipment
— Correct application of the various tightening techniques
— Carrying out specified tightening sequence and subsequent tightening passes to ensure axial alignment
and squareness of joint assembly
— Carrying out joint breakout safely and correctly
— Carrying out bolt 'break loose' tests (check passes) to check integrity of assembled tensioned assembly
— Completion of a joint record sheet
— Integrity and inspection checks of completed joint assembly
— Maintaining a personal portfolio of joint assembly
Demonstrate awareness of:

— The health and safety precautions at the worksite
— Hot bolting and live plant procedures and risk assessments
24

JOINTING PERFORMANCE RECORD
Name ID No Installation Date
This is to certify that the Technician named above has produced satisfactory leak-free mechanical joints of
the types indicated below within the past 12 months.
Satisfactory
Joint Type Performance Requires Training Date Signature Comments
RTJ
Raised face
Insulating gasket
Compact
Clamp connector
Taper-Lok
Kidney
Other (installation-
specific)
Note:
1. This record does not replace a recognised NVQ but certifies a Technician’s ongoing competence in
making a specified mechanical joint.
2. It is recognised that certain installations do not have all types of joints.
Supervisor Verified
(Position) (Position)
Name: Name:
Signature: Signature:
Date: Date:
Figure 4.1: Example jointing performance record
25

26

5
RECORDS, DATA MANAGEMENT AND

TAGGING
The certainty of a successful joint being made up should be securely attached to the joint and may hold no
increases if data are controlled and historical data exist other data than the unique tag number. In selecting a
on the activities carried out in the past. Recording permanent tag, consideration needs to be given to the
traceable data encourages best practice at the time of the attachment method, the temperature of the flange and
activity, and will provide useful planning data for the tag and security device material, the permanence of the
next time the joint is disturbed. tag markings, and avoidance of corrosion spots due to
Learning from incidents is important. A dissimilar metals or water traps.
management system should include the means for
gathering relevant data, which should be collected by 5.1.2 Temporary tags
everyone involved in bolted joints and periodically
reviewed to establish trends, performance and The purpose of a temporary tag is to uniquely identify
improvements. This can be achieved if records and data a joint during a work scope and to indicate the status of
are kept for each joint as part of a management control the joint during the work scope. The tag will normally
process. hold a unique ID number for the joint which is
traceable; it may also hold a small amount of
information such as tightening method and date, person
5.1 JOINT IDENTIFICATION who assembled the joint, person who tightened the joint
and person who tested the joint. A common method is
In order to record data and plan activities - each joint to use multipart tags where the status is indicated by the
needs to be clearly and uniquely identified. colour of the portions remaining on the tag.
This requires the joint to be physically tagged so Common status conditions are:
that its identity is clear and visible at the joint location
including a unique Joint ID number in order that it can — Joint to be broken out/Joint broken out.
be recognised in a joint database or other record system. — Joint to be assembled/ Joint assembled.
All joints should be tagged, there are also advantages — Joint to be controlled tightened/Joint tightened.
to having both permanent and temporary — Joint to be tested./Joint tested.
tags assigned to joints.
Joint tagging can bring a number of benefits:
5.1.1 Permanent tag
— Control competence.
The purpose of a permanent tag is to uniquely identify — Assist in the preparation of work permits.
a joint throughout its life cycle, enabling all activities — Provide cross-shift communication of job status.
and data on that joint to be recorded. Permanent tags — Assist job completion confirmation.
27

— Aid leak and seep searches by identifying disturbed

items (which have a higher probability of leaking).
— Support a record and data management system.
5.1.3 Example tagging procedure
The following is an example tagging procedure.

Individual operators’ schemes will depend upon a
variety of issues including the number of joints to be
tagged and the size of local organisation.
All joints that are to be made or disturbed during
construction or maintenance work should be identified,
recorded and tagged. The tag should be fitted using a
suitable tie and in a position adjacent to or on the joint.
The person who breaks the joint(s) should mark up
the tag identification numbers on a copy of the relevant
Isometric or P&ID and its corresponding register. The
Isometric or P&ID and register should be controlled by
the relevant designated person. These records
complement the leak test certificate and provide an
audit trail.
At the completion of each stage of the job
(inspection, assembly, tightening and testing) the
responsible person should record their name against that
stage. This could be done directly on the tag or the Figure 5.1: Example of a multi part tag
relevant task could be crossed off on the tag and the
name recorded in the work pack. 5.2 RECORDS AND DATA MANAGEMENT
Once testing has been satisfactorily completed, the
removable insert of the tag should be returned to the job A successful record and data management system will
co-ordinator. The task completion should be recorded in aid and provide information during the work planning
the work pack when all joint tag bodies are returned, and execution process.
indicating that all work has been completed. This can be Once unique joint IDs have been established then
checked against the permissions required for restarting useful and essential data can be recorded against them.
the plant. As work is carried out and recorded the status of the
Plant start-up should be prevented until all the tag disturbed joints should be updated to reflect the status of
inserts are signed off and returned to allow sign-off of all joints including temporary blinds. This process
the job. should be carefully controlled and reported as laid down
After start-up and while the root of the tag remains by the management process.
attached, search teams should patrol the disturbed area The preparation and collection of data by
and inspect tagged joints for leaks and seeps. Any leaks competent personnel will assist in ensuring all joints are
or seeps should be reported to a nominated supervisor. assembled, tightened during construction or reinstated
The root of the tag should be left on the joint until during maintenance and ready for leak-free service.
the operation is satisfied that the joint is not likely to Additionally, as the status of all pipework has been
leak (normally 48 hours after start-up.) During that carefully monitored, it should not be possible to
period the tag makes leak searches more effective. introduce pressure into any joint before all joints have
An example of a multipart tag is shown in Figure been reinstated.
5.1.
28

RECORDS, DATA MANAGEMENT AND TAGGING
5.2.1 Recommended data and maintenance of the asset.

— Records of any modification, exceptions or
The following data are recommended as a minimum for deviation from standards with the joint.
bolted joints on critical services:
Whilst this data can be kept in hard copy format, a
5.2.1.1 Joint details database system is recommended due to the high
— Identity of joint. volume of data required and the ease of searching and
— Joint location. retrieving data that computerised systems offer.
— Drawing references.
— Size, type, class. 5.2.1.4 Joints included in the database
— Flange and bolt material. It is recommended that the operator as a minimum
— Gasket specification. keeps records for all joints on critical services and those
— Approved bolt stress and source. on other services which have a history of leakage, or
— Approved tightening method and settings/tools to potential to leak, and that this is kept with any relevant
achieve approved bolt stress. procedures for monitoring the specific joint. To
— Lubricant used. minimise the possibility of the problem resurfacing,
methods for countering the leak should be included
5.2.1.2 Additional data within the individual joint records.
Additional data can be recorded to make the system There are however benefits in maintaining a system
more user friendly and effective as a planning tool, such for all joints, in terms of safety, efficiency and
as: traceability. Statistics show that using a system to
control joint integrity will reduce the effort required to
— Status of the joint. achieve a successful integrity test.
— Any exceptions or anomalies regarding the joint.
— Location description of the joint.
5.3 REVIEW
5.2.1.3 Joint history
— Starting at the construction stage: Records of The entire process and outcome should be reviewed by
assembly, break out, reassembly, inspections and managers and members of the work team. Identified
controlled tightening. Including personnel improvements to the activities, work scopes and
involved, equipment and procedures used. Results procedures should be recorded and retained for when
and measurements taken where appropriate. the work is next repeated.
— Records of inspection and testing of the joint. Information of performance and good practice
— Records of subsequent disassembly, inspection, should be shared with industry.
assembly, tightening and testing during operation
29

30

6
MANAGEMENT OF LEAKS
6.1 INTRODUCTION However, there are a significant number of industries

where good business practice or regulatory requirements
The objective of a correctly designed and installed make it essential to formally assess loss of containment
bolted joint is to provide a long-term tight seal and events and determine root cause and measures to
prevent ingress or egress of fluids through the joint. prevent recurrence.
However, leaks can occur and the Duty Holder or When a leak or incident occurs, a common
operator has overall responsibility to manage this approach to manage such situations is an engineering
situation. This section introduces some important risk assessment which utilises the collective skills
features that may be required of the management system within the organisation to address three fundamental
for pressurised systems after joint make-up. These questions:
include:
— Safety impact to ongoing operations – is it safe to
— Management of leaks and releases and the continue to operate the plant?
appropriate engineering risk assessments that might — Environmental impact – what is the environmental
be required. impact of continued operations?
— Definition of leaks. — Economic cost – what is the business cost?
— Integrity testing of joints as an assurance measure
of joint tightness. An engineering risk assessment should be performed to
— Potential options for repair or replacement of establish whether it is acceptable to continue operations.
leaking joints. The assessment should also identify control or hazard
mitigation measures required such as increased
surveillance or plant de-rating. Alternatively the
6.2 ENGINEERING RISK ASSESSMENT outcome of the assessment might indicate that there is
OF LEAKS significant hazard with continued operation and that
immediate shutdown, repair or replacement is required.
The degree of review or assessment of leaks will depend It should be noted that most companies have some
upon the industry, the nature of the process fluid and form of environmental policy which requires recording
pressure and temperature conditions; all factors emissions from process systems. In the UK statutory
affecting the criticality of the joint (see Section 3). In rules require reporting of leaks and emissions depending
some situations it may be acceptable for joints to leak. upon the fluid and the magnitude of the leak.
31

6.3 STAGES AT WHICH LEAKS OCCUR 6.4 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
Leaks often occur when the joint is under test, as Where a release is identified, a corrective action must
described below. However, regardless of when a leak be carried out to secure a tight joint. Some measures
occurs, it should always be investigated and recorded in include:
the records and data management system (see Section
5). This will not only store useful data against the joint — Depressurise the system, and check load on bolts.
and assist in preventing the same issue arising on the — Identify root cause of the problem (and notify
same joint in future, but will also enable trend analysis appropriate authorities).
to prevent leakage on other joints. A leak decision and — Depressurise and completely remake the joint after
analysis tree, such as the example illustrated in Figure component inspection.
6.1, can assist in determining an appropriate course of
action and also provides input to the data management Other measures such as hot bolting and tightening of
system. live joints are not recommended.
6.3.1 Standard pressure (strength) test

6.5 DEFINITION AND DETECTION OF LEAKS
A leak occurring during a strength test is an indication
that there is a major issue in the installation of the The following definition of a leak is widely used in the
bolted joint. Although the joint is subject to a higher upstream oil and gas industries:
than working pressure at this stage, it is not subject to
temperature or cyclic loading and therefore leakage A release of hydrocarbon or other hazardous fluid
during this activity suggests poor assembly or applied should be recorded as a leak when the release rate is
bolt load. Identifying and correcting the cause is equal to or greater than:
essential for reliable operation of the plant.
— Liquid leaks:
6.3.2 Leak test A release rate of one drop per 15 seconds (four
drops per minute).
A leak test is not a replacement for correct joint make-
up and tightening; rather, it is merely part of the — Gas leaks:
assurance process. Where a joint is just failing a leak A release that will cause a hand-held gas detector
test it is tempting to increase bolt load. However if the 10cm 'downwind' of the release source to indicate
bolt load was correctly applied in the first instance, 20% Lower Explosive Limit (LEL).
increasing the bolt load could be hiding a problem, e.g.
a nipped gasket or grit on the gasket, which will The most likely method of detecting a leaking bolted
manifest as a service leak later. joint is observation by operations and maintenance
personnel or inspection personnel during routine
6.3.3 Service testing operation in the plant. There is no substitute for 'line
walking' as most leaks are of relatively small
Where the service test identifies a slight leak, there will magnitude. The more significant leaks may also be
be a temptation to apply more bolt load to seal the leak. detected by plant safety systems such as gas detectors
This may be successful, but if the load was correct in or, in extreme cases, by the process control system.
the first place then consideration must be given to All leaks should be tagged and entered in the
identifying why the joint leaked (see also 6.3.2 above). maintenance system for repair and the record and data
management system as soon as is reasonably practical.
6.3.4 Leaks occurring during start-up or It may also be reportable.
operation An emission from a joint with a lower release rate
than a leak is described as a seep. These too should be
These leaks potentially have the greatest impact not tagged and periodically checked to ensure they have not
only for safety but also commercially as they will either worsened, and be entered into the maintenance system
delay start-up or stop production. for repair at the next scheduled service for that item. It
should also be recorded in the records and data
management system.
32

MANAGEMENT OF LEAKS
START
PASS
PASS OR FAIL?
FAIL
Joint failure leakage

rate above the
target acceptance
criteria
Is this
a single failure SINGLE
or are there numerous
failures in the
system?
NUMEROUS
TIME OUT Is there a

YES
common style of joint that
Technical review
is failing?
required
Is the
NO YES leakage rate above
the maximum acceptance
criteria?
NO
NO Is the technical
authority willing to approve
the leakage result?
Is the
torque/tension YES
Update workpack NO applied to the joint
with new correct for this application?
torque/tension figures (Check procedure and all
assumptions made)
YES
Has the
Correctly apply NO torque/tension
the torque/tension
in the field been correctly applied
in the field?
YES
Break the joint and

investigate failure mode.
Apply rigorous checks.
Reassemble and
retighten joint to approved SUCCESS
method.
Figure 6.1: Example leak decision and analysis process
33

Leaks may pose special risks in confined spaces achieved, the only option may be to shut down the
such as pits, trenches, buildings and modules. Examples plant to carry out the repair. An example of such a
include concentration of toxic or poisonous gases or situation is given in Figure 6.2 which shows a
heavier than air asphyxiates such as argon or carbon flange with gasket seating face pitting. Corrosion at
dioxide gas. the bottom of the pipe has caused metal loss of the
Fugitive emissions as described in the IPPC regulations entire gasket seating width and resulted in a leak. In
are beyond the scope of this section. It is assumed that this case a unit shutdown was undertaken to replace
issues such as Best Available Techniques (BAT) for a pipe spool.
sealing have been addressed by the specifiers and
designers of joint systems. — Carry out on-line repair
On-line repairs to live plant have been carried out
using techniques such as encasement clamps and
6.6 MANAGING LEAKS AND REPAIRS various forms of glass and carbon fibre wraps.
These are considered to be engineering repairs and
An engineering risk assessment will provide a technical need appropriate technical skills and installation
basis for reviewing repair options which can range from competences. Specialist service companies can
shutdown and repair/replace to continued operation with provide this type of product on a world-wide basis.
no intervention. The choice of options may be further Some high level guidelines on safety considerations
restricted by Company policy depending upon the type are presented in EEMUA publication 199.
of facility. In many industries, unplanned shutdown for Guidelines on requirements and qualification of
repairs is normally avoided wherever possible. repairs to corroded or damaged piping using
Whatever the planned course of action, it should be composite wraps are presented in ISO document
formally documented before work begins and carried ISO/PDTS 24817. A typical clamp type repair is
out in a safe, managed and controlled manner. No illustrated in Figure 6.3.
matter what the circumstances, the temptation to tighten
up the joint beyond design parameters should be Detail design considerations include:
resisted. – Definition of the expected design/operating
There are a number of candidate repair and life of the repair.
replacement strategies. These include: – Impact of fluid on bolting, e.g. exposure of
some bolting to fluids with H2S or chlorides.
— Continued service accepting the joint leakage: – Pressure end cap forces.
It may be acceptable to permit continued leakage – Site constraints such as insufficient space to
from the joint based upon the engineering risk install a clamp.
assessment and environmental impact until a
planned shutdown.
6.7 LEARNING FROM LEAKS
— Continued service operating with de-rating:
It may be acceptable to permit continued joint In order to prevent future leaks lessons should be learnt
service by imposing a control measure such as de- from past incidents. Operators should develop a process
rated duty point or downgrade condition. This may to capture data in a form that can be readily reviewed
be appropriate where the leak rate is pressure or and analysed. The process should aim to:
temperature activated.
— Improve the quality of information gathered on
— Isolate and repair the leaking joint (line isolation): joint leaks.
There may be sufficient valves to isolate the — Identify and better understand the causes of
leaking flange and allow maintenance to be carried failure(s).
out. This may prove difficult in some plants where — Provide data for the hydrocarbon leaks database.
the valves do not provide tight shut-off or the — Provide data for long-term learning on leak
required level of isolation as required by the occurrence.
company’s safety policy cannot be achieved. — Ensure periodic review and learning.
— Shutdown unit, isolate and repair joint: These details should be recorded in a data management
In some instances, where safe isolation cannot be system.
34

MANAGEMENT OF LEAKS
Figure 6.2: Flange with gasket seating face pitting
Figure 6.3: Encasement clamp repair on a 24 in. seawater line to stop leak on stub of composite flange
35

36

7
IN-SERVICE INSPECTION
7.1 INTRODUCTION — Flange orientation, particularly blind flanges

installed horizontally, allowing water to collect in
In-service inspection of bolted joints is an integral the holes. Stud bolts in blind flanges in firewater
activity to ensure the continued integrity of the joints mains have suffered this form of damage.
and as such should be built in to all relevant inspection
programmes. This section looks at the possible damage
that can occur, the inspection methods available for 7.3 DEGRADATION MECHANISMS
detection of defects and the mitigation measures that
can be put in place to minimise such degradation. A number of degradation mechanisms can contribute to
A summary of the key issues addressed in this the failure of a bolted joint, most of which are corrosion
section is included in Table 7.1. related. Figures 7.1 – 7.11 (see pages 39-41) illustrate
the most common problems found.
7.2 RISK ASSESSMENT

7.4 INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
For high-risk joints it is recommended that methods are
implemented for monitoring bolt stress to ensure that 7.4.1 Non-destructive testing
pre-load is maintained. Generally, a risk assessment
should be carried out to determine the inspection The most common method of in-service non-destructive
requirements. inspection is visual inspection, normally carried out as
The following factors should be considered for part of general visual inspections of pipework or
specific joints: structures as opposed to specific bolt inspections. The
limitations of this method are that only the external
— High temperature pipework may cause bolts to parts of the joint are visible which will detect loose
creep and cause leakage. bolts and corrosion; however the extent of surface
— Large numbers of temperature cycles can cause the degradation on the strength of the joint is difficult to
bolts to loosen. measure.
— Mechanical vibration or shock loading may cause Where bolt threads or nuts show the effects of
the flange bolts to loosen. significant corrosion then further investigation should
— Areas of high external corrosion may cause the be undertaken to ensure that the joint is still fit for
bolts to lose integrity. Susceptible locations include purpose. Some Operators use a Performance Standard
insulated pipework, bolts open to harsh to quantify the extent of bolt degradation. An example
environments or those subject to deluge system of a PS for low alloy steel bolting material is shown
tests. below:
— Internal corrosion can cause flange faces to lose Bolts shall be visually examined for evidence of
material. corrosion and other defects (mechanical damage or
37

Table 7.1: Summary of key issues
Damage Typical Inspection Mitigation

type conditions technique measures
General corrosion Exposed areas Visual, sample removal, Material selection, thread
Cylindrical Guided Wave protectors, coatings
Technique
Galvanic corrosion Dissimilar metals – Visual Material selection, gaskets,
flanges, bolts, gaskets bolt/flange insulating kits,
weld overlay
Localised bolt Dissimilar metals, exposed Sample removal, visual, Material selection
corrosion areas Phased Array UT, CGWT
Crevice corrosion Exposed areas Visual, sample removal Material selection
Fatigue Joints subject to vibration, Visual, Phased Array UT Pipework design
cyclic loading
Creep High temperature Time-of-flight UT Material selection, ASME
applications SA-453
Stress corrosion A combination of a Phased Array UT Material selection
cracking chloride-containing
environment, susceptible
material and tensile stress
Hydrogen Hydrogen can form on Visual, highlighting any Material selection – most
embrittlement surface during manufacture corroded High Strength common in High Strength
or be caused by Cathodic Fasteners for replacement Steels e.g. ASTM
Protection Standards A345 Gr BD,
A490
and A547 Thread
protectors and coatings
Flange face Pipework containing a Intrusive visual, UT Material selection, gasket
corrosion corrosive medium, selection, weld overlay
dissimilar materials
cracking). Bolting showing signs of mechanical damage — Ultrasonic inspection of flange faces using shear
to plain shanks or threaded portions within the stressed wave transducers – detects flange face corrosion
portion or any cracking shall be replaced with new and erosion.
bolting. — Black light NDT of threads and body on bolts that
Bolts, studs and screwed fasteners that have are to be re-used on high critical joints – detects
corroded such that the diameter of the smooth shank or stress cracking.
the major thread diameter is less than 90% (i.e. 10%
loss in diameter) of the nominal size, after removal of 7.4.2 Destructive testing
the corrosion product, shall be replaced with new
bolting. Where degradation is thought to have occurred and
A number of more specialised techniques are assessment is not possible through non-destructive
available which can be used to check for specific techniques, sample removal of bolts for destructive
conditions; these include: testing can be carried out to estimate if joints are still fit
for purpose. Finite element analysis has also been used
— Phased Array Ultrasonics – detects thread wear and to model the effects of progressive removal of layers of
cracking from the bottom of the threads, as bolt material.
illustrated in Figure 7.11 (see page 41).
— Time of Flight (TOF) UT – measures bolt 7.5 DEFECT MITIGATION MEASURES
elongation.
— Cylindrically Guided Wave Technique (CGWT) – In-service inspection requirements can be greatly
detects corrosion wastage. reduced by designing the bolted joint to include
38

measures which will reduce the risk of degradation due — Coatings

to mechanical damage and corrosion. The following are Bolts can be supplied with a variety of life
some commonly used measures: extending surface treatments such as hot dip spun
galvanising, which research shows offers the best
— Material selection long term protection. Zinc, PFTE or electroless
Corrosion-resistant alloys e.g. stainless steel, nickel are also used.
duplex and cupro-nickel alloys are used. However,
they can suffer specific rapid failure mechanisms — Cathodic protection
such as stress corrosion cracking. In addition, the Used for underwater applications. However, there
high costs of these materials restricts widespread is usually a need to apply coating to the pipework
use. and flange joints to minimise the risk of hydrogen
embrittlement.
— Thread protectors
Neoprene, polyethene and aluminium are common. — Flange protection
However, the potential for loss of thread Gaskets (material selection is important to avoid
engagement strength needs to be assessed. galvanic corrosion), flange protectors, coatings.
Figure 7.1: General corrosion

(General corrosion of flanges and bolts.)
Figure 7.2: Galvanic corrosion (1)

(Galvanic corrosion where dissimilar materials
have been used for the bolts and one flange.)
Figure 7.3: Galvanic corrosion (2) Figure 7.4: Localised corrosion

(Galvanic corrosion where dissimilar (Severe localised corrosion of bolt body.)
materials of bolts only has been used.)
39

Figure 7.6: Fatigue

(Failed bolt displaying typical
fatigue failure characteristics.)
Figure 7.5: Crevice corrosion
(Advanced crevice corrosion of a stainless steel bolt.)
Figure 7.7: Stress corrosion cracking Figure 7.8: Hydrogen embrittlement

(Failure surface of bolt which had been subject to the (Fracture surface of a bolt that resulted
combined influence of tensile stress and a corrosive from hydrogen embrittlement cracking.)
environment – a typical example would be austenitic
stainless steel in high chloride conditions.)
Figure 7.9: Flange face corrosion Figure 7.10: Galvanic corrosion

(Flange face corrosion in seawater pipework.) (Galvanic corrosion of clamped assembly seal ring.)
40

Figure 7.11: Phased array ultrasonics
41

42


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Guidelines for the management of

the integrity of bolted joints

Published by the Energy Institute

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

NORAFIMAN ABDUL RAHMAN

PETRONAS REFINERY AND PETROCHEMICAL CORPORATION SDN. BHD. (PRPC)

“TOWARDS ZERO LEAK STARTUP”

Energy Institute This publication has been produced as a result of

Registered Charity Number 1097899

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

BG Group Murco Petroleum Ltd

Copyright © 2007 by the Energy Institute, London:

ISBN 978 0 85293 461 6

Electronic access to EI and IP publications is available via our website, www.energyinstpubs.org.uk.

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................................. vii

2 Bolted joint technology and practice ............................................................................................................ 3

3 Criticality assessment .................................................................................................................................. 17

4 Training and competence ............................................................................................................................ 21

5 Records, data management and tagging .................................................................................................... 27

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

6 Management of leaks ................................................................................................................................... 31

7 In-service inspection .................................................................................................................................... 37

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

The Technical Department,

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Stuart Brooks BP Exploration Operating Company Ltd.

Blair Barclay ECITB

Gwyn Ashby Mitsui Babcock

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

EEMUUA Andrew Pearson

Technical authorship and editing:

Phil Smith ODL

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Figure 1.1: Essential elements of a management system

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

BOLTED JOINT TECHNOLOGY

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Figure 2.1: Working principle of bolted flange joints

2.2.2 Compact flanges 2.2.3 Clamped connectors

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

— Metal jacketed Under no circumstances should gasket compound or

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Correct bolt selection, procurement and installation are

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Figure 2.3: Example of flange face configuration

Figure 2.4: Flange identification markings

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

2.4.4 Alignment The following precautions should be taken when

Angular offset Centre-line offset

Figure 2.9: Alignment tolerances

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Flange Flange 14 Flange 3

Figure 2.10: Cross bolt torque tightening sequence

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

2.5.2 Hydraulic tensioning specific considerations

2.5.2.1 Key requirements

Issued under licence to BP employees only.

Figure 2.12: Tension tightening sequence