Pressure measurement

The construction of a bourdon tube gauge. Construction elements are made of brass.

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.
Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.

A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure, although

the term is currently often used to mean any pressure measuring instrument.

A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum—which is further divided into
two subcategories: high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable
pressure ranges of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap.
Hence, by combining several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system
pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11 mbar.

Absolute, gauge and differential pressures - zero reference

Everyday pressure measurements, such as for tire pressure, are usually made relative to
ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to
some other specific reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the
following terms are used:

 Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute

scale, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
 Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to
absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted.
To distinguish a negative pressure, the value may be appended with the word
"vacuum" or the gauge may be labeled a "vacuum gauge."

 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.

The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are added only
when clarification is needed. Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by
convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and altimeter pressures
must be absolute.

1
For most working fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system, gauge pressure measurement
prevails. Pressure instruments connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the
current atmospheric pressure. The situation changes when extreme vacuum pressures are
measured; absolute pressures are typically used instead.

Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems. Differential pressure
gauges have two inlet ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be
monitored. In effect, such a gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction
through mechanical means, obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch
two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings.

Moderate vacuum pressure readings can be ambiguous without the proper context, as they
may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign. Thus a vacuum
of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 30 inHg (typical atmospheric
pressure) − 26 inHg = 4 inHg.

Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and
weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same
fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example, when a car drives up a
mountain, the (gauge) tire pressure goes up because atmospheric pressure goes down. The
absolute pressure in the tire is essentially unchanged.

Using atmospheric pressure as reference is usually signified by a g for gauge after the
pressure unit, e.g. 70 psig, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure
minus atmospheric pressure. There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge
(vg) and sealed gauge (sg).

A vented gauge pressure transmitter for example allows the outside air pressure to be
exposed to the negative side of the pressure sensing diaphragm, via a vented cable or a hole
on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient
barometric pressure. Thus a vented gauge reference pressure sensor should always read
zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air.

A sealed gauge reference is very similar except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the
negative side of the diaphragm. This is usually adopted on high pressure ranges such as
hydraulics where atmospheric pressure changes will have a negligible effect on the accuracy
of the reading, so venting is not necessary. This also allows some manufacturers to provide
secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for pressure equipment safety if the
burst pressure of the primary pressure sensing diaphragm is exceeded.

There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference and this is to seal a high vacuum
on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm. Then the output signal is offset so the
pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric pressure.

A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero because
atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar.

An absolute pressure measurement is one that is referred to absolute vacuum. The best
example of an absolute referenced pressure is atmospheric or barometric pressure.

2
To produce an absolute pressure sensor the manufacturer will seal a high vacuum behind
the sensing diaphragm. If the process pressure connection of an absolute pressure
transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual barometric pressure.

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N·m−2 or
kg·m−1·s−2). This special name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was
expressed in units such as N·m−2. When indicated, the zero reference is stated in parenthesis
following the unit, for example 101 kPa (abs). The pound per square inch (psi) is still in
widespread use in the US and Canada, for measuring, for instance, tire pressure. A letter is
often appended to the psi unit to indicate the measurement's zero reference; psia for
absolute, psig for gauge, psid for differential, although this practice is discouraged by the
NIST.[1]

Because pressure was once commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid
in a manometer, pressures are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid (e.g., inches of
water). Manometric measurement is the subject of pressure head calculations. The most
common choices for a manometer's fluid are mercury (Hg) and water; water is nontoxic and
readily available, while mercury's density allows for a shorter column (and so a smaller
manometer) to measure a given pressure. The abbreviation "W.C." or the words "water
column" are often printed on gauges and measurements that use water for the manometer.

Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local
factors, so the height of a fluid column does not define pressure precisely. So measurements
in "millimetres of mercury" or "inches of mercury" can be converted to SI units as long as
attention is paid to the local factors of fluid density and gravity. Temperature fluctuations
change the value of fluid density, while location can affect gravity.

Although no longer preferred, these manometric units are still encountered in many fields.
Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury (see torr) in most of the world, and
lung pressures in centimeters of water are still common, as in settings for CPAP machines.
Natural gas pipeline pressures are measured in inches of water, expressed as "inches W.C."
Scuba divers often use a manometric rule of thumb: the pressure exerted by ten meters
depth of water is approximately equal to one atmosphere. In vacuum systems, the units torr,
micrometre of mercury (micron),[citation needed] and inch of mercury (inHg) are most commonly
used. Torr and micron usually indicates an absolute pressure, while inHg usually indicates a
gauge pressure.

Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using kilopascal (kPa), or atmospheres (atm),
except in American meteorology where the hectopascal (hPa) and millibar (mbar) are
preferred. In American and Canadian engineering, stress is often measured in kip. Note that
stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar. In the cgs system the unit of pressure was
the barye (ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm−2. In the mts system, the unit of pressure was the pieze,
equal to 1 sthene per square metre.

Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm 2 or grams-force/cm2 (sometimes as
[[kg/cm2]] without properly identifying the force units). Using the names kilogram, gram,
kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their symbols) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI; the unit
of force in SI is the newton (N).

3
Absolute, Gage, Vacuum, and Atmospheric Pressures

Quick
absolute pressure - The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure,
and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
gage pressure - Gage pressure is the pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure. In other
words, how much above or below is the pressure with respect to the atmospheric pressure.
vacuum pressure - Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and
are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the absolute pressure.
atmospheric pressure - The atmospheric pressure is the pressure that an area experiences
due to the force exerted by the atmosphere.

Equations
Pgage = Pabs − Patm gage pressure
Pvac = Patm − Pabs vacuum pressure
Pabs = Patm + Pgage absolute pressure

Nomenclature
Pabs absolute pressure
Pgage gage pressure
Pvac vacuum pressure
Patm atmospheric pressure

Details

The atmospheric pressure is the pressure that an area experiences due to the force exerted
by the atmosphere. For engineering calculations typically the pressure used is the pressure
at sea level. Typically, the quantity used for engineering calculations is 1 atm, or 101 kPa.
Gage pressure is the pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure. In other words, how
much above or below is the pressure with respect to the atmospheric pressure. Absolute
pressure is the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the gage pressure. If the gage pressure
has a positive value, the absolute pressure will be greater than the atmospheric pressure. If
the gage pressure has a negative value, the absolute pressure will be less than the
atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure can be abbreviated by Pabs, or just P.

4
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices,
however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference
between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called
the gage pressure. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and
are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the absolute pressure.

Like other pressure gages, the gage used to measure the air pressure in an automobile tire
reads the gage pressure. Therefore, the common reading of 32 psi (2.25 kgf/cm 2) indicates a
pressure of 32 psi above the atmospheric pressure.

With respect to thermodynamic relations and tables, absolute pressure is almost always
used. Often the letters "a" (for absolute pressure) and "g" (for gage pressure) are added to
pressure units (such as psia and psig) to clarify what is meant.

Difference Between Gauge and Absolute Pressure Measurement

Pressure can be described as the force applied to an area. There are many different systems
of pressure measurement, with absolute pressure and sealed gauge pressure being two of
the most common. There are many differences between these two measurements of
pressure that have significant effects on their use and measurement. Depending on why you
are measuring pressure, determining whether you need gauge or absolute reference

5
pressure is as important as selecting the pressure range itself, particularly for low pressure. If
you get it wrong it could create huge errors in your measurements.

The simplest way to explain the difference between the two is that absolute pressure uses
absolute zero as its zero point, while gauge pressure uses atmospheric pressure as its zero
point. Due to varying atmospheric pressure, gauge pressure measurement is not precise,
while absolute pressure is always definite.

Gauge Pressure

The most common pressure reference is gauge pressure which is signified by a ‘g’ after the
pressure unit e.g. 30 psig. Gauge pressure is measured in relation to ambient atmospheric
pressure. Changes of the atmospheric pressure due to weather conditions or altitude
directly influence the output of a gauge pressure sensor. A gauge pressure higher than
ambient pressure is referred to as positive pressure. If the measured pressure is below
atmospheric pressure it is called negative or vacuum gauge pressure.

Gauge pressure sensors only usually have one pressure port. The ambient air pressure is
directed through a vent hole or a vent tube to the back of the sensing element. A vented
gauge pressure transmitter allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative
side of the pressure sensing diaphragm so that it always measures with reference to the
ambient barometric pressure. Therefore a vented gauge pressure sensor reads zero pressure
when the process pressure connection is held open to atmospheric air.

A sealed gauge reference is very similar except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the
negative side of the diaphragm. This is usually adopted on high pressure applications such as
measuring hydraulic pressures where atmospheric pressure changes will have only a slight
effect on the accuracy of the senso. The definition of sealed-gauge pressure is the pressure
measured through a sealed device in which the zero point is set. This set point is whatever
the pressure inside of the device was before sealing, which the manufacturer of the sealed
pressure gauge decides.

Absolute Pressure

The definition of absolute pressure is the pressure of having no matter inside a space, or a
perfect vacuum. Measurements taken in absolute pressure use this absolute zero as their
reference point. The best example of an absolute referenced pressure is the measurement of
barometric pressure. In order to produce an absolute pressure sensor the manufacturer will
seal a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm. Therefore if you hold open the process
pressure connection of an absolute pressure transmitter to the air it will read the actual
barometric pressure.

So how do you know when to measure absolute pressure or when to measure gauge
pressure?
This is not always straightforward but generally if you want to measure or control a pressure
that is influenced by changes in atmospheric pressure, like the level of liquid in an open tank
for example; you would choose vented gauge pressure as you are interested in the pressure
reading minus the atmospheric pressure component.

6
If you want to measure pressures that are not influenced by changes in atmospheric
pressure, e.g. leak testing a completely sealed non-flexible container, you would use an
absolute pressure sensor. If a gauge pressure sensor was used instead to measure the
container pressure, and the barometric pressure changed, then the sensor’s reading would
change, despite the fact that the pressure in the container remains the sa

What's the Difference Between Gauge and Absolute Pressure

Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure - is measured relative to the absolute zero pressure - the pressure
that would occur at absolute vacuum. All calculation involving the gas laws requires pressure
(and temperature) to be in absolute units.
Gauge Pressure
A gauge is often used to measure the pressure difference between a system and the
surrounding atmosphere. This pressure is often called the gauge pressure. Therefore Gauge
pressure is measured from atmospheric and absolute is measured from 0 (as all absolute
scales are measured from). They both use the same scale for measuring.
Standard atmosphere at sea level is 14.7lb/in^2 of pressure absolute and 0 pressure gauge.
If you had 100 psi gauge pressure you'd have 14.7+100psi absolute. Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is pressure in the surrounding air at - or "close" to - the surface of the
earth. The atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and altitude above sea level.

7
Liquid column

The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the pressure

difference.

By using the pressure head equation, liquids can be used for instrumentation where gravity
is present. Liquid column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube that has ends
which are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight (a force
applied due to gravity) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends
of the tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure). A very simple version is a U-shaped tube
half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference
pressure (which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The
difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column
of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, P = hgρ.
Therefore, the pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference
pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving Pa − P0 = hgρ. In other words,
the pressure on either end of the liquid (shown in blue in the figure to the right) must be
balanced (since the liquid is static) and so Pa = P0 + hgρ.

In most liquid column measurements, the result of the measurement is the height, h,
expressed typically in mm, cm, or inches. The h is also known as the pressure head. When
expressed as a pressure head, pressure is specified in units of length and the measurement
fluid must be specified. When accuracy is critical, the temperature of the measurement fluid
must likewise be specified, because liquid density is a function of temperature. So, for
example, pressure head might be written "742.2 mmHg" or "4.2 inH2O at 59 °F" for
measurements taken with mercury or water as the manometric fluid, respectively. The word
"gauge" or "vacuum" may be added to such a measurement to distinguish between a
pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure. Both mm of mercury and inches of
water are common pressure heads which can be converted to S.I. units of pressure using
unit conversion and the above formulas.

8
If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be
made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the
location where the pressure measurement is desired except when measuring differential
pressure of a fluid (for example across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case the density ρ
should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured. [2]

Although any fluid can be used, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm 3) and
low vapour pressure. For low pressure differences, light oil or water are commonly used (the
latter giving rise to units of measurement such as inches water gauge and millimetres H2O.
Liquid-column pressure gauges have a highly linear calibration. They have poor dynamic
response because the fluid in the column may react slowly to a pressure change.

When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if
its vapor pressure is too high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a
light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from mixing but this can be unnecessary,
for example when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential pressure
of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few
Torr (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa)

A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-
tube and has a scale beside the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further
amplify the liquid movement. Based on the use and structure following type of manometers
are used[3]

1. Simple Manometer
2. Micromanometer

3. Differential manometer

4. Inverted differential manometer

Bourdon Gauge.

The Bourdon pressure gauge, patented by the French engineer Eugene Bourdon in 1849,
remains one of the most widely used gauges for measuring pressure in liquids and gases of
many different types. This is because such gauges are simple to use, safe, and inexpensive,
as well as highly accurate. Bourdon tubes are usable when measuring both high pressure
and vacuum, and they are important components of devices used to measure various types
of pressure, including gauge, absolute, and differential pressure.

Basically, a Bourdon pressure gauge consists of a tube coiled into a spiral shape or helix, or
formed into a C shape, so that when the pressure increases, the tube will straighten out. The
tube will have an oval cross-section and, usually, one end will be connected to the pressure
source. The tube pressure gauge is usually attached to a pointing device or dial so that the
slight movements of the tube as it straightens out under pressure can be easily seen and
accurately measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or another measurement system.
Bourdon tube pressure gauges are available for the many different situations in which
someone would need to measure pressure, but they all follow this same basic model.

9
Such a gauge can be made to be as accurate as 0.1% for precision measurement. For
situations in which such a degree of accuracy is unnecessary, cheaper but less precise
devices are also available. Bourdon gauges are used to measure pressure in simple devices,
such as household barometers, as well as in specialized devices used in industrial,
mechanical, and medical settings. The wide range of uses for them and the way in which
they can be incorporated into a wide variety of devices greatly contributes to both their
usefulness and popularity.

While generally robust in construction, a Bourdon pressure gauge can be damaged by

physical force or by exposing the device to conditions for which the particular gauge is not
rated, such as extreme temperatures or corrosive liquids. The pressure indicator should
return to zero when pressure is removed; if it does not, the gauge is likely damaged and will
need to be replaced. Accessories are available that can be used to cushion or protect a
gauge from a variety of conditions that may damage it. Blowout protection, safety casing,
and weatherproof and corrosion-proof casings should always be used so that, if the device
does fail, no material will escape from the casing.

Simple Mercury Barometer.

A barometer is widely used as weather instruments that measures atmospheric pressure

(also known as air pressure or barometric pressure) the weight of the air in the atmosphere.

A barometer is a typically a tube filled with mercury sitting upside down in a container filled
with mercury (called a reservoir). When the atmospheric pressure falls, it presses down the
mercury in the container thereby forcing the mercury in the tube up. When atmospheric
pressure is low, the mercury in the tube is allowed to flow back into the container.

The mercury barometer is made up of glass tube, sealed at the top. It contains mercury, and
the base of the tube dips into a beaker, and below the surface in the beaker.

Atmospheric pressure pushes down on the mercury in the beaker, which in turn pushes the
mercury up the tube. If the space above the mercury in the tube is a vacuum, then nothing
is pushing down on the top of the mercury in the tube, and atmospheric pressure will push
the mercury up until the pressure of the column of mercury balances the atmospheric
pressure. The height h from the top of the mercury in the beaker, to the top of the mercury
in the tube can be used to calculate atmospheric pressure.

The height h is approximately 760 mm of mercury and in some countries atmospheric

pressure is still quoted in mm of mercury.

Note that the mercury has a convex (curved upwards) shape when in contact with glass. You
should measure to the top of the mercury in the tube, and to the flat surface of the mercury
in the beaker.

Mercury barometers are no longer made because mercury is a highly poisonous metal with
poisonous vapour.

10
Bourdon tube pressure gauges
Bourdon tube pressure gauges are the most common type in many areas and are used to
measure medium to high pressures. They cover measuring spans from 600 mbar to 4,000
bar. The measuring element is a curved tube with a circular, spiral or coiled shape,
commonly called a bourdon tube. This tube moves outward when the pressure inside the
tube is higher than the external pressure, and inward when the internal pressure is lower.
This motion is proportional to the pressure to be measured, and it is coupled to the pointer
mechanism.
The U tube manometer
The fact that the pressure at a certain level in a liquid is the same at all points at that level is
used in the manometer – a device for measuring pressure or comparing the densities of two
liquids.

In Figure 1 a U tube is partly filled with liquid. The pressure of the

air on both the open ends is the same, the pressure at the points A
and B must be the same (same level in the liquid) and so the levels
of the top of each limb of the U tube are equal.

In Figure 2 the U tube is still partly filled with liquid but this time
someone blows into the right hand open end. The pressure at the
points A and B must still be the same (same level in the liquid) and
so the height of the column of liquid on the right is less than that on
the left.
The pressure at A is due to the ordinary air pressure plus the height
of the column above A and the pressure at B is the higher air
pressure plus the liquid column above B.

In Figure 3 the U tube contains two different liquids. The yellow

liquid on the right has a higher density than the blue liquid on the
left and so less of it is needed to give the same pressure at points A
and B. The pressure at the points A and B must still be the same.
The pressure at A is due to the ordinary air pressure plus the height
of the column above A and the pressure at B is the higher air pressure plus the liquid column
above B.

Measurement of pressure using a manometer

If the pressure on one limb of a U tube is greater than the
other this difference in pressure can be measured by simply
finding the DIFFERENCE in height (h) of the liquid in the two
limbs of the U tube. In the diagram shown here (Figure 4)
11
this difference is 11 cm.

This apparatus can be used to measure the pressure of your lungs above atmospheric
pressure by simply blowing into one end of a long U tube and the finding the difference in
liquid levels. If water is used as the liquid in the U tube your lung pressure will be anything
between about 50 and 200 cm of water. This means that you could hold up a column of
water between 50 and 200 cm high just by blowing.

The actual pressure above atmospheric in pascals can be worked out using the formula:

Pressure = depth x density x gravity = 0.11 x 1000 x 10 = 110 Pa

(Acceleration due to the Earth's gravity = 10 m/s 2 and density of water = 1000 kg/m3)

U-TUBE MANOMETER.
One of the earliest pressure measuring instruments is still in wide use today because of its
inherent accuracy and simplicity of operation. It's the U-tube manometer, which is a U-
shaped glass tube partially filled with liquid. This manometer has no moving parts and
requires no calibration. Manometry measurements are functions of gravity and the liquid's
density, both physical properties that make the U-tube manometer a NIST standard for
accuracy.

Manometers are both pressure

measurement instruments and
calibration standards. They range
from simple U-tubes and wells filled
with liquid to portable digital
instruments with a computer
interface.

12
As shown in Figure 1, with each leg of a U-tube manometer exposed to the atmosphere, the
height of liquid in the columns is equal. Using this point as a reference and connecting each
leg to an unknown pressure, the difference in column heights indicates the difference in
pressures (see Figure 2).

Figure 1. With both legs

of a U-tube manometer
open to the atmosphere
or subjected to the same
pressure, the liquid
maintains the same level
in each leg, establishing a
zero reference.
Figure 2. With a greater
pressure applied to the
left side of a U-tube
manometer, the liquid
lowers in the left leg and
rises in the right leg. The
liquid moves until the unit
weight of the liquid, as
indicated by h, exactly
balances the pressure.

The fundamental relationship for pressure expressed by a liquid column is:

Δp = P2-P1 = ρgh (1)
where:
Δp = differential pressure
P1 = pressure at the low-pressure connection
P2 = pressure at the high-pressure connection
ρ = density of the indicating fluid (at a specific temperature)
g = acceleration of gravity (at a specific latitude and elevation)
h = difference in column heights
The resulting pressure is the difference between forces exerted per unit of surface area of
the liquid columns, with pounds per square inch (psi) or newtons per square meter (pascals)
as the units. The manometer is so often used to measure pressure that the difference in
column heights is also a common unit. This is expressed in inches or centimeters of water or
mercury at a specific temperature, which can be changed to standard units of pressure with
a conversion table.

13
All pressure measurements are differential. The reference can be zero absolute pressure (a
total vacuum), atmospheric pressure (the barometric pressure), or another pressure. With
one leg of a manometer open to the atmosphere (see Figure 3A), the measured pressure is
that which exceeds atmospheric pressure, which at sea level is 14.7 psi, 101.3 kPa, or 76
cmHg.

Figure 3. Gauge pressure is a measurement relative to

atmospheric pressure and it varies with the barometric
reading. A gauge pressure measurement is positive
when the unknown pressure exceeds atmospheric
pressure (A), and is negative when the unknown
pressure is less than atmospheric pressure (B).

This measurement is called gauge pressure, and the relationship for a positive pressure is
expressed by:
absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + positive gauge pressure (2)
For a negative pressure (vacuum) measurement (see Figure 3B), the column heights reverse
and the relationship is expressed by:
absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + negative gauge pressure (3)
These pressure relationships are shown in Figure 4.

14
Figure 4. A graphical representation of positive and negative gauge
pressure shows the differential aspect of all pressure
measurements, where gauge pressure is the difference between
absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure.

Figure 5. In a sealed-tube
manometer, the pressure
reference is a vacuum, or
zero absolute pressure.
The most common form
of a sealed-tube
manometer is the
conventional mercury
barometer used to
measure atmospheric
pressure.

A manometer can be
designed to directly
measure absolute
pressure. The manometer
in Figure 5 measures the
pressure compared to
zero absolute pressure in
a sealed leg above a
mercury column. The
most common form of
this manometer is the
conventional mercury
barometer used to
measure atmospheric
pressure. With just one
connection, this
configuration can
measure pressures above
and below atmospheric
pressure.

15
Variations on the U-Tube
Manometer

The differential pressure

is always the difference in
column heights,
regardless of the size or
shape of the tubes. As
shown in Figure 6A, the
legs of both manometers
are open to the
atmosphere and the
indicating fluids are at the
same level. Connecting
the same pressure to the
left leg of each
manometer causes its
level to lower. Because of
the variation in volume in
the manometer legs, the
fluid in each column
moves a different
distance. However, the
difference between the
fluid levels in both
manometers is identical
(see Figure 6B).

16
Figure 6. The pressure reading is always the difference between
fluid heights, regardless of the tube sizes. With both manometer
legs open to the atmosphere, the fluid levels are the same (A). With
an equal positive pressure applied to one leg of each manometer,
the fluid levels differ, but the distance between the fluid heights is

Figure 7. In a well-type
manometer, the cross-
sectional area of one leg
(the well) is much larger
than the other leg. When
pressure is applied to the
well, the fluid lowers only 17
slightly compared to the
fluid rise in the other leg.
Carrying this variation in
tube sizes further is the
well-type (or reservoir)
manometer (see Figure
7). As pressure is applied
to the well, the level falls
slightly as compared to
the level rise in the
column. By compensating
the column's scale
graduations to correct for
the well drop, it is
possible to make a direct
reading of differential
pressure. There are
connection guidelines
placed on well-type
manometers, compared
to the U-tube style:
Connect pressures
higher than
atmospheric to
the well; connect
pressures lower
than atmospheric
to the tube.
For differential
measurements,
connect the
higher pressure to

For raised-well
manometers, the
well connection
can be used for
gauge and vacuum
measurements.

A variation of the well-type

manometer is the inclined-
tube (or draft gauge)
manometer in Figure 8.
With an inclined indicating
tube, 1 in. of a vertical rise
is stretched over several
inches of scale length. The
inclined-tube manometer
has better sensitivity and

18
 resolution for low pressures.

8. Low pressure and low differentials are better

ed with an inclined-tube manometer, where 1 in.
tical liquid height can be stretched to 12 in. of

Liquid manometers
measure differential
pressure by balancing the
weight of a liquid
between two pressures.
Light liquids such as water
can measure small
pressure differences;
mercury or other heavy
liquids are used for large
pressure differences. For
an indicating fluid 3 times
heavier than water, the
pressure measurement
range is 3 times greater,
but the resolution is

Indicating fluids can be

colored water, oil,
benzenes, bromides, and
pure mercury. When
selecting an indicating

specifications for specific

gravity, operating
temperature range, vapor
pressure, and flash point.
Corrosive properties,
solubility, and toxicity are
also considerations.

19
Digital Manometers

A liquid manometer has

limitations. Glass tubing,
indicating fluids, and level
mounting requirements
are more suited to a
laboratory than the field.
Also, it cannot be

computer or PLC. Such

limitations can be
overcome with digital
manometers. These
microprocessor-based
instruments are available
in convenient, portable
sizes for ease of use in the
field, or in panel or stand-
alone mounting styles,

controlling a process or

measurement data.
Variations from standard
conditions of density and

manually when making

pressure measurements
with liquid manometers.
This is easier with digital
manometers, because
some of the correction

manometers can be
ignored and others can be
compensated for in

swapping sensors is all

that is needed to change
among differential, gauge
and absolute pressure

20
Other common features
of digital manometers

Onboard memory
for data logging or
storing min./max.

Averaging a
number of
readings to
dampen pressure

Higher accuracy digital

manometers are used to
calibrate pressure
transmitters and other
pressure instrumentation
in the field. Digital
calibrators are faster and
simpler as they require no
boxes, gas cylinders,
regulators, or weights to
set up and have no
special platforms or

requirements. Further
comparisons of liquid and
digital manometer
specifications are shown

21
 Liquid Manometers

U-tube

100 in.

±½ of minor
scale
graduation

Cast iron,
stainless
steel, PVC,
glass, Viton

250 psig

Wall, table

22
 Low

Manometer Pressure and Accuracy Glossary

bsolute Pressure. A measurement referenced to zero pressure; equals the sum of gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure. Common units are pounds per square inch (psia),
millimeters mercury (mmHga), and inches mercury (in.Hga).
A measure of the closeness of agreement of a reading to that of a standard. For
absolute accuracy, compare to a primary standard (one recognized by NIST). Accuracies are
usually specified as a plus or minus percent of full scale. Calibration accuracies are often
given as plus or minus percent of reading with plus or minus counts.
Ambient Pressure. The pressure of the medium surrounding a device. It varies from 29.92
in.Hg at sea level to a few inches at high altitudes.
Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere on a unit surface. Also called
barometric pressure. At sea level it is 29.92 in.Hg absolute.
The smallest increment of an A/D conversion that is displayed.
Differential Pressure. The difference between two measurement points. Common units are
inches of water (in.H2O), pounds per square inch (psi), and millibars (mbar).
Display Resolution. The maximum number of digits on a digital display. For example, a
display resolution of 4½ digits reads a maximum of 19,999 counts; and a display resolution
of 5 significant digits reads a maximum of 99,999 counts.
A measurement referenced to atmospheric pressure. It varies with the
barometric reading. Also used to specify the maximum pressure rating of manometers.
Common units include pounds per square inch (psig).
The region between the lower and upper limits of measurements.
The smallest portion of a measurement that can be detected.
The smallest change in measurement that can be detected.
An estimate of the possible error in a measurement. This is the opposite of

Any pressure below atmospheric pressure. When referenced to the atmosphere,

it is called a vacuum (or negative gauge) measurement. When referenced to zero pressure,
it is an absolute pressure measurement.
Zero Absolute Pressure. The complete absence of any gas; a perfect vacuum.

23
The manometer is the
simplest measuring
instument used for gauge
pressure (low-range
pressure) measurements,
by balancing the pressure
against the weight of a
column of liquid. The
action of all manometers
depends on the effect of
pressure exerted by a
fluid at a depth. The
different types of
manometers are

Manometer :-

The U-Tube is the

simplest form of
manometer and is used
for experimental work in

application of pressure
causes the liquid in one
leg to go down while hat
in the other leg goes up,
so there is no fixed
referece. This tends to
make the measurement
of the height more

24
difficult then it would be
if one surface could be
maintained at some fixed

MANOMETER :-

The Well-type
manometer is
widely used
because of the
convenience in its

requiring the reading of

In a single-leg instrument,
high accuracy is achieved
by setting the zero level
of the well at the zero
level of the scale before
each reading is taken.

THE BAROMETER :-

A barometer is
well-type absolute
pressure gauge whose
pressure range is from
zero absolute to
atmospheric pressure. Its
readings are generally in
millmeters of mercury
(mm Hg), With a
barometer, high vaccums
are not measured. The
pressure in the evacuated
portion of the barometer
is not really absolute zero
but rather the vapour
pressure of the filling
fluid, mercury, at ambient

MANOMETER :-

The inclined tube

25
manometer or slant
manometer is an
enlarged leg manometer
with its measuring leg
inclined to the vertical
axis by some angle. The
angle of inclination is of

The inclined manometer

is used to measure very
small pressure differences
(in hundredth of an inch

MICROMANOMET

micromanometer
is used for the

measurement of
extremely small

differences

ADVANTAGES AND

Following are the

advantages of

Simple and time proven

High accuracy and

The availability of a
wide range of filling fluids
of varying specific

Reasonable cost
Their suitability for low

26
pressure and low
differential pressure

27