CHAPTER 3:

THE STUDY OF
ROCKS

1
WEEK 4
Lesson outcomes
Student should be able to:
• Explain how igneous rocks crystallize from a
magma
• Illustrate aphanitic, phaneritic, and porphyritic
textures: their definitions, how to recognize
them in hand samples or photographs, and
how they originate
• Describe Bowen’s reaction series

2
3.0 The Study of Rocks
3.1 Rock Cycle.

3.2 Introduction to Igneous Rock.

3.3 Introduction to Sedimentary Rock.

3.4 Introduction to Metamorphic Rock.

3.5 Rocks in Civil Engineering.

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 3.1 ROCK CYCLE
• A rock is an aggregate of minerals and can be
formed by many different processes.
• Some are formed from melts (igneous), by
solidifying sediments like sand or clay
(sedimentary) and by re-crystallising previously
formed rocks in its solid state (metamorphic).
• Rocks that are formed by crystallisation of a melt
are igneous rocks and they may be formed at
depth (intrusive or plutonic) or on the surface
(extrusive or volcanic).
• In general, igneous rocks that cool rapidly (i.e.
volcanic rocks) are very fine-grained whereas
rocks that cool slowly (i.e. plutonic rocks) are
coarse-grained.

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 3.1 ROCK CYCLE
• Rocks that are formed on the surface of
the Earth by solidification (lithification)
of weathered or dissolved material of
sedimentary rocks.
• These are generally classified by the
size of the particles, although the
compositions change systematically
with particle size.
• Rocks that form by re-crystallisation in
the solid state are metamorphic rocks.
• They may be metamorphosed from
sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic
rocks.

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6
7
3.2 IGNEOUS ROCK

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9
10
 3.2 IGNEOUS ROCK
•Igneous rocks are called fire
rocks and are formed either
underground or above ground.
Underground, they are formed
when the melted rock, called
magma, deep within the earth
becomes trapped in small
pockets. As these pockets of
magma cool slowly
underground, the magma
becomes igneous rocks.

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 3.2 IGNEOUS ROCK

Igneous rocks are also

formed when
volcanoes erupt,
causing the magma to
rise above the earth's
surface. When magma
appears above the
earth, it is called lava.
Igneous rocks are
formed as the lava
cools above ground.
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 3.2 IGNEOUS ROCK
• Magmas are less dense than surrounding rocks, and
will therefore move upward. If magma makes it to the
surface it will erupt and later crystallize to form an
extrusive or volcanic rock.
• If it crystallizes before it reaches the surface it will form
an igneous rock at depth called a plutonic or intrusive
rock. Because cooling of the magma takes place at a
different rate, the crystals that form and their
interrelationship (texture) exhibit different properties.
• In general, extrusive rocks have a finer grained texture
than intrusive rocks; intrusive rocks vary from thin
sheets to huge, irregular masses. Since magma that
forms intrusive rocks solidifies slowly, most intrusive
rocks have larger crystals than extrusive rocks.
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Magma cooling rate and its effect on
nucleation and growth of mineral
crystals. (a, b) Rapid cooling results
in many small minerals and an
aphanitic (fine-grained) texture. (c, d)
Slow cooling yields a phaneritic
(coarse-grained) texture. The texture
in (e) is appropriately called aphanitic
porphyritic, whereas the one in (f) is
phaneritic porphyritic
14
Rapid cooling results in many small minerals and an aphanitic
(fine-grained) texture.

15
Fig. 4-8a, p. 84
 16
Fig. 4-8b, p. 84
Slow cooling yields a phaneritic (coarse-grained) texture.

17
Fig. 4-8c, p. 84
 18 p. 84
Fig. 4-8d,
The texture in (e) is appropriately called aphanitic porphyritic,
whereas the one in (f) is phaneritic porphyritic. 19
Fig. 4-8ef, p. 84
Obsidian has a glassy texture because its parent lava cooled too
quickly for mineral crystals to form. 20
Fig. 4-9a, p. 85
Vesicles develop when gases expand in cooling lava, giving the
resulting rocks a vesicular texture 21
Fig. 4-9b, p. 85
 22
Fig. 4-14, p. 88
 23
Fig. 4-15, p. 89
 24
Fig. 4-15a, p. 89
 25
Fig. 4-15b, p. 89
 26
Fig. 4-10, p. 85
Figure 4.8

27
Igneous rocks are subdivided on
the basis of whether they
formed on Earth’s surface or
within Earth’s interior.

• Volcanic (extrusive)
igneous rocks form when
molten rock (magma) in
Earth’s interior rises to the
surface through pipes or
fractures in the crust. Volcanic
landforms are the most
readily recognized
representation of igneous Sunset Crater, northern Arizona, a small
volcano.
rocks

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 Extrusive Process
• When magma reaches to the surface of the Earth it erupts
from a vent either explosively or non-explosively.
• Non-explosive eruptions are favored by low gas content and
low viscosity magma usually mafic magma (basaltic to
andesitic magma).
• Usually begins with fire fountains due to the release of
dissolved gases.
• This produces lava flows on the surface and pillow lava if it is
erupted beneath the ocean.
• Explosive eruptions are favored by high gas content and high
viscosity usually felsic magma (andesitic to rhyolitic magmas).
• Expansion of gas bubbles is resisted by high viscosity of
magma - results in building of pressure.
• High pressure in gas bubbles causes the bubbles to burst
when reaching low pressure at the Earth's surface.
• Bursting of bubble fragments change the magma into
pyroclasts and tephra (ash).
• Cloud of gas and tephra rise above volcano to produce an
eruption column that can rise up to 45 km into the
atmosphere.
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Tephra that falls from the
eruption column produces
a tephra fall deposit.
If eruption column
collapses a pyroclastic
flow may occur, wherein
gas and tephra rush down
the flanks of the volcano
at high speed. Turvurvur Volcano,
The deposits produced are Rabaul, Papua
New Guinea
called ignimbrites.

Seen here on the left

is a pyroclastic flow
and the top picture is
the eruption column 30
Lateral blasts and
debris avalanches
occur when gas is
released suddenly
by a large
landslide or debris
avalanche taking
out part of the
volcano

31
• Plutonic (intrusive) igneous
rocks form when magma cools
within Earth. Igneous rocks that
cool below Earth's surface are
termed plutonic (or intrusive)
igneous rocks. The features they
form are plutons (or intrusions).
These features remain hidden
from sight until erosion removes
the overlying rocks (Fig. 15). The
characteristics of the intrusions
are largely controlled by the
volume of magma involved and Multiple plutons (intrusions -
the character of the surrounding light rock) in the Black Canyon
of the Gunnison River,
rocks. Magma moving within Colorado
Earth's crust will often follow the
path of least resistance such as
fractures.
32
 Intrusive Process
• Plutonic rocks cool underground and as such, they are
viewed at the surface only and if they become exposed
by erosion which has removed the softer, surrounding
rocks.
• However, even though plutonic rocks cool underground,
it is common that the magma migrates toward the
surface as it cools.
• Magma rises since it is hotter and less dense than the
surrounding solid rock.
• Distinct structures are produced as the molten magma
forces its way into, through and between existing rock
layers.
• The rock into which the magma intrudes is referred to
as country rock.
• If the magma follows the existing rock layers, flowing
parallel to the them, the resulting structures are called
concordant plutons but if the magma cuts across
existing rock layers, they are called discordant plutons.

33
 Intrusive igneous activity
• Types of intrusive igneous features
• Dike – a tabular, discordant pluton
• Sill – a tabular, concordant pluton (e.g.,
Palisades Sill in New York)
• Laccolith
– Similar to a sill
– Lens or mushroom-shaped mass
– Arches overlying strata upward

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Igneous structures

35
 Minor Intrusions
i) Dikes
• Dikes are tabular plutons
that cut across existing
rocks (discordant).
• These bodies are usually
very steep (vertical) and
often were feeder conduits
extending outward from
the main magma body
toward the surface. Dikes
are usually not more than
several meters wide (< 20
m) but may be many
kilometres in depth. Dike (dark layer) exposed on
the Grand Canyon
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ii) Sills
• Sills are concordant intrusive
pluton that are tabular and
often forms close to the
surface where rock pressure
is low allowing inflow of
magma between existing
rock layers.
• Sills range from few
centimetres to hundred of
metres thick (< 50 m thick)
and can extend to several
kilometres.
Sills of gabbro (dark layer)
exposed on the surface
37
iii) Laccoliths
• Laccoliths flow concordant to
existing rock but are highly
viscous (resists flow), thus, it lifts
up the overlying rocks forming a
mushroom shaped body.

Laccolith exposed on the

surface

38
A sill in the Salt River Canyon,
Arizona

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 Major Intrusions
i) Stocks
• An intrusive body similar to a
batholiths except its surface area
is less than 100 km2.
• They are smaller bodies that are
likely fed from deeper level
batholiths.
• Stocks may have been feeders for
volcanic eruptions, but because
large amounts of erosion are
required to expose a stock or
batholiths, the associated
volcanic rocks are rarely exposed.

ii) Batholiths
• Batholiths are large discordant
plutonic body that have a surface
area greater than 100 km2.
• These structures form very deep
and are often more than 30 km
thick.
• Erosion that has removed the
overlying rocks gives us a view of
the once-buried pluton.

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Batholiths
of western
North
America

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Types of Plutons

42
 Texture and Composition of Igneous Rock
• Relates to how large the individual mineral grains are in
the final, solid rock.
• In most cases, the resulting grain size depends on how
quickly the magma cooled.
• Most coarse grained rocks are intrusive whereas fined
grained rocks are extrusive.
Texture Definition Cooling History Example

Phaneritic Comprised of large Slow cooling of Granite, diorite

crystals that are magma deep
clearly visible to the underground
eye with or without a and the mineral
hand lens. grains are
visible.
Aphanitic Consist of small Rapid cooling in Basalt, rhyolite
crystals that cannot volcanic
be seen by the eye environments
with or without a having few
hand lens. phenocrysts
(larger grains).
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 Texture Definition
Porphyritic Composed of at least two
minerals having a
conspicuous (large)
difference in grain size.
The larger grains are
termed phenocrysts and
the finer grains are either
matrix or groundmass.
Large grains form initially
at depth but are
surrounded by a fine
grained matrix formed
when the remainder of the
magma cools near the
surface.
Glassy Non-crystalline where the
rock contains no mineral
grains.
Vesicular Refers to vesicles (holes,
pores or cavities) within
the igneous rock. Vesicles
result of gas expansion
(bubbles) often occurs
during volcanic eruption.
Cooling History Example
Two stages of Andesite
cooling, one at
depth where larger
phenocrysts formed
and a second at or
near the surface
where the matrix
grains crystallised.
Results from cooling Obsidian
that is so fast that
the minerals do not
have a chance to
crystallise.
Very fast cooling Pumice, scoria
with rapid gas
escape forming
bubbles in the non-
crystalline rocks.
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 Texture Definition Nature Example

Fragmental Comprised numerous Pyroclastic rocks Tuff

grains or fragments that that are blown out
have been welded into the
together by the heat of atmosphere during
volcanic eruption. violent eruptions.

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Bowen’s reaction series

46
Sodium=Natrium
Potassium=Kalium

47
Fig. 4-3, p. 79
 • Bowen found by
experiment that
the order in which
minerals crystallize
from a basaltic
magma depends on
temperature.
• As a basaltic
magma is cooled
Olivine and Ca-rich
plagioclase
crystallize first.
• Upon further
cooling, Olivine
reacts with the
the liquid to produce pyroxene and Ca-rich plagioclase react
with the liquid to produce less Ca-rich plagioclase.
• But, if the olivine and Ca-rich plagioclase are removed from
the liquid by crystal fractionation, then the remaining liquid
will be more SiO2 rich.
• If the process continues, an original basaltic magma can
change to first an andesite magma then a rhyolite magma
with falling temperature. 48
 Examples of Igneous Rocks
Name of Mode of Abundant Less Abundant
Texture
Rock Occurence Minerals Minerals
Granite Intrusive Coarse Quartz, Biotite,
sodium muscovite, Granite in thin section
Rhyollite Extrusive Fine with three (3) minerals
feldspar, hornblende biotite (grey to white),
potassium quartz (colourless) and
feldspar feldspar (brown)

Gabbro Intrusive Coarse Plagioclase, Hornblende,

pyroxines, biotite,
Basalt Extrusive Fine
olivine magnetite
Diorite Intrusive Coarse Plagioclase, Biotite,
hornblende pyroxenes
Andesite Extrusive Fine Basalt in thin section
(Quartz usually
with plagioclase (white)
absent) and surrounded by
pyroxene (coloured
Syenite Intrusive Coarse Potassium Sodium grains) also seen in
feldspar feldspar, biotite, Diabase (below)
Trachyte Extrusive Fine
hornblende
Peridotite Intrusive Coarse Olivine, Oxides from
pyroxenes iron

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The composition of the magma can be determined by the
assemblage of minerals present in the rock. Light-colored
igneous rocks are formed from silica-rich magmas (rhyolite,
granite) and contain abundant (~80%) white, pink, or
translucent minerals such as quartz and feldspar. In contrast,
silica-poor rocks (basalt, gabbro) are dominated by olivine,
pyroxene, and . biotite mica, all dark-colored minerals (black,
brown, dark green). Rocks of intermediate composition lie
somewhere between the light and dark rocks depending
upon the minerals present.

Minerals in light-colored silica-rich igneous rocks such as granite and rhyolite. From
left to right, orthoclase feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, muscovite mica, milky quartz,
translucent quartz 50
Granite (Tampin, Negri Sembilan)

Granite (Sg. Pergau, Kelantan)

51
Serpentinite (Raub, Pahang)

Basalt (Segamat, Johor)

52
 Plate tectonics and
igneous activity
• Global distribution of igneous activity
is not random
• Most volcanoes are located within or
near ocean basins
• Basaltic rocks = oceanic and continental
settings
• Granitic rocks = continental settings

53
Mt. St. Helens – prior
to the 1980 eruption

54
Mt. St. Helens after
the 1980 eruption

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3.3 SEDIMENTARY ROCK

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WEEK 5
Lesson Outcomes
Student should be able to:
• Describe the sedimentary rock classification scheme
and common sedimentary structures
• Identify the particle size classification scheme for
sedimentary particles
• Recognize examples of sedimentary rocks formed
from detrital particles, organic particles, inorganic
chemical precipitates, and organic chemical
precipitates

57
58
 3.3 SEDIMENTARY ROCK
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by
deposition and consolidation of new
sediments in layers, over the pre-
existing rocks.
• The new sediments are in fact eroded
away from some old rocks by
weathering and then transported by
agents like wind, water, ice, etc.
• Sedimentary rocks are generally found
to occur at or near the Earth’s surface
and cover about 75% on the surface
but only about 5% of Earth’s crust.
• The process that used to describe the
chemical, physical and biochemical
changes undergone by sediments after
its initial deposition and after
lithification is known as diagenesis.

59
 Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
• Weathering is a number of
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic chemical and mechanical
processes that acts to break
up rocks.
• Weathering includes chemical
Weathering reaction of minerals that
Physically Chemically
(Disintegration) initially formed at high
temperatures and pressures
at some depth within the
Erosion and Earth's crust.
Transportation
• Erosion (by wind and moving
water) transports the detrital
Deposition material away from its source
region to a new location
Compaction Lithification Cementation
where these new sediments
can be deposited.
• Lithification is a process of
compaction and cementation
of sediments due to additional
stress induced from time to
time and filling of void spaces
due to chemical precipitation
of groundwater. 60
•The increase in both temperature and pressure can lead to
partial dissolution of some of the grains that comprise the
sediment. When the fluids containing this dissolved material
are squeezed out of the sediment, they may flow into another
sediment where the pressure and temperature conditions
result in precipitation of the dissolved materials in the form of
interstitial minerals. These precipitates are referred to as
cements in that they form in the interstices between grains of
sediment and tend to stick the grains together.

•The increases in temperature and pressure also cause

chemical reactions to occur between the mineral grains of the
sediment and between the minerals and the fluids that are
trapped between the grains. These reactions, called digenetic
reactions also tend to decrease the amount of interstitial
volume between the grains of the rock, further cementing the
61
grains together.
Sedimentary Environments

62
i) Terrestrial environments (non-marine):
• Rivers (fluvial environment)
• Alluvial fans
• Lakes (lacustrine environment)
• Swamps
• Deserts
• Glacial environment

ii) Marine Environments:

• Continental shelf
• Continental slope and rise (deep sea fans)
• Abyssal plane
• Reefs

iii) Transitional environments (at the transition between the

marine and non-marine environments) :
• Beach and barrier islands
• Delta
• Lagoons
• Estuaries
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 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are classified according to two (2) major
classes known as:
i) Clastic (Detrital) Sedimentary Rocks
ii) Chemical / biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

i) Clastic (Detrital) Sedimentary Rocks

• Made up of mineral grains, fragments of other rocks (called
lithic fragments), shells and other inorganic (hard) of
formerly living organisms.
• The clastic particles or grains in a sedimentary rock are
cemented together by mineral precipitates that form during
the process of diagenesis.
• These rocks are divided according to sizes of component
particles such as:
a) Rudaceous (Latin word for gravelly)
b) Arenaceous (Latin word for sandy)
c) Argillaceous (French word for silty)

64
•As noted above clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from
mineral grains and rock fragments. Rocks with gravel size
detrital grains are called conglomerates, if the grains have
rounded outlines, or they are called breccias, if the grains are
angular in shape. Rocks made up of sand size grains are called
Sandstones. Sedimentary rocks comprised of mud sized grains
are called mudstones. If the grains in a mudstone are aligned
so that it splits up unto sheets, the rock is called a shale.

•They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) texture consisting

of:
1.Clasts (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel)
2.Matrix (mud or fine-grained sediment surrounding the clasts)
3.Cement (the glue that holds it all together), such as:
-calcite
-iron oxide
-silica

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Clasts and matrix (labelled),
and iron oxide cement
(reddish brown color)

66
• Identification of clastic rocks requires the observation of the
grain size, grain shape, composition, grain sorting and other
features that explained which environment they are formed.

a) Rudaceous Deposits
• Boulders, cobbles, pebbles and
granules are generally pieces of
rock e.g. flint and granite which
are greater than 2 mm.
Conglomerate
• Marine rudaceous deposits are
formed at the foot of cliffs from the
break up or falls of rock and
materials drifting across the
coastline and some are deposited
in the fluvial environment.
• Examples of rocks are
conglomerate (rounded clasts) and
breccia (angular clasts).
Breccia
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b) Arenaceous Deposits
• Most sand-grains are composed of
quartz and they may be rounded,
sub-angular or angular according to
the degree of transport and attrition Quartz
to which they have been subjected. Sandstone
• Other minerals that occur in sands
are feldspar, mica, apatite, garnet,
zircon, tourmaline and magnetite,
usually present in a small amount.
• The porosity of these deposits
depends on several factors:
Arkose
1. The grade sizes of grains.
2. The amount and kind of packing
which the grains have acquired.
3. The amount of cement present.
• Examples of rocks are many types Graywacke
(lithic
of sandstone. sandstone)
68
c) Argillaceous Deposits
• Clays and silts are muddy
sediments (< 0.002 mm)
deposited slowly in still water on
the continental shelf or in lakes Claystone
and estuaries.
• Mud is technically a mixture of
both clays and silts and it forms
mudstone.
• Compaction and consolidation
processes result in the progressive
change from a soft mud to a stiff Shale
clay of greater strength, which the
mineral grains possesses a
preferred orientation.
• Examples are claystone, siltstone,
shale and mudstone.
Mudstone
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• Clastic sediments are classified based on the grain size,
diversity and identities of the detrital materials they are
made up of. The grain size classification is shown in the
table below:

70
71
Classification Grain size Wentworth size class
Gravel >256 mm boulder
32-256 mm cobble
4-32 mm pebble
2-4 mm granule
Sand 1-2 mm very coarse sand
0.5-1 mm coarse sand
0.25-0.5 mm medium sand
0.125-0.25 mm fine sand
0.0625-0.125 mm very fine sand
Mud (silt) 0.031-0.0625 mm coarse silt
0.0156-0.031 mm medium silt
0.0078-0.0156 mm fine silt
0.0039-0.0078 mm very fine silt
Mud (clay) <0.0039 mm clay

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ii) Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

• They are deposited from aqueous solutions and

precipitation may be caused by chemical and biochemical
processes.
• Chemical sedimentary rocks are classified based on the
chemistry of the dominant minerals whereas biochemical
sedimentary rocks consist of fragments of particles
produced by precipitation from once living organism.
• These rocks are divided based on five (5) different deposits
where they were accumulated which include:
a) Calcareous deposits
b) Siliceous deposits
c) Saline deposits
d) Carbonaceous deposits (Mostly coals)
e) Ferruginous deposits (Mostly ironstones)

73
• Chemical sediments form by direct precipitation
from solution. Typical solutions that chemical
sediments form from include: sea water, fresh
surface water in rivers and lakes and groundwater.

• One common class of chemical sedimentary rocks is

called evaporites. Evaporites form by precipitation
from sea water or brackish fresh water. The
scenario for the formation of an evaporite requires
that a batch of sea water becomes isolated from
input of additional sea water, for example in a
lagoon. The isolated sea water then begins to
evaporate, which concentrates the dissolved salts
and other components of sea water. As evaporation
proceeds, various minerals will be precipitated from
the water.

• Minerals that are formed in this way and are found

in evaporites are listed in the table below.
74
 Common minerals in Evaporites

Mineral Formula Mineral Formula

Halite NaCl Sylvite KCl

Anhydrite CaSO4 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O

Calcite CaCO3 Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2

75
• This group includes the evaporites, the
carbonates (limestones and dolostone), and
the siliceous rocks.

• These rocks form within the depositional

basin from chemical components dissolved in
the seawater. These chemicals may be
removed from seawater and made into rocks
by chemical processes, or with the
assistance of biological processes (such as
shell growth). In some cases it is difficult to
sort the two out (in carbonates or some
siliceous rocks, for example), so they are
grouped together as chemical/biochemical.

76
a) Evaporites - The
evaporites form from the
evaporation of water
(usually seawater).
1.Rock salt - composed
of halite (NaCl).
2.Rock gypsum -
composed of gypsum
(CaSO4.2H20)
3.Travertine - composed
of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), and therefore,
also technically a
carbonate rock;
travertine forms in caves 1. Gypsum crystals,
and around hot springs. Marion lake,
Australia
77
2. Bonneville Salt Flats of
the Great Salt Lake,
Utah. The lake bed is
covered with rock salt
which gives it the
white color. The salt is
mined by the Morton
Salt Company

3. Layered gypsum
of the Castille
Formation,
Carlsbad, New
Mexico

78
b) Calcareous Deposits
• This deposits are organic and
biochemical in origin consisting calcium
carbonate and some magnesium
carbonate but have been sedimented as Dolomite
detritus to give the resulting rock
character predominantly detrital.
• Other rocks formed from this deposits
are dominantly organic or chemical in
nature which have been greatly
transported although some mechanical
sorting may have occurred. Limestone

• Examples are chalk, all types of

limestones (but some limestones
contain mixtures of other substance
such as siliceous, argillaceous,
ferruginous and bituminous), dolomite
and travertine. Chalk

79
1. Stromatolitic limestone

80
c) Siliceous Deposits
• They are chemically and organically
formed deposits such as siliceous
algae known as diatoms, flints and Chert
jasper.
• These deposits are found mainly in
the lacustrine environment and some
during the diagenesis process where
some siliceous deposits seem to
appear in limestone.
Flint
• Examples are chert, diatomite and
flint.

d) Saline Deposits
• When a body of salt water has Rock Salt
become isolated its salts crystallise
out as the water evaporates.
• This rock is known as evaporites.
• Some common rocks from the
evaporites are rock salt and gypsum.
Gypsum 81
e) Carbonaceous Deposits
• Consist of rocks composed of organic
matter (mainly plant fragments).
• They lack minerals (which must be Peat
inorganic, by definition) which are the
coals.
• In order of increasing depth of burial
(temperature and pressure):
Lignite
1. Peat (porous mass of brownish plant
fragments resembling peat moss)
2. Lignite (crumbly and black)
3. Bituminous coal (dull to shiny and
Bituminous coal
black; sooty; layers may be visible)
4. Anthracite coal (extremely shiny
and black, may have a slight
golden shine; low density; not
sooty)
Anthracite coal
82
 Shale (left) in thin
section with a thin Limestone (right)
stringer of very fine in thin section
grained quartz and presenting quartz
sandstone (right) surrounded by
consisting of quartz, brown calcite with
feldspar and other shell fragments.
83
minerals.
 Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks can be characterised based on these
factors:
i) Texture
ii) Beddings and laminations
iii) Colour
iv) Surface markings (Ripple marks and mud cracks)
v) Fossils

i) Texture
• The texture of sedimentary rocks can be easily seen from
the arrangement of particles and grains that make up the
rocks.
• There are two main textures which include:
a) Clastic – composed of particles and grains of individual
mineral and rock fragments.
b) Non clastic – usually crystalline and massive.
84
• Features such as grain shape, roundness, sorting, porosity
and packing of grains represent to which environment the
rocks are deposited.
Layer Thickness Characterisation
ii) Beddings and
Laminations > 300 cm Massive
• These are characteristic 100 – 300 cm Very thickly bedded
features imparted to the
rock during the process of 30 – 100 cm Thickly bedded
sediment transport and 10 – 30 cm Medium bedded
deposition.
3 – 10 cm Thinly bedded
• The layers can be described
using the following based 1 – 3 cm Very thinly bedded
on the layer thickness.
0.3 – 1 cm Thickly laminated
• Three (3) main types of
beddings are: < 0.3 cm Thinly laminated

a) Parallel bedding
b) Cross bedding
c) Graded bedding
d) Lamination Parallel Cross Graded Lamination
85
 Laminations

Stratification (also called bedding) in

Paleozoic rocks Laminations on a beach,
in the Red Mountain roadcut, Birmingham, St. Simons Island, Georgia
Alabama
86
• Graded bedding
results when a sediment-laden
current (such as a turbidity
current) begins to slow down.
The grain size within a graded
bed ranges from coarser at the
bottom to finer at the top.
Hence, graded beds may be Graded bedding
used as "up indicators".

87
• Cross-stratification
is a general term for the internal bedding structure
produced in sand by moving wind or water. If the
individual inclined layers are thicker than 1 cm, the
cross-stratification may be referred to as cross-
bedding. Thinner inclined layering is called cross-
lamination. Cross-stratification forms beneath ripples
and dunes. The layering is inclined at an angle to the
horizontal, dipping downward in the downcurrent
direction. Hence, cross-beds may be used as
paleocurrent indicators, or indicators of ancient current
flow directions. Cross-beds usually curve at the bottom
edge, becoming tangent to the lower bed surface. The
upper edge of individual inclined cross-beds is usually at
a steep angle to the overlying bedding plane. Hence,
cross-beds may also be used as "up indicators".
88
 Cross-stratification in a beach cut, Jekyll
Island, Georgia

Cross-stratification in an outcrop of Large scale cross-bedding in Triassic,

upper Paleozoic rocks in Birmingham, Alabama Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Canada
89
Cross-stratification in
a beach cut, Jekyll
Island, Georgia

Cross-stratification in an
outcrop of Large scale cross-bedding in
upper Paleozoic rocks in Triassic,
Birmingham, Alabama Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia,
Canada
90
iii) Colour
• Indicates the geochemical environment at the time of
deposition.
• Rocks which are formed in an abundant oxygen environment
are usually in shades of red or brown and if a small amount
of ferric iron in oxidised state is present, the shades will be
reddish to yellowish.
• Rocks which are formed in an environment lacking of oxygen
will be dark in colour e.g. sombre grey and shades of green.

iv) Surface Markings

• Ripple marks are characteristic of shallow water deposition.
• Caused by waves or winds piling up the sediments into long
ridges.
• Asymmetrical ripple marks give an indication of current
direction.
• Symmetrical ripples form when water moves back and forth.

91
Asymmetrical ripples on
a beach in Australia

Asymmetrical ripples and

cross-bedding

92
 Symmetrical wave ripples
and wave-ripple cross-
stratification in
Triassic lakebeds from the
Culpeper Basin, Virginia

Interactions between waves

and currents may produce a
more complex pattern of
interference ripples.

Interference ripples on the

Georgia coast; south end of
Jekyll Island. These ripples
are produced by the
interaction of waves and
currents in the ridge and
runnel system at the beach
93
Interference ripples in Paleozoic rocks
in the Appalachian Valley and Ridge
Province of northwestern Georgia

94
• Mud cracks result from drying out of wet
sediment at the surface of the Earth.
• Cracks form due to shrinkage of the
sediment as it dries. Ripple marks
• Raindrop marks are pits (tiny craters)
created by falling rain which suggest that
the sediment was exposed to the surface
of the Earth.
Mud cracks

v) Fossils

• Fossils are remains or evidence of ancient

plants and animals that have been
Algae fossil on
preserved in the Earth’s crust for a long
stromatolitic sandstone
period of time.
• Soft organic remains can be preserved in
anaerobic environments although they
may be greatly altered from their original
state. Dinosour tracks
on mudstone95
Shale (Batu Arang, Selangor)

Siltstone (Mersing, Johor) 96

Sandstone (Panti, Johor)

Limestone (Langkawi, Kedah)

97
98
WEEK 6
Lesson Outcomes
Student should be able to:
• Describe how metamorphic rocks each of the
three agents of metamorphism causes such
transformation
• Identify the two types of metamorphic
textures; foliated and non-foliated
• Describe the application of rocks in civil
engineering

99
 3.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• These rocks are formed due to the
transformation of pre-existing
igneous or sedimentary rocks that
have been buried deeply within
the crust due to the movement of
lithospheric plates.
• They have changed usually by the
presence of heat and pressure
from their original condition into
rocks with new minerals and
structures; some of the minerals
in the rocks are broken down and
form new minerals.
• The term metamorphism involves
the alteration of existing rocks by
either excessive heat and
pressure or through chemical
action of fluids.
• Metamorphism changes the
texture and mineralogy.
100
Heat and Metamorphism
• It is an important agent in the
metamorphic modification of rocks.
• Rocks begin to change chemically at
temperatures above 200o C where
the crystalline structure of the
minerals are broken down and
transformed using different
combinations of the available
elements and compounds, therefore
new minerals are created.
• Heat can be applied through two
processes which are tectonic
subduction and the intrusion of
magma and the temperatures
beneath the Earth’s surface increase
with depth at a rate of 25o C per
kilometer.
• This heat is generated from the
decay of radioactive materials,
mainly in the crust and heat
released from the Earth’s core.
101
Pressure and Metamorphism
• Buried rocks are subjected to pressure due to the weight
of overlying materials.
• Pressures can also be exerted on rocks due to forces
involved in a variety of tectonic processes.
• The effect of pressure on rocks can be seen from the
reorientation of mineral crystals.
• Under extreme levels of pressure, rocks become plastic
creating flow structures in their crystalline structure.

Chemical Action Fluids

• Water and carbon dioxide are often found in small
amounts in the perimeter between mineral crystals or in
the pore spaces of rocks.
• When mixed, the resulting fluid enhances metamorphism
by dissolving ions and by causing chemical reactions.
• Usually the end product of this process is the creation of
new minerals by substitution, removal or addition of
chemical ions.
102
TYPE OF METAMORPHISM.
Three types of metamorphism:
1. Contact Metamorphism
2. Regional Metamorphism
3. Dynamic Metamorphism

CONTACT METAMORPHISM
• When body of magma alters the surrounding country rock.
• Important factors :
i. initial temperature – mafic magma hotter than felsic magma
ii. size of intrusion – batholith has greater effect
iii. fluid content – fluid in magma will reacts with the minerals
(hydrothermal alteration).
• Aureole – altered country rocks by heat and fluid reactions.
103
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
• Tremendous pressure, heat and deformation over very large
area (deeper portion of crust).
• Associated with plate boundaries (TECTONIC ACTIVITIES) –
convergent and divergent.
• Deep burial of accumulated sedimentary rocks (9000m to
12000m) of 1000m thick or more and thousand of square km.
(very old rocks – precambrian etc)

DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM
• Associated with fault zones (high differential pressure)
• Mylonite are formed (hard, dense, fine-grained rock) –
restricted adjacent to fault zone.

• Metamorphic rocks also can be dividen into low, intermediate

or high grade metamorphism – based on temperature of 104
metamorphism processes.
 Types of Metamorphism
Type Description Common effects Example
(assume there will be new rock
mineral growth with all types) types
contact heating of country rocks during Growth of new metamorphic hornfels
(thermal) igneous intrusion or beneath minerals in random orientations
thick flows
regional large scale metamorphism Involves burial to produce Large variety
characteristic of mountain belts elevated pressures and of rock
and shield areas as a result of temperatures controlled by the types,
tectonism depth attained in the crust or including
mantle and deformation to slates,
(burial) "Subset" of regional produce tectonic fabrics phyllites,
metamorphism; involves the schists,
postdiagenetic, progressive gneisses
changes occurring to
sedimentary rocks during burial
dynamic response to intense strain and Oriented fabrics, brecciation, mylonites,
is commonly of localized granularisation fault breccias
occurrence
Hydro chemical reactions as a result Metasomatism (change in skarns
thermal of circulation fluids. Common at chemical composition)
sea floor spreading centre
impact impact of large, high velocity Shock effects producing dense Shatter
meteorites minerals at earths surface which cones,
normally occur at mantle depths shocked
quartz 105
Metamorphism of Rocks

106
107
Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks
• The processes of compaction and recrystallisation change
the texture of the rocks during metamorphism.

i) Compaction
• The grains move closer together.
• The rock becomes more dense.
• Porosity is reduced.
• Examples are from clay to shale and shale to slate

ii) Recrystallization
• Growth of new crystals.
• No changes in the overall chemistry.
• New crystals grow from the present minerals.
• A preferred orientation of minerals commonly develops
under applied pressure.
• Platy or sheet-like minerals such as muscovite and biotite
become oriented perpendicular to the direction of force
known as foliation.

108
 CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• A planar set of minerals or banding of
minerals concentrations, especially planar
structure that results from flattening of
the mineral grains. Schist
• The textures that relate to foliation are:
i) Schistosity – a pervasive, parallel
foliation (layering) of fine grained platy
minerals (chlorite) in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of
maximum stress seen in schist and
phyllite.
ii) Slaty cleavage – the layering in a coarse
grained, crystalline rock due to the
parallel arrangement of platy mineral
grains such as muscovite and biotite,
whereas other minerals present are
typically quartz and feldspar including Slate
other variety of minerals such as garnet, 109
staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite.
iii) Gneissic banding – the layering in a rock
in which bands or lenses of granular
minerals (quartz and feldspar) alternate
with bands or lenses in which platy
(mica) or elongated (amphibole)
minerals predominate. Gneiss
iv) Lineation refers to the alignment of
elongated, rod-like minerals such as
amphibole, pyroxene, tourmaline,
kyanite, etc and is a texture commonly
seen in metamorphic rock amphibolite
derived from the metamorphism of
basalt. Amphibolite

Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks

• Also known as granular metamorphic
rocks are composed of equidimensional
grains such as quartz and calcite.
• There is no preferred orientation since
the grains form a mosaic. Marble (left) and
• Examples are marble and quartzite. quartzite.
110
Marble in thin section Phyllite in thin section Amphibolite 111
Slate in thin section
112
Slate (Sg. Aring, Kelantan)

Phyllite (East-West Highway, Perak)

113
Schist (Mersing, Johor)

Quartzite (Sg. Lui, Selangor)

114
Geological Map of Malaysia

115
 3.5 ROCKS IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
a) Engineering in Igneous Rocks
b) Engineering in Sedimentary
Rocks
c) Engineering in Metamorphic
Rock Terrains

116
Engineering in Igneous Rocks

• Igneous rocks vary greatly in suitability for

various types of engineering projects. An
engineering site investigation must answer
two questions:
1. What rock types are present and how are
they distributed?
2. How have the rocks been changed or altered
since formation?

117
• The geologists and engineers working on the
project must determine the origin of the
igneous rock, its contacts with adjoining rock
types and their conditions, and the mineralogy
of the rocks.
• Unaltered intrusive igneous rocks
generally are very suitable for most types of
engineering projects. The interlocking network
of mineral crystals gives the rock great
strength. These rocks thus provide adequate
support for building or dam foundations, can
remain stable at high angles in excavations,
and require minimal support in tunnels.
Because of the dense interlocking of crystals
within the rock, very little water can move
through. Therefore, unaltered intrusive rocks
are well suited for construction of reservoirs
because of the low potential for leakage. 118
• Extrusive rocks are much less uniform.
Sequences of extrusive rocks contain
pyroclastic materials and lahars deposits,
which are much weaker than crystalline rocks.
These rocks may be susceptible to slope
failures in excavations and also provide more
variable and generally weaker foundation
support. In general, the water bearing
capacity of extrusive rocks is much greater
than intrusive rocks. Eg. Columbia Plateau.
This same property can render the rocks
unsuitable for reservoir or tunnel construction.

119
•A network of fractures within a rock
mass can greatly increase the potential
for failures of natural or excavated slopes
and also increase the construction
problems of dams, tunnels, and other
structures.
•Rocks can be fractured in the
near-surface environment by freezing and
thawing as well as by other means. Thus
a mass of igneous rocks generally is more
fractured near the surface than at depth.
Eg. weathering

120
Engineering in Sedimentary Rocks

• Stable vertical slopes can usually be excavated in

well-cemented, horizontally bedded sandstones
and limestones. Flatter slope angles must be cut
for weaker rock types. A particularly important
factor in the stability of sedimentary rock slopes is
the direction and amount of slope, or dip, of
bedding.
• The most unfavorable situation occurs where
bedding dips in the downslope direction of a
slope or excavation.
• Bedding planes are zones of weakness
sedimentary rock masses and failure may occur.
121
• Tunneling and underground mining in
sedimentary rocks are influenced by lithology
and structure (orientation of bedding).
• Well-cemented sedimentary rocks are
generally adequate for most type of building
foundations.
• Special problems occur in limestones and
evaporite deposits because these rocks are
soluble under the action of flowing
groundwater. The soils and rocks overlying
underground cavities produced by chemical
dissolution may collapse into the voids,
damaging or destroying buildings constructed
at the surface

122
Engineering in Metamorphic Rock
Terrains

• Nonfoliated rocks possess similar

engineering properties to intrusive igneous
rocks. In an unaltered and unfractured
condition, they can be considered to be
strong materials, with few limitations for
foundations, tunnels and dams.
• Vertical excavation slopes will remain
stable.

123
• Foliated metamorphic rocks are
more similar to sedimentary rocks
because of their tendency to fail along
specific planes.
• Foliation planes are similar to bedding
planes. The orientation of foliation
planes with respect to a natural slope or
excavation, therefore becomes critical
to the stability of the material.

124
•In a way similar to the igneous and
sedimentary rocks, the behavior of a
metamorphic rock mass depends
upon the degree and orientation of
fractures and the weathering
characteristics. These properties
must be certained prior to
construction of each individual
engineering project.

125