Part 2 - Non-Ferrous Alloys - Light Metals

Landolt-Börnstein
Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology

New Series / Editor in Chief: W. Martienssen
Group VIII: Advanced Materials and Technologies

Volume 2
Materials
Subvolume C
Metal Forming Data
Part 2
Non-Ferrous Alloys – Light Metals
Editor: H. Warlimont
Authors: M. Spittel and T. Spittel

ISSN 1619-4802 (Advanced Materials and Technologies)
ISBN 978-3-642-13863-8 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik, Neue Serie
Editor in Chief: W. Martienssen†
Vol. VIII/2C2: Editor:H. Warlimont
At head of title: Landolt-Börnstein. Added t.p.: Numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology.
Tables chiefly in English.
Intended to supersede the Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen by H. Landolt and R. Börnstein of which the 6th ed. began publication in 1950 under title:
Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik.
Vols. published after v. 1 of group I have imprint: Berlin, New York, Springer-Verlag
Includes bibliographies.
1. Physics–Tables. 2. Chemistry–Tables. 3. Engineering–Tables.
I. Börnstein, R. (Richard), 1852-1913. II. Landolt, H. (Hans), 1831-1910.
III. Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. IV. Title: Numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology.
QC61.23 502'.12 62-53136
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Preface
Design, planning and processing of deformation technologies rest upon profound knowledge of material behaviour
during deformation, on specific types of the technical facilities considered as well as on the interactions between
deformed material and equipment. Special knowledge of the material parameters is the pre-condition for every new
development. This general statement is independent of whether the work pertains to experimental investigations or to
numerical simulation. The latter shows an increasing application both in research as in practice. It describes the real pro-
cesses the better, the more precise the response of the material, the processes at the interface between the material and
the tool, and the material and the technical facilities, respectively, can be characterised. This includes the deformation
behaviour (including flow curves), plasticity, physical material parameters and last but not least the mechanical proper-
ties. Thus, the deformation behaviour is affected by process and material related parameters and can be reflected by
mathematical models only if these parameters are introduced as precisely as possible.
Specifically, the present volume “Metal Forming Data” is treating the deformation behaviour of light metals in theory
and practice. The basic principles are presented in a compact form. The chapter “modelling” pays special attention to
numerical simulation processes. Many examples demonstrate the technical applications. In particular, the variety of light
metals discussed and the comparison of international standards emphasise the relevance of the book as a compendium
both for scientists and researchers as well as for engineers in metallurgical plants.
The description of the deformation behaviour, of physical and mechanical properties (including specific characteris-
tics) as a data bank comprising about 85 light metals is an invaluable pool of data for the user of numerical simulation
and deformation processes. It is based on the long lasting continuous research work carried out at the Institute for Metal
Forming of the Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, which is highly appreciated and accepted by national and
international experts. Moreover, it is based on extensive literature studies and on a computational treatment known as
the “Freiberg-Model” world-wide.
The book is addressed to students and scientists as well as to engineers in metallurgical plants and in plant engineering.
Freiberg, September 2007 Prof. Dr.-Ing. Prof. E.h. R. Kawalla

Editor
H. Warlimont
Am Neuseser Weinberg 2
D-63579 Freigericht
e-mail: Warlimont.DSL@t-online.de
Authors
M. Spittel
Institut für Metallformung
Fakultät für Werkstoffwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnologie
Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg
Akademiestraße 6
D-09596 Freiberg
T. Spittel
Institut für Metallformung
Fakultät für Werkstoffwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnologie
Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg
Akademiestraße 6
D-09596 Freiberg
Landolt-Börnstein
Springer
Tiergartenstr. 17, D-69121 Heidelberg, Germany
fax: +49 (6221) 487-8648
e-mail: Redaktion.Landolt-Boernstein@springer.com
Internet
www.springermaterials.com
Contents
VIII/2C Metal Forming Data
Part 2: Non-Ferrous Alloys
Overview of Light Metal Alloys with page number references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Definitions and Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1. Flow stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2. Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3. Deformation behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4. Methods to determine the deformation behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1. Overview and specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2. Test methods for simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.3. Technological tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3.1. Deep drawing test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3.2. Rolling test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2. Flow stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1. Influence of the chemical composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.1. Hot working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.1.1. Basic relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.1.2. Experimental and commercial materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2. Cold working. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.2.1. Basic relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.2.2. Influence of treatment conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.2.3. Initial structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2. Influence of forming conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.1. Hot forming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.1.1. Influence of the deformation temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.1.2. Influence of strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.1.3. Influence of the strain rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.2. Cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2.1. Degree of deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2.2. Rate of deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.2.3. Temperature of deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3. Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3.1. Influence of chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3.2. Influence of forming conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.2.1. Hot working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.2.1.1. Modelling by means of the thermodynamic factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.2.1.2. Calculation using the activation energy of hot deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3.2.2. Cold deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.2.2.1. Effect of the degree of deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.2.2.2. Influence of degree of deformation, deformation temperature and deformation rate . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3. Plasticity ................................................................. 61
3.1. Hot plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1.1. Influence of the material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.2. Material condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.3. Influence of temperature and strain rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
vi Contents
3.2. Cold plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3.2.1. Factors influencing cold plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.2. Parameters of cold plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.3. Influence of the material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.4. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.5. Strain rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.6. Influence of the stress condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3. Modelling of the plasticity in hot working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3.1. Modelling of the influence of the chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3.2. Influence of deformation conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.2.1. Modelling of temperature influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.2.2. Modelling of the influence of strain rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.4. Calculation of the forming limit in hot rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.5. Calculation of the forming limit in hot extrusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4. Mechanical and physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.1. Mechanical properties after cold forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.1. Yield point and tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.2. Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2. Young's modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.1. Definition and functional relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.2. Modelling of the temperature dependence of Young's modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3. Thermal conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3.1. Basic data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3.2. Calculation of the thermal conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4. Specific heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4.1. Experimental data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4.2. Calculation of the specific heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5. Coefficient of the thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.5.1. Definition and factors of influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.5.2. Influence of temperature on the coefficient of thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.6. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.6.1. Definition and factors of influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.6.2. Modelling the dependence on temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5. Data bank of deformation parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.1.1. Basis of the data bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.1.2. Hot and cold flow curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.1.2.1. Remarks on the data of flow stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.2.2. Extrapolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.3. Plasticity curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.1.4. Mechanical and physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2. Beryllium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3. Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.1. Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.3.2. Magnesium-Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.4. Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.4.1. Unalloyed Aluminium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.4.2. Aluminium-Copper and Aluminium-Copper-Magnesium Wrought Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Contents vii
5.4.3. Aluminium-Manganese, Aluminium-Magnesium-Manganese and Aluminium-Silicon

Wrought Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.4.4. Aluminium-Magnesium and Aluminium-Magnesium-Manganese Wrought Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
5.4.5. Aluminium-Silicon-Magnesium, Aluminium-Magnesium-Silicon,
Aluminium-Zinc-Magnesium and Aluminium-Zinc-Magnesium-Copper Wrought Alloys . . . . . . . 342
5.4.6. Wrought Aluminium Alloys with other main constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
5.5. Titanium and Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Index of light metal alloys 1
Index of light metal alloys
Deformation behaviour of light metal alloys
Overview of Light Metal Alloys
5.2 Beryllium
Material number Symbol Page

Be 107
5.3 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

Mg 99.95 110
3.5003 Mg 99.8 114
Ref. [5.14] Mg 99.5 119
Ref. [5.14] MgAl2Zn 123
3.5312 MgAl3Zn 128
3.5612 MgAl6Zn 133
3.5812 MgAl8Zn 138
3.5200 MgMn2 143
ASTM B90, B90M AZ 31 147
ASTM B90, B90M AZ 61A 151
ASTM B90, B90M AZ 91 154
ASTM B90, B90M AM 50 158
ASTM B90, B90M AE 42 162
ASTM B90, B90M WE 43 164
GOST MgZn5.5Zr 168
ASTM B90, B90M LA 141 A (MgLi11.5) 172
5.4 Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
5.4.1 Unalloyed wrought Aluminium
AA Material number Symbol (DIN EN 573-3) Page

1098 Al 99.98A 175
1050A Al 99.5 179
1070A Al 99.7 185
1100 Al 99 190
1199 Al 99.99 195
Landolt-Börnstein DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_1

New Series VIII/2C2 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
2 Index of light metal alloys
5.4.2 Aluminium-Copper and Aluminium-Copper-Magnesium Wrought Alloys

2014 AlCu4SiMg 199
2017A AlCu4MgSi (A) 204
2024 AlCu4Mg1 208
2036 AlCu2.5Mg0.5 213
2090 AlCuLi 218
2091 AlCu2LiMg1.5 221
2124 AlCu4Mg1 (A) 225
2618A AlCu2Mg2NiSi 229
5.4.3 Aluminium-Manganese, Aluminium-Magnesium-Manganese and Aluminium-Silicon Wrought

Alloys

3003 AlMn1Cu 233
3004 AlMn1Mg1 238
3005 AlMn1Mg0.5 243
3103 AlMn1 248
3105 AlMn0.5Mg0.5 253
4006 AlSi1Fe 257
4009 AlSi5 261
4014 AlSi2 265
4044 AlSi8 269
4045 AlSi10 273
4047 AlSi12(A) 276
5.4.4 Aluminium– Magnesium and Aluminium–Magnesium– Manganese Wrought Alloys

5005A AlMg1(C) 282
5006 AlMg1Mn0.5 287
5016 AlMg1.5Mn0.5 291
5017 AlMg2MnFeCu 296
5019 AlMg5 300
5049 AlMg2Mn0.8 305
5050 AlMg1.5 311
5052 AlMg2.5 315
5083 AlMg4.5Mn0.7 321
5086 AlMg4 325
5182 AlMg5Mn 330
5754 AlMg3 336
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_1 Landolt-Börnstein

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 New Series VIII/2C2
Index of light metal alloys 3
5.4.5 Aluminium–Silicon–Magnesium, Aluminium–Magnesium-Silicon, Aluminium–Zinc–

Magnesium–and Aluminium– Zinc–Magnesium–Copper Wrought Alloys

6005 AlSiMg 342
6056 AlSi1MgCuMn 347
6060 AlMgSi 351
6061 AlMg1SiCu 357
6063 AlMg0.7Si 363
6082 AlSi1MgMn 368
6201 E-AlMgSi0.7 373
6463 AlMg0.7Si 377
7005 AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn 381
7020 AlZn4.5Mg1 385
7049A AlZn8MgCu 389
7050 AlZn6CuMgZr 393
7072 AlZn1 397
7075 AlZn5.5MgCu 401
7175 AlZn5.5Mg2.5Cu(B) 406
7178 AlZn7MgCu 410
5.4.6 Wrought Aluminium Alloys with other main constituents

8005 AlFe0.6 414
8011A AlFeSi(A) 418
8076 AlFe0.8 424
8090 AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1 428
5.5 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

3.7025 Ti 1 433
3.7034 Ti 2 437
3.7035 Ti 2 441
3.7114 TiAl5Sn2.5 445
3.7144 TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2 450
3.7155 TiAl6Zr5Mo0.5Si0.25 453
3.7164 TiAl6V4 455
Ref. [2.9] TiAl8V1Mo1 459
Ref. [2.11] TiAl6.5Mo3.5Zr2Si 461
3.7165 TiV13Cr11Al3 463
Ref. [2.11] TiAl4Mn1.5 466
Ref. [5.160] Ti24Al11Nb 469
Ref. [5.160] Ti48Al2.5CrNb 471

Deformation behaviour of light metal alloys 1
Deformation behaviour of light metal alloys
Introduction and Definitions
1 Definitions and Test Methods
1.1 Flow stress

For a precise characterisation of deformation processes the mechanical stresses occurring in the deformation
zone are allocated to the directions of a triaxial special coordinate system. In each of the directions, which
are oriented at right angles to each other, stress components occur in the section plane: one normal stress
σ and two shear stresses τ, which are at right angles to each other (Fig. 1.1a).
Fig. 1.1. (a) Normal stresses σ and shear stresses τ in any

position of a coordinate system. (b) Main stresses in a
coordinate system, whose axes are parallel to the main axes
If in the usual manner the coordinate axes are placed parallel to the directions of the highest normal stresses,
the stress state can be described by the parameters of the normal stresses σ1, σ2, σ3, alone, which are named
principal stresses now (Fig. 1.1b), because the values of the shear stresses are zero. According to their
values in this system the stresses are named from positive (tensile stresses) to negative (compression stress).
According to the material flow hypotheses of Tresca, plastic flow, in other words the beginning of the defor-
mation process, occurs, when a particular critical difference (stress gap) between the highest and the lowest
principal stress (σ1 > σ2 > σ3) is exceeded [1.1]:
1 3 ¼ F ð1:1Þ
F is called flow stress. It is a material parameter, which is decisive in deformation processes. Tresca's flow
criterion states, that it is irrelevant, whether the plastic flow is caused by compression or tensile stresses, as
long as the stress σF is exceeded.
The influence of the mean principal stress F is not considered. But according to investigations by Lode
[1.2], v. Mises [1.3], Roš and Eichinger [1.4] such an influence does exist in reality. It is incorporated into
the deformation energy hypotheses.
According to von Mises [1.3], Huber [1.5] and Hencky [1.6] the flow stress F is then given by
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iffi
1 h 2 2 2

2 2 2
F ¼ x y þ y z þ ðz x Þ þ 6 xy þ yz þ zx ð1:2Þ
2
If converted to the principal normal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 it follows [1.3] that
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iffi
1h 2 2 2
F ¼ ð1 2 Þ þ ð2 3 Þ þ ð3 2 Þ ð1:2aÞ
2
Lode considered the influence of the mean principal normal stress 2 by the equation [1.2, 1.7]
n F ¼ 1 3 ; ð1:3Þ
with n as an auxiliary parameter
2
n ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1:4Þ
3 þ 2

2 Deformation behaviour of light metal alloys
which includes the influence of the mean principal normal stress 2 by

22 1 3 2 1 þ3
¼ ¼ 1 32 ð1:5Þ
1 3 2
At a uniaxial stress has the value 1.00 (flow condition according to Tresca). If the mean principal stress
2 has a value which is median between 1 and 2 , then it is n = 1.155, which complies with the flow
condition after von Mises.
For hot and cold strip rolling it was found, that the mean principal stress σ2 is the arithmetic mean of the two
other principal stresses 1 and 3 . Thus the flow stress has a value of 1.155 F ¼ 1 3 .
1.2 Plasticity
The deformation process requires plastic behaviour of the material, namely the ability to change its form
under the influence of external forces – which generate stresses inside the material – in a plastically ade-
quate quantity, without damaging the material cohesion i.e. formation of cracks.
At high plastic deformation this ability can be exhausted for further plastic deformation. The critical degree
of deformation at which first cracks appear is termed φFr.
The material specific plasticity is determined by the deformation conditions, like temperature, deformation
rate and the residual hardening of the material after a former deformation process. In contrast to the flow
stress σF the plasticity φFr strongly depends on the stress state (Fig. 1.2). At cold deformation the distribu-
tion of the total deformation on the single passes affects the plasticity φF. This should be noticed especially
at brittle materials, if high deformation degrees, which are near the plasticity limits, have to be realised.
In such cases longitudinal or transversal cracks can appear.
Fig. 1.2. Influence of the type of loading on the plasticity in correlation to the
related mean stress value σm/σF [1.8]
1.3 Deformation behaviour

No explicit definition exists for the term deformation behaviour. It has to be understood as the material
behaviour upon plastic deformation. In general a material is well formable, if it is able to change its geo-
metric form without forming cracks at low stress, has an even and precise surface and has a high yield
and long durability.

Fig. 1.3. Parameters that influence the deformation behaviour

Fig. 1.3 gives an overview of the parameters which determine the deformation behaviour of a material.
In principle these can be divided into four groups:
a) metallurgical-physical conditions of material processing
b) thermodynamic conditions at deformation
c) stress state at deformation
d) deformation process and deformation device
Many of the parameters presented in Fig. 1.3 depend on or affect each other. Because of this complexity of
factors of influence deformation behaviour can only be treated in technological parameters and relations
rather than in terms of fundamental material science.
1.4 Methods to determine the deformation behaviour
1.4.1 Overview and specifications

The following methods are available for the determination of the deformation behaviour of a material
(Fig. 1.4):
a) Simulation test methods such as tensile, compression and torsion tests including many process options.
The simulation test methods allow the investigation of the parameters of the conditions of deformation (tem-
perature, degree and rate of deformation) as well as of the material related flow stress. These methods per-
mit, also, to determine the parameters of the deformation behaviour in a special state of stress which
depends on the conditions of the deformation process.
b) Technological test methods such as tensile, compression, bending, transverse bending and bulging tests
are mostly used for quality control and data for delivery, which allow a qualitative evaluation of specified
process technologies, in particular in cold deformation. In general the technological test methods provide
parameters, which depend on the specimen form. Their task is usually to determine the suitability of shapes
of stock naterials for further processing. Some of these tests are even suitable to assess process technologies.
Beside standardised procedures also non-standardised tests exist, that meet the requirements of special pro-
duction processes.
c) The adaptation of deformation conditions, which are usual at industrial deformation processes, to smaller
deformation machines has to account for the rules of process similarity.
In general the results are well transferable to technical processes, but often both time and material consumption are
expensive.

Fig. 1.4. Test methods for the deformation behaviour

The test methods and their results have to comply with the following requirements:
– Determination of reproducible parameters to define the plasticity and the flow stress of materials
– Coverage of a broad test field for plasticity, deformation temperature and deformation rate. Preferably
these parameters should include the following conditions:
’ ¼ 0:01 . . . 3:0
’_ ¼ 103 . . . 103 s1
# ¼ 20 . . . 1500 C
– Copying of deformation parameters and deformation processes existing in large-scale deformation
processes
– Simple and economical application as qualification for process control.
The test methods meet the actual conditions of deformation only in part as may be seen by comparison with
the data given in Table 1.1 which presents a summary of deformation rates, degrees of deformation and
pause times between two successive deformation steps of common deformation processes.
Table 1.1. Strain rates, degrees of deformation and pause times of deformation processes
Deformation process Strain rate ’_ [s–1] Individual degree of forming Pause time Δt [s]
Extruding press 1.0…400 1.0…5.30
Hot strip 0.50…500 0.10…0.55
roughing line 0.50…7.0 70…6.0
finishing line 15…500 4.0…0.25
Heavy plate mill 1.00…80 0.05…0.60 20…4.00
Cold rolled strip mill 70…2500 0.008…0.50
Cold upsetting press 1.00…60 0.15…1.50
The degree of deformation φ ισ is usually realised in a single pass. It is based on the change in cross
sectional area by forming.
In continuous forming processes total or partial softening of the material occurs during the time between
two passes. Therefore, it is required of modern simulation facilities for forming behaviour, to realise such
combinations of degree of deformation and rest time. If possible these variations should be combined with
variable temperature and/or rates of forming. This would permit, for example, to simulate the forming con-
ditions in the finishing stage of a hot strip line. This test methodology is gaining importance increasingly,
since not only information about the force and work requirements of partially softened grain structure con-
ditions are required, but also about the grain structure development through recovery and recrystallization,
onto which, moreover, transformation and precipitation processes may be superimposed.
The dependence of the pause time on the forming speed is almost identical for different types of continuous
rolling lines. Different combinations of degree of forming and pause time with pause times of more than
0.15 s can be performed in the compression test as in the torsion test up to the maximum possible forming
speed of the test machine. With servo hydraulic test machines the minimal pause time depends on the
switching time of the multi-step servo valves, while in torsion plastometers it depends on the switching time
of the electromagnetic coupling. Significant reductions of these times are not to be expected in the future,
since in plastometers, in contrast to continuous rolling facilities, the masses in motion (tools, specimen
clamping) must be stopped and accelerated again during the pause time.
The influence of very short pause times on the stress-strain curve and on the hardening and softening beha-
viour can be investigated in principle. In many cases, however, it is not possible at the forming rates that are
technically common, e.g. in a finishing line.

1.4.2 Test methods for simulation

Since deformation parameters can be measured and controlled under well defined laboratory conditions,
methods such as compression test, tensile test and torsion test are most commonly used. But technological
test methods provide useful, mostly quantitative, information about the influence of temperature and mate-
rial properties on plasticity.
Fig. 1.5. Testing systems. Gleeble HDS-V40 (upper left). Servo hydraulic HDS 40 (upper right). Torsion
plastometer (left).
Modern test systems permit to simulate the deformation conditions specified in Tab. 1.2.
Table 1.2. Working ranges of simulation processes

Simulation process Strain rate ’_ [s–1] Step width in degree of forming Pause time tP [s]
Torsion test 0.005…30 0.02…10 0.10…>100
Flat compression test 0.01…500 0.01…2.50 0.06…>100
Cylinder compression test 0.01…100 0.01…1.70 0.06…>100
The working ranges for torsion and flat compression tests listed are those of the test facilities that are in
operation at the Institute for Metal Forming of the TU Bergakademie Freiberg. They are based on the tech-
nical data of the torsion plastometer TPM 38 (Fig. 1.5). The technical specifications of the servo hydraulic

test system SHM 400 and of the multifunctional simulation and test system Gleeble HDS–V40 are
summarised in Table 1.3.
The operating range of torsion tests given in Tab. 1.4 is based on the conversion calculations of shear and
shear rate into the corresponding compression parameter according to Nadai-Mises. In the flat test, a max-
imum degree of deformation of about 1.60 can be applied. With this, the range of standard reductions in
most longitudinal and cross rolling processes can be covered. For extrusion pressing, only the lowest ranges
of the operationally applied rates of elongation can be achieved. In the torsion test, there is no technical limit
with respect to the degree of deformation; this depends on the plasticity of the material alone. Both test pro-
cesses have in common that the maximum rate of deformation is substantially below that of standard con-
tinuous rolling processes. This applies especially to the rates of deformation in finishing lines.
Table 1.3. Technical parameters of SHM 400 [1.9, 1.10] and Gleeble HDS–V40 [1.11]
Technical specification Servohydraulic testing system GLEEBLE HDS-V40
SHM 400
Testing force [kN] 400 (static) 400 (vertical)
320 (dynamic) 50 (horizontal)
Testing speed [mm s1] 0 … 480 0.1 … 1700
Lift [mm] ± 50
Drive power [kW] 75
Control force, distance or forming degree
Load at rest, increasing or vibrating
Strain rate [s–1] max. 40 in cylinder upsetting test max 100
Deformation temperature [°C] 20 … 1250 20 … 1800
Specimen heating – in upsetting tool (separate – upsetting test and tensile
furnace) test (conductive heating up)
– inductively with programmed
control
Technical specification Servohydraulic testing system GLEEBLE HDS-V40
SHM 400
Heating rate [K s1] max. 10 5 … 1000
Cooling rate [K s1] 3 1 … 330
Max. number of forming cycles max 10 max 25
Min. downtime between two 0.20 0,15
forming steps [s]
Testing methods upsetting test: cylinder upsetting test: cylinder
cone cone
hollow cylinder flat
flat compression Tensile test: round
Tensile test: round flat specimens
flat specimens multiaxial deformation
Bending test
Table 1.4. Technical parameters of torsion plastometer [1.12]

Technical specification Torsion plastometer TPM 38
Specimen size [mm] Ø 6,0 x 12,0 … 15,0
Drive power [kW] 2
Nominal moment [Nm] 23,5
(continued)

Technical specification Torsion plastometer TPM 38

Permissible overload 7
Rotational speed [min1] 10 … 2000
Minimum rotation angle [°] 5
Maximum rotation angle [°] 60 000
Minimum pause time between two forming steps [s] 0,10
Testing temperature [°C] 20 … 1200
Strain rate [s–1] < 25
Max. number of forming cycles 24
Fig. 1.6 summarises the most important laboratory test methods fort the determination of the deformation
behaviour. Tab. 1.5 lists the equations to calculate parameter characteristics of the deformation behaviour.
Fig. 1.6. Schematic description of

test methods [1.13]. (a) Cylindrical
compression test. 1 - upper upsetting
plate; 2 - specimen 3 - lower upset-
ting plate; F - acting force; FR - fric-
tion force. (b) Conical compression
test. 1 - upper upsetting tool; 2 -
specimen 3 - lower upsetting tool;
F - acting force; FN - normal force;
FR - friction force. (c) Flat compres-
sion test. 1 - die; 2 - specimen; F -
acting force; bs - die width; bp - spe-
cimen width. (d) Hollow cylinder
compression test. 1 - upper upsetting
plate; 2 - mandrel (locating pin); 3 -
lower upsetting plate; 4 - specimen
(8…20 rings); F - acting force; FR -
friction force. (e) Tensile test. F -
tensile force; l0 - measured length;
Δl - elongation. (f) Torsion test.
F - radial force; R - sample radius; L -
sample length; α - shearing strain;
Θ - torsion angle.
Table 1.5. Equations for the calculation of parameters characterising the deformation behaviour [1.13]
Compression test Torsion test Tensile test
pffiffiffi
Flow stress F F ¼ w dx F ¼ 3 (v. Mises) F ¼ lF x ¼ lF o ð1 þ "Þ1
1 þ 3 hx F ¼ 2 (Tresca) within the range of
with deformation stress with shear stress ¼ 3MD3 uniform elongation
2R
W ¼ FA
(continued)

Compression test Torsion test Tensile test

Strain ’ ’ ¼ ln hhox ’ ¼ pffiffi3 (v. Mises) range of uniform
qffiffiffiffiffi elongation
’ ¼ p2ffiffi3 ln 2 þ 2
4 þ 1 ’ ¼ ln llox ¼ lnð1 þ "Þ
(Nadai- v. Mises)
with shearing strain:
tan ¼ ¼ RL Y;
¼ 0;75R
L Y
d’ ’ v pffiffiffi d’ ’ v
Strain rate ’_ ’_ ¼ ¼ @’ @’ 3 D n_ ’_ ¼ ¼
dt t hx ’_ NM ¼ ¼ € ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi dt t lx
@t @ _
4 L 4 þ 1
2
Symbols F – compression force MD – torque F – tensile force

A – area R – specimen radius Ax – section during the test
µ – coefficient of friction D – specimen diameter A0 – section before the
v – compression rate L – gage length test
dx – specimen diameter Θ – torsion angle lx – length during the test
during the test n – number of rotations lo – gage length
hx – specimen height dur- ε – elongation =l=lo
ing the test v – test speed
Table 1.6. Comparison of the test procedures for the determination of yield stress and plasticity [1.14]
compression test torsion test tensile test
advantages + forming by + simultaneous determination of + simultaneous determination of
compressive stresses yield stress, plasticity and strength and plasticity values
similar to most forming behaviour with small degrees of
longitudinal rolling deformation
+ simple test + free of friction
procedure
+ free of friction
+ high forming rate in + simulation of the range of + rapid determination of the
the ballistic test times in technical deformation stress-strain behaviour and the
processes without a cross yield stress of cold formed
sectional change of the test specimens at room temperature
specimen
+ determination of formation of
the first crack from the
longitudinal stress distribution
disadvantages – friction between – several different theories of – multi-axial state of stress from
specimen and tool plasticity and resulting sets of constriction, i.e. for - hot
– friction correction to equations exist for calculating forming at
stress- strain curve yield stress, degree of φ ≥ 0.30, cold forming at
necessary deformation and forming rate φ ≥ 0.20
– with bulging of the – homogeneous forming over – no simulation of technical
specimen. i.e. φ ≥ L/D ~ 1.5 … 2.5 forming time distributions
0.35 undefined state of possible due to low degree of
stress forming at fracture
(continued)

compression test torsion test tensile test

– buckling of slender – at φ ≥ 3,0, longitudinal – forming by stressing under
specimens stresses lead to cross section tension does not correspond to
changes in non-alloy C steels any technical forming process
–degree of forming at – ’_ max ~ 30 s–1
fracture can only be
determined for brittle
materials
– the absolute values
depend on specimen
geometry and size
It should be emphasized, that several equations are available for the calculation of the degree of deformation
in the torsion test. They are all based upon the theory of plasticity, but the results can differ, especially at
higher shear stresses. The authors use the conversion according to Nadai–v. Mises, because this method
yields conforming results for characteristic points of hot flow curves found in compression and/or torsion
tests. Although the torsion test has found wide acceptance for the determination of the behaviour at hot
and cold deformation, it should be noted, that no technical deformation process operates with shear stresses
only and that the distribution of stress and deformation inside the specimen is inhomogeneous.
Tab. 1.6 describes the advantages and disadvantages of the most important test methods. Each one has its
own advantages and disadvantages, which have to be noticed implicitly for the evaluation and application
of the specific data which are determined.
1.4.3 Technological tests

In principle technological tests serve to determine parameters which depend on the specimen form. The aim
is to test the appropriateness of preforms, especially of semi-finished products, for further processing or the
applicability of special processes and process conditions.
1.4.3.1 Deep drawing test

In the deep drawing test according to Erichsen (DIN 50 101, 50 102), Fig 1.7, a firmly clamped sheet or
strip is bulged by a ball-shaped tool until the first crack appears. The measure of the test result, the so called
Erichsen- cupping, is the length of the cup until tearing occurs. It has to be higher than the minimum value
required in the standards. In addition it is possible to evaluate anisotropy from the curvature of a crack. For
an isotropic material the crack is almost completely circular because the strip is subjected to a biaxial tensile
load. A one-sided crack indicates an anisotropic texture of the sheet material. Hence it is less suitable for
deep drawing. Also, the surface roughness permits to assess the effect of grain size. Materials with high
grain size cannot be processed further; accordingly their test data indicate that they are unsuitable for deep
drawing.
Fig. 1.7. Deep drawing test according to Erichsen (DIN 50 101)

[1.16]
In [1.15] it was shown that a relationship exists between the data obtained by the deep drawing test accord-
ing to Erichsen and the largest possible reduction in cold rolling. High values of the data obtained by the
deep drawing test suggest a good plasticity at cold rolling, low values indicate brittle behaviour.

In the cupping test shown in Fig. 1.8 sheet strips (round blanks) with different diameters D are drawn to
cylindrical cups with a diameter d.
Fig. 1.8. Cupping test [1.16]
During forming radial tensile stresses occur in the circular plate and in the cylinder formed. Tangential com-
pressive stresses occur also. This is reflected in the forming limit curve according to Figure 1.2. Therefore
the forming behaviour of the material according to the cupping test can appear to be superior to that
obtained by the deep drawing test according Erichsen.
The limiting drawing ratio is the ratio of diameters D/d up to which the sample can be deformed without
crack formation at the bottom. In addition to determining the limiting drawing ratio the deep drawing test
can also be used to detect the anisotropy of the sheet material. An anisotropic texture of the sheet leads
to “earing” which means that the upper rim of the cylinder shows different heights. The height of earing,
i.e. the degree of anisotropy, depends on the degree of cold deformation, Fig. 1.9 [1.17]. Fig. 1.10 shows
for aluminium and magnesium alloys that a correlation occurs between the variation of limiting drawing
ratios [1.18] and the degree of deformation at fracture. A qualitatively similar trend was found in the torsion
tests as a function of temperature.
Fig. 1.9. Effect of the degree of cold deformation on the

earing height of sheets (alloy AA1050).

Fig 1.10. Qualitatively similar behaviour of aluminium and magnesium alloys in torsion (a) and cupping test
(b) [1.18].
For evaluation of deformation properties of sheets so-called forming limit diagrams are used. These charac-
terise the deformation behaviour by the strains at the forming limit for different conditions of both tension
and deformation. Fig. 1.11 presents such a diagram for a magnesium alloy at temperatures between 200 and
300 °C.
Fig. 1.11. Forming limit diagram (FLD) of AZ 31 at various

temperatures φ1 = φ2: deep-drawing φ1 = –2φ2: uniaxial
tensile stress φ2 = 0: uniform uniaxial tensile stress φ1 = φ2:
biaxial drawing
One can see that the strain at the forming limit increases with the temperature of investigation, when the
load changes from a uniform uniaxial tensile stress (φ2 = 0) into the direction of a “uniaxial tensile stress”
(φ1= –2φ2). The limiting curves shift with rising temperature to higher absolute values of φ1 [1.19].
1.4.3.2 Rolling test

With the exception of flat compression tests (where the plasticity can only be determined under very special
conditions) none of the described test methods operates with the state of stress (σ1 = –σ3, σ2 = (σ1 + σ3)/2)
and state of straining (φ1 = –φ3, φ2 = 0). Therefore, attempts are necessary to determine the transferability
of these required for technical rolling operations.

In order to transfer the results to technical rolling processes, the technical criteria of the similarity in rolling
(identical temperature and strain rate, the same roll gap ratio and friction conditions) need to comply. Thus
statements regarding the rolling temperature, rolling speed and reduction distribution are possible. In rolling
of Mg sheets it can be seen that the occurrence of edge cracks is mainly related to the deformation tempera-
ture along with the initial pass temperature. At final rolling temperatures above 300 °C no edge cracks were
observed. Decreasing deformation temperature increased the proneness to cracking (Fig. 1.12) [1.20]. For
hot rolling of wire Mg - alloys are recommended calibre series in which the tensile stresses are minimized
in the roll gap and the temperature distribution in the rolling stock is as homogeneous as possible [1.21].
Fig. 1.12. Edge morphology of Mg sheet metal

as a function of rolling temperature and speed
during hot rolling [1.19]
1.5 References
[1.1] Tresca, H.: Memoire sur l'écoulement des solides à de forte pressions; Acad. Sci. Paris Part 2
59 (1864) 754–758.
[1.2] Lode, W.: Z. Physik 36 (1926) 913–939.
[1.3] v. Mises, R.: Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Göttingen, Math. Phys. Kl. (1913) 582–597.
[1.4] Ros, M., Eichinger, A.: Versuche zur Klärung der Bruchgefahr, Zürich, 1926.
[1.5] Huber, A.T.: Czasopismo Techniczne, Lemberg, 1904.
[1.6] Hencky, H.: Z. Angew. Math. Mech. (ZAMM) 4 (1924) 323–334.
[1.7] Lode, W.: Der Einfluss der mittleren Hauptspannung auf das Fließen der Metalle, Forsch.-Arb.
Ingenieurwesen H.303, 1928.
[1.8] Stenger, H.: Bänder Bleche Rohre 8 (1967) 599–606.
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GmbH, 1993.
[1.10] Softwaredokumentation dynaSax, Leipzig: Sigma Mess- und Prüftechnik GmbH, 1993.
[1.11] Multifunction Simulation System HDS-V40, Poestenkill NY, USA: Dynamic Systems Inc., 2004.
[1.12] Spittel, M.: Computerintegrierter Torsionsversuch, Wiss. Jahresbericht, Freiberg: Institut für
Metallformung der TU Bergakademie, 1994.
[1.13] Hensel, A., Spittel, T.: Kraft- und Arbeitsbedarf bildsamer Formgebungsverfahren, Leipzig: VEB
Deutscher Verlag Grundstoffindustrie, 1978.
[1.14] Spittel, T., Spittel, M.: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Kennwertbestimmung und -modellierung
bei Warm- und Kaltumformung, Proc. MEFORM 1998, Paper 4, p. 1–20.
[1.15] Weinhold, H.: Einfluss verschiedener Warmformgebungs- und Wärmebehandlugsbedingungen
auf die Eigenschaften ferritischer Chromstähle, Freiberger Forschungsheft B182, Leipzig: VEB
[1.16] Bargel, H.J., Schulze, G.: Werkstoffkunde, 5. Auflage, Düsseldorf: VDI Verlag GmbH, 1988.
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Metallformung der TU BA, 2006, p. 170–183.
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Flow stress of light metal alloys 1
Flow stress of light metal alloys
1 Flow stress
2.1 Influence of the chemical composition
2.1.1 Hot working
2.1.1.1 Basic relationships

The effects of alloying and impurity elements on the flow stress in hot forming can be attributed to a few
major factors of influence. The hardening effect of elements in solid solution depends on the relative differ-
ence in atom size δ, the relative difference in shear modulus η and the concentration of the elements CEi:
F ¼ F;pure metal þ F ð; ; CEi Þ: ð2:1Þ
The potential increase in flow stress by solid solution hardening is limited by the fact that there is a direct
relationship between the solubility of the impurity atoms and their specific hardening effect: if ϑ and η are
high, the solubility is low (and vice versa) [2.1]. Fig. 2.1 summarises the effects of the material dependent
parameters on the flow stress in hot deformation.
Fig. 2.1. Material related parameters on flow stress in hot deformation. (a) Material: σF is a function of
the material dependent activation energy at hot deformation Q. Three curves for different homologous
deformation temperatures (Td/Tm)1 < (Td/Tm)2 < (Td/Tm)3 are shown. (b) Purity: An increase in impurity
content in solution yields an increase in σF by solid solution hardening. (c) Phase composition: at the same
deformation conditions (ϑ, φ, ’) _ σF depends on the phase composition (α, γ) ϑ1<ϑ2<ϑ3 due to differences
in intrinsic flow stress and diffusion coefficient of the phases. This results in a change of the diffusion
coefficient of each phase, so that the hardening and softening processes can be controlled. (d) Stacking
fault energy: hot flow curves for materials with high stacking fault energy (dynamic recovery) and low
stacking fault energy (dynamic recrystallisation). (e) Microstructure prior to deformation: At the same
chemical composition the flow stress of an as-cast structures can be lower by a factor of approximately
0.70…0.95 than as-rolled structures. In general the maximum of σF occurs at higher degrees of deformation
for as-cast structures and is not very pronounced.

2 Flow stress of light metal alloys
Table 2.1. Atomic radius and shear modulus of alloying elements of aluminium [2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6].
Element Atomic Atomic radius, Shear Shear modulus, Solubility in Al [mass-%]
radius r difference to modulus difference to Maximum solubility at ϑ =
[Å] Al Δr [%] G [GPa] Al ΔG [GPa] (temperature ϑ [°C]) 400 °C
aluminium 1.43 26.2
magnesium 1.60 +11.9 17.3 8.9 15.35 (450) 12.2
manganese 1.30 9.09 66.8 +154.9 1.82 (658.5) 0.17
silicon 1.17 18.2 39.2 +48.1 1.65 (577) 0.34
copper 1.28 10.5 48.3 +84.3 5.70 (548) 1.40
iron 1.27 11.2 81.6 +211.5 0.052 (655) <0.001
zinc 1.37 4.19 41.9 +60.7 82.8 (382) ∼81.0
chromium 1.28 10.5 86.8 +231.3 0.87 (661) 0.35
nickel 1.24 13.3 76.0 +190.0 0.04 (640) <0.001
titanium 1.46 +2.09 45.6 +83.7 0.28 (665)
vanadium 1.35 5.59 50.6 +93.1 0.37 (660)
zirconium 1.60 +11.9 34.8 +32.8 0.28 (660.5) 0.052
Table 2.1 lists data of the atomic radii and shear moduli of various alloying and impurity elements of
aluminium [2.2, 2.3, 2.4]
In Fig. 2.2, the flow stress at a deformation of φ = 0.10 and a strain rate of ’_ ¼ 10 s1 is applied to some
binary aluminium alloys at ϑ = 400°C as a function of the difference in atomic radius [2.7]. From the curve
it can be seen that the flow stress increases with increasing difference in atomic radius. This increases, also,
the influence of the alloy content.
1.00 % of magnesium increases the flow stress σF by 30 … 35 (at ϑ = 400 °C, φ = 0.10 and ’_ ¼ 10 s1
atomic radius difference +11.9%). 1.00 % of copper increases σF by 25 … 30 [MPa] (atomic radius differ-
ence +10.5 %). Under the same forming conditions Zinc with an atomic radius difference of 4.19 %,, leads
to a difference in flow stress of 8.9 [MPa] only.
Fig. 2.2. Relation between the difference in atomic radii

and flow stress in binary Al alloys. Deformation parameters:
ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10, ’_ = 10 s–1
2.1.1.2 Experimental and commercial materials

Fig. 2.3 shows how selected alloy and impurity elements influence the flow stress of aluminium alloys in
the cast state (homogenized at 400 °C) and by deformation of φ = 0.10 at a strain rate of ’_ = 10 s–1.
This relation is based on compression tests. The samples were taken from 5 kg blocks perpendicular to
the direction of crystallization. Since Al99.999 was alloyed with the element to be considered, the content

of impurities was lower than 0.001%, so that the statements obtained about the influence of the chemical
composition are not influenced by impurities significantly..
Fig. 2.3. Influence of alloying elements on the flow stress of

binary aluminium alloys. Deformation parameters: ϑ = 400°C,
φ = 0.10, ’_ = 10 s–1
During hot deformation the flow stress of aluminium alloys is increased most strongly by Mg, Cu and Ti; Zn
and Zr are least effective. Apart from the influence of solid solution hardening in Al solid solution due to
differences in atomic radius and shear modulus on the level of flow stress, the formation of second (and
more) phases and their effects on the flow stress may also be observed on alloying. In alloys with partial
or no miscibility in the solid state the alloy content determines the plastic properties significantly. They
are associated primarily with solid solution hardening in the solid solution phases. When the solubility limit
is exceeded or if miscibility occurs at all, the plasticity is determined by the properties, volume fractions and
microstructural features of the phases present, Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4. Phase diagram of binary alloys and their forming behaviour [2.8]

When exceeding the solubility limit by heat treatments or in hot deformation, intermetallic compounds or
terminal phases are formed. Finely dispersed particles as well as coarse second phase crystallites embedded
in the matrix are obstacles to the motion of dislocations. Typical intermetallic compounds such as Al6Mn,
Al3Fe, Al2Cu and Mg2Si in Al materials increase the flow stress for hot and cold forming through intrinsic
mechanical properties, particle size and volume fraction.
In Fig. 2.5 the dependence of the flow stress of a basic Al-Si-Mn alloy on additions of Cu and Mg is
presented.
Fig. 2.5. Dependence of flow stress of a basic ternary Al-Si-

Mn alloy on copper and magnesium additions. Deformation
parameters: ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10, ’_ = 10 s–1
In an Al-Cu-Mg alloy series the content of Mg is kept constant on three levels (0, 1and 2 mass-%) while the
Cu content is varied. The flow stress of the base alloys is increasing with the Mg content. By adding Cu the
flow stress is increased further (Fig. 2.6).
Fig. 2.6. Increase of the flow stress of Al-Mg-Cu alloys with

increasing magnesium and copper content, respectively.
Deformation parameters: ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10, ’_ = 10 s–1
This increase in flow stress by a third alloying element is smaller than that caused by the same element in
a binary alloy of aluminium. The increase in flow stress by an alloying element can be described [2.7] by a
power function of the type
B
F ¼ A CEi ð2:2Þ

with
A constant
CEi content of the alloying element [mass -%] and
B alloy-specific exponent
Thus, for magnesium as an alloying element in pure aluminium B reaches the value of 0.5065. For Al-Mn-
Mg alloys, however, the value of B is 0.4203. For copper B decreases from 0.3331 to 0.1957 in Al-Cu-Mg
alloys. Increasing the content of the second alloying element reduces the relative flow stress increase com-
pared to that of the base alloy as shown for the alloy Al-Mg-Si series in Fig. 2.7.
Fig. 2.7. Relative flow stress increase compared to that of the

base alloy Al-Mg-Si in hot forming. Deformation parameters:
ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10, ’_ = 10 s–1
The description of how the flow stress of binary and ternary aluminium alloys in hot forming is influenced
by alloying and other tramp elements could be confirmed for commercial alloys. At constant content of
alloying elements the absolute values of flow stresses and deformation parameters determined are somewhat
higher, which is due to the content of impurities and/or tramp elements. Comparing the flow stress at 400 °C
at a deformation of φ = 0.10 at a strain rate of ’_ = 10 s–1 the differences obtained are listed in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Comparison of flow stress of experimental and commercial alloys

Flow stress [MPa]
Mg content [mass-%]
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.50 4.00 5.00
Test alloy 37.6 53.5 65.7 85.1 108.0 120.9
AA alloy 45…51 62…82 76…86 94…112 115…128 142..160
Fig. 2.8 illustrates the influence of the Mg content not only on the absolute value of the flow stress but
also on the character of the flow curve. While at Mg <1.0 % the curve levels rise steadily up to true strains
of ∼ 1:50, a higher Mg content leads to an increasing dynamic softening with a previously developed
significant maximum in the flow curve. This is observed for AlMg5 at a deformation of 0.20 … 0.25.

Fig. 2.8. Flow stress of Al-Mg alloys. Deformation parameters:

ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10, ’_ = 10 s–1
The observed effect on the flow stress for aluminium alloys in hot forming can also be seen in magnesium
alloys. Above 225 °C the formability of these materials improves significantly [2.5], since additional slip
and twinning on the pyramidal planes {1101}, {1122} and in the <1010> directions are activated (Fig. 2.9).
Fig. 2.9. Influence of aluminium content on the flow stress of

Mg-Zn-Al alloys. Deformation parameters: ϑ = 20°C, φ = 0.50,
’_ = 10 s–1
An increasing aluminium content results in an increase of the flow stress in Mg-Al-Zn alloys between 200
and 400 °C in the compressions test at ϑ = 400 °C, φ = 0,10 and ’_ = 10 s–1 (Fig. 2.10), which is almost
linear. The increase in flow stress decreases with increasing temperature.
Fig. 2.10. Influence of copper content on the flow stress of Ti-Cu

alloys. Deformation parameters: φ = 0.20, ’_ = 1.0 s–1

The same effect was observed in Ti-Cu alloys in the temperature range of 700-900 °C. A compilation of
flow stress data of technical Al-, Mg- and Ti-alloys both according to the authors’ experimental data and
data from the literature [2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13] is presented in Fig. 2.11.
Fig. 2.11. Survey of flow stress data of commercial Al-, Mg- and Ti-alloys in hot forming. (a ) Aluminium
alloys, (b) Titanium alloys, (c) Magnesium alloys
The flow stress at ϑ = 400 °C, φ = 0.10 and ’_ = 10 s–1 holds for pure grade aluminium and is relatively low
(approximately 20…35 MPa). It increases as the content of impurity elements increases.
Alloys with an aluminium content of ∼ 99.5 % should be considered as Al-Fe alloys, because their iron con-
tent of < 0.4 % is the highest among the impurity elements.
Ultrapure and pure aluminium are work-hardening at fairly low high forming temperature (Fig. 2.11a)
[2.14]. Dynamic softening occurs only at a relatively high temperature after hot forming. At high hot form-
ing temperature, the flow stress is only weakly dependent on the degree of deformation.
Aluminium-magnesium alloys are currently produced with a maximum Mg content of about 5%, and in
some cases with low contents of Cu, Ti, Mn and Cr. Mg is an alloying element that leads to a significant
increase of flow stress. Alloys with low Mg levels (≤1 % Mg) differ from pure aluminium in their harden-
ing and softening behaviour only slightly. With increasing Mg content, work hardening increases rapidly at
the start of forming, the maximum of the flow curve is shifted to lower strains, which improves the condi-
tions for dynamic softening at the same time.

Aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloys show very little dependence of their hot flow stress curves on defor-
mation. The flow stress depends on the composition at 400 °C and at a strain rate of 10 s–1, and it varies
from 60 to 100 [MPa]
Aluminium-copper-magnesium-and aluminium-zinc-copper (magnesium) alloys have a relatively high flow
stress. The flow curve has a broad maximum. The flow stress σF is reduced by dynamic softening only
slightly.
The work hardening of Aluminium-silicon alloys is quite strong up to true strains of ∼ 0.50, which is above
the yield stress and almost independent of deformation.
Magnesium alloys with an impurity content of < 0.50% have a flow stress of σF < 60 MPa at ϑ = 400 °C,
φ = 0.10 und ’_ = 10 s–1, with its maximum value at φ ∼ 0.25 being only slightly higher. Alloying of mag-
nesium by aluminium and zinc is associated with a significant increase in flow stress. Additions of 6% Al and
1% Zn are advertised to yield a doubling of the flow stress compared to Mg99.8 (Fig. 2.11c) at the given
deformation conditions. The flow stresses of Mg alloys with Zr and rare earth metals range in the same
order of magnitude. High Li content results in a flat flow curve as the absolute values are of the order of
those of pure Mg.
Since magnesium is a hexagonal metal, its properties are anisotropic, which holds also for the flow stress.
Thus there are significant differences of the absolute value of the flow stress for the same deformation para-
meters and of its dependence on the degree of deformation, depending on whether it is determined in com-
pression (longitudinal) or torsion (transverse).
An increasing alloy content in titanium alloys leads to a sharp increase in flow stress at 700°C und ’_ = 10 s–1.
While in pure titanium an increase of flow stress appears at a degree of deformation of about 1.00, due to
the work hardening, in titanium alloys dynamic softening is effective during deformation at a degree of defor-
mation of >0.25. This leads to higher degrees of deformation flow stress, which are smaller than that φ = 0.1
2.1.2 Cold working
2.1.2.1 Basic relationships

From Fig. 2.2 it can be seen that the flow stress increases with increasing difference in atomic radius
between the base metal and the alloying element. With it the influence of the alloy content increases also.
The alloying of Al with Zn, with an atomic radius difference of 4.19 %, leads to a moderate increase in
flow stress during cold forming only, while Mg (+11.9 %) causes a significant increase. This increase is
shown in Fig. 2.12 for the binary alloy series Al-Mg and Al-Zn in cold forming at φ = 0.50 and a strain rate
of ’_ = 10 s–1 In this context the difference in flow stress between Al99.99 and the commercial Al99.5 alloy
is interesting in that contains approximately 0.30 % Fe and about 0.20 % Si.
Fig. 2.12. Work hardening of binary aluminium - zinc and

aluminium - magnesium alloys with different alloying contents.
Deformation parameters: ϑ = 20°C, φ = 0.50, ’_ = 10 s–1
The Fe and Si - atoms are much smaller than the Al atom (Table 2) and explain the difference in σF of about
45 [MPa] at ϑ = 20 °C, φ = 0.10 and ’_ = 10 s–1. For both cold and hot deformation it has been found that
the increase in flow stress is governed by the difference of the atomic radii between the two elements of a
binary alloy system, regardless of whether it is positive or negative. For binary alloys, the alloying elements
manganese, copper, magnesium, iron and lead cause a substantial increase in flow stress due to their large
atomic radii and differences in shear modulus (Fig. 2.13). Zinc, silicon, titanium, zirconium and vanadium
are less effective [2.15].

Fig. 2.13. Increase in flow stress of cast and homogenised

aluminium alloys. Deformation parameters: ϑ = 20°C,
φ = 0.10, ’_ = 10 s –1
Compared to hot forming the order of the elements causing an increase has changed, which should be seen
in the context that the solubility at room temperature is much lower than at 400 °C and, therefore, the pro-
portion of solid solution and particle hardening is shifted towards the latter. The effect of magnesium on the
flow stress is proportional to its concentration (Fig. 2.14). The other elements lead to a lower increase in
flow stress with increasing concentration. This is particularly evident for iron and silicon, as can be seen
in Fig. 2.13.
Fig. 2.14. Influence of magnesium content on the flow curve

at room temperature for Al - Mg - alloys. Deformation para-
meters: φ = 0.10, ’_ = 10 s–1

Apart from its effect on the flow stress by solid solution hardening, Mg is, also, increasing the flow stress
with increasing temperature of deformation as illustrated in Fig. 2.15 for Al-Mg-alloys for 20, 120 and
200°C, i.e. in the range of cold deformation. In summary, increasing the alloy content leads to a significant
increase in flow stress which becomes more pronounced with rising temperature [2.14].
Fig. 2.15. Influence of the magnesium content on the

increase in flow stress in Al-Mg alloys during cold deforma-
tion. Deformation parameters: φ = 0.50, ’_ = 0.5 s–1
The work hardening - expressed as the difference in flow stress at the degrees of deformation of 1.00 and
0.10, respectively - is strongly dependent on the alloy and the alloy content [2.15, 2.16]. Al and Al alloys
with a total alloy content of <1.50% are work hardened weakly (Fig. 2.16), while Al-Cu-Mg, Al-Mg-Mn
and Al-Zn-Cu-Mg alloys have a flow stress increase by 150 to 250 MPa at a degree of deformation between
1.0 and 0.1. This information is valid for the homogenized state. In cold formed, in hot rolled and precipita-
tion hardened states the levels of flow stress rise significantly at small strains so that the degree of work
hardening may be reduced.
Fig. 2.16. Influence of chemical composition on the

work hardening at room temperature
Alloys of the type Al-Mg-Si and Al-Zn-Mg are work hardening much less; however, it can be increased by
additional alloying elements such as copper and manganese. In general, increasing the alloy content in
otherwise identical conditions increases the flow stress, tensile strength, yield strength, hardness and the
work hardening tendency, but reduces the plastic properties.
The above statements are derived from the question how the permissible compositional variation of an alloy
affects the flow stress. The effects of differences in alloying and impurity contents on the flow stress s illu-
strated for two examples in Table 2.3 (state of the material: soft annealed, ϑ = 20 °C, und ’_ = 10 s–1).

Table 2.3. Variations in composition and flow stress

Chemical composition [mass - %] Flow stress [MPa]
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr φ = 0.10 φ = 0.50
AA 3003 0.23 0.63 0.12 1.39 0.02 0 146.7 192.3
AlMn1Cu 0.07 0.18 0.57 0.81 0.16 0 179.3 230.5
AA 6061 0.40 - 0.15 0 0.80 0.04 113.8 164.7
AlMg1SiCu 0.80 0.70 0.40 0.15 1.20 0.35 137.5 196.3
On average stress differences of ± (12.5…15) % occur, which may vary further by ∼ 5 % due to precipita-
tion hardening
2.1.2.2 Influence of treatment condition

The state of pre-treatment of aluminium alloys has a considerable influence on the behaviour in cold form-
ing (Fig. 2.17). The lowest flow stress for the same degree of deformation and strain rate is obtained in the
soft annealed state, the highest one in the precipitation hardened state.
Fig. 2.17. Influence of the material condition on the flow stress
In addition to the absolute initial value of flow stress the hardening behaviour will increase the "hardening
exponent" from "softened" via "rolled" to "room temperature (natural) aging" and higher, while "high tem-
perature aging", which is about the same magnitude as hot rolled yields much higher values in flow stress
(Fig. 2.17). Yield stress and hardening behaviour are influenced by the aging conditions such as aging tem-
perature and time within wide limits.
With increasing aging time the flow stress increases and the work hardening exponent is decreased. Similar
results are obtained for other room temperature age hardening alloys, the absolute values are alloy-specific
(Table 2.4).

Table 2.4. Influence of flow stress and hardening exponent of natural aging
Aging time t [h] Alloy AA6013 Alloy AA6082
Flow stress Hardening exponent Flow stress Hardening exponent
(at φ = 1.0) (at φ = 1.0)
σF [MPa] σF [MPa]
0 332.5 0.2800 289.8 0.1813
24 389.9 0.2352 306.3 0.1299
240 438.5 0.1872 329.1 0.1395
2.1.2.3 Initial structure

Light metals are partly hardened in the cast state according to investigations by Fechner [2.17]. With a
rolled and a cast strip of Al99.5 (Fig. 2.18) they showed that a difference of σF of about 25 MPa between
the two production alternatives (rolling with a total strain of φ = 2.90 (e = 95 %)) is reduced to only ∼16
MPa. These differences are due to the states of solution and precipitation of the impurity elements. They
are caused by different solidification conditions during crystallization of the cast strip and of the continu-
ously cast block as starting material for the hot strip.
In Fig. 2.19 the flow stress values of homogenised aluminium, magnesium and titanium alloys for three
degrees of deformation applied as taken from own experiments and the literature [2.12, 2.18 and 2.19]
are compared. The comparison pertains to aluminium and titanium alloys at 20 °C, and to magnesium alloys
at 200°C, because of its lack of plasticity at room temperature.
Fig 2.18. Flow stress of a cast and a rolled strip of Al99.5

[2.17]

Fig. 2.19. Comparison of flow stress of technical Al, Mg and Ti alloys in cold forming
a) Non-precipitation hardening aluminium alloys (20 ° C)
b) Precipitation hardening aluminium alloys (20 ° C)
c) Magnesium alloys (200 ° C)
d) Titanium alloys (20 ° C)
In cold forming the flow stress of low alloyed aluminium alloys such as Al99.5, AlMn1and AlMg1 at
φ = 1.00 does not even reach the value of 200 MPa (Fig. 2.19a); more highly alloyed aluminium, however,
such as AlMg5 and AlMg4.5Mn, reach, at φ = 0.10, values approximately twice as high as those of the low-
alloyed material, namely more than 400 MPa. Of the age-hardenable aluminium alloys, the Al-Zn-Mg-(Cu)
alloys have the highest yield strength, followed by the Al-Cu-Mg alloys (Fig. 2.19b). The flow stress of
Al-Mg-Si alloys is approximately of the same order as that of AlMn1, AlMg1 and AlMn1Mg1. Apart from
pure aluminium, the flow stress at φ = 1.00 is approximately 40…60 % higher than that at φ = 0.10.
Fig. 2.19c shows that the flow stress of magnesium alloys increases significantly with increasing deforma-
tion if alloyed with elements such as aluminium and zinc. The data for the alloy WE43 suggest that the
increase in flow stress by alloying with zirconium, yttrium and rare earth metals is smaller than that by
alloying with aluminium and zinc. This observation confirms the significance of the differences in atomic
radius and shear modulus for the flow stress of commercial alloys.
Among the light metals, the titanium alloys attain the highest flow stress values for cold forming and are
associated with a degree of deformation of φ = 0.50, these values being 20 … 30 % higher compared to
work hardening and φ= 0.10. Pure titanium hardens at even lower absolute values (Fig. 2.19d).

2.2 Influence of forming conditions
2.2.1 Hot forming

Fig. 2.20 shows the influence of the deformation conditions on the flow stress of light metals. The most
important parameters will be discussed below.
Fig. 2.20. Material related variables that

influence the flow stress in hot deforma-
tion. (a) Deformation temperature: In a
single phase system, the flow stress
decreases exponentially with higher tem-
peratures. If several phases exist, σF
increases. This effect is material-depen-
dent. (b) Degree of deformation: The
flow stress characteristics depend on
material and deformation conditions. A
hot flow curve consists of three ranges:
I - hardening range (σF increases with
increasing deformation); II - range of
dynamical softening (σF decreases with
increasing deformation); III - steady state
range (σF is independent of the degree of
deformation). (c) time between two steps
of deformation: if the total deformation is
realized in two steps, partial recovery
(1, 2) or complete recovery (3) can occur
in the time between the steps. (time 1 <
time 2 < time 3). (d) Deformation rate:
In a double logarithmic diagram, σF
depends linearly on the deformation rate.
Three curves for different deformation
temperatures ϑ1 < ϑ2 < ϑ3 are shown.
2.2.1.1 Influence of the deformation temperature

The flow stress of the alloys Mg99.8, AlMg2.5Cr and TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo versus deformation temperature for
three strain rates can be seen in Fig. 2.21. The flow stress decreases with rising temperatures. For a defor-
mation of j = 0.30 the temperature dependence of flow stress decreases from Mg99.8 to AlMg2.5Cr to
TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo. To a small extent it is affected by the strain rate. From the monotonous temperature
dependence of the flow stress it can be concluded that in the temperature range considered no structural
changes occur. Fig. 2.21 is based on the results from a torsion test.
Fig. 2.21. Temperature dependence of the flow stress of light

metals

If the deformation occurs within the single-phase range, the temperature dependence of the flow stress fol-
lows an exponential function, which is derived from the Arrhenius-term, with the deformation strain and the
deformation rate being constant. This holds for both hot and cold deformation, with the different exponents
of the exponential function.
2.2.1.2 Influence of the strain

Fig. 2.22 confirms that the pattern shown in Fig. 2.20 describes a general dependence of the flow stress of
deformation in hot forming of light metals, while alloy specific differences are observed. For magnesium
alloys, the increase of the flow stress curve increases with increasing strain rate in the range of hardening
and with decreasing deformation temperature, which also applies to the deformation of the flow stress curve
maximum.
Fig. 2.22. Strain dependence of the flow stress of light

metals
For the hardening range of the flow curve of magnesium alloys it is typical that its increase changes with
increasing deformation. For aluminium alloys the hardening exponent at the beginning of the deformation
is higher than at higher degrees of deformation. For magnesium alloys, this is reversed, which is reflected in
the parabolic rise of the flow stress curve. This is an indication of the activation of further slip systems in the
hexagonal lattice.
Dynamic softening starts at the maximum point of the stress-strain curve and leads to a significant reduction
in the flow stress as the strain increases. The dynamic softening is favoured by rising strain rates and dimin-
ishing deformation temperatures, but it is important to note that high temperatures limit the extent of work
hardening in the case of hot deformation. The dynamic softening continues down to a flow stress level
which depends on the temperature and the strain rate but is higher than the initial level of flow stress in
the deformation condition concerned. The strain at which dynamic softening ceases depends, also, on the
temperature and strain rate. Decreasing temperatures and rising strain rates increase the strain at which
dynamic softening ceases. Above this critical strain a steady-state range is observed in the stress-strain
curves, in which the flow stress of the material is independent of the strain.
In the intervals between two roll passes in hot deformation softening of the material by post-dynamic and
static recovery occurs, followed by recrystallisation after some time. Therefore it is necessary to know
the pass schedule design of a continuous rolling mill to the flow stress during the forming process, including
the softening in the pause times.
For the dependence of softening on time, Fig. 2.23 shows the variation of softening as a function of time for
Al99.5 at three temperatures. The higher the temperature, the faster is the increase in softening, which is
complete after 5 s at 500 °C.

Fig. 2.23. Static softening of Al99.5
For forming of the alloy AlMg4.5Mn the time dependence of the flow stress at temperatures of 380, 440 and
520 °C was investigated; the deformation strain of 0.60 in the first roll pass was followed by a 12 second
interval before the second pass (Fig 2.24).
Fig. 2.24. Continuous and two step flow curves of AlMg4.5Mn

for different temperatures at the strain rate ’_ = 3.0 s–1
Theoretically, the flow stress curve of the second deformation stage should be the same as that of the first
stage after complete softening, or the first deformation stage only should be shifted to the right by the
amount of the stage deformation strain.
As can be seen in comparing continuous and multi-step flow curves, both curves have the typical character-
istics of hot flow curves. The deformation begins with hardening, followed by dynamical softening. After
completion of the dynamical softening, the flow stress is independent of the degree of deformation and is
affected only by temperature and rate of deformation. The maximum in the flow curve of the second form-
ing stage lies lower than that of the first one at all three temperatures investigated. The reason is the tempera-
ture rise caused by the heat of deformation. The static softening in the interpass times leads neither to
qualitatively different flow curve characteristics nor to a significant reduction of the absolute value of flow
stress. Hence continuous deformation processes can be based on hot flow curves whose degree of deforma-
tion (start and finish) can be related to the total degree of deformation for the actual temperature and rate of
deformation of one deformation step.
If precipitation processes occur in parallel to softening during the pause time between passes these lead to a
considerable increase in flow stress with an increasing number of passes and a decreasing deformation tem-

perature. This can be seen in Fig. 2.25 for the alloy AlCu4SiMg which was rolled at 250…450°C in four
passes (φ = 0.19, φtotal = 0.78) with pause times between 1 and 10 s (Fig. 2.25). While at 450 °C the con-
tinuous and multi-stage flow curve with a pause time of 1 and 5 [s] are identical and close to a complete
softening, the differences of the flow curves increase with decreasing experimental temperature and pause
time. Since the temperature was kept constant during the experiment, an increase in flow stress through
cooling can be excluded. This increase of the flow stress could be explained by age hardening.
Fig. 2.25. Effect of the pause time on the flow stress for
AlCu4SiMg at different temperatures and a strain rate of
φ = 1 s–1
2.2.1.3 Influence of the strain rate

According to Alder and Philips [2.10], the equation
m
’_ 1
F1 ¼ F2 ð2:3Þ
’_ 2
applies to hot and cold forming. In this equation σF1 and σF2 are the flow stress at strain rate ’_ 1 and ’_ 2 ,
respectively. The temperature and degree of deformation are constant.
There is proportionality between the changes in strain and the deviating stresses, i.e. the flow stress depends
on the rate of deformation. This dependence is a straight line in double logarithmic representation, where the
rate exponent is a function of temperature. It is significantly lower at cold deformation than at hot deforma-
tion.
Increasing the strain rate raises the flow stress at constant temperature and at constant strain, which can be
seen in Fig. 2.26a. The strain rate exponent, which expresses the increase in flow stress with increasing
strain rate, increases with increasing temperature from 0.0296 at 250°C to 0.2402 at 550°C in the case of
AlMg2.5Cr (strain 0.30) and from 0.084 at 250°C to 0.3413 at 550°C in the case of Mg99 (Fig. 2.26b).
The coefficient of the exponent of strain rate of TiAl6V4 [2.20] depends on the temperature of deformation
and strain rate as well as on the volume fraction of the α and β phases (Fig. 2.26c). The strain rate exponent
decreases with increasing deformation and increasing grain size (Fig. 2.26d). It is also dependent on the
microstructure and strain rate (Fig. 2.26e). Increasing the strain rate of 0.0002 [1/s] to 0002 [1/s] results
in a reduction of the velocity exponent of 0.70 to 0.34.

Fig. 2.26. Influence of strain rate on flow stress in hot forming of light metals (a) increase in flow
stress of Al and Mg alloys (b) the strain rate exponent as a function of temperature (c) the strain rate
exponent in the range of the phase transformation at TiAl6V4 [2.21] Volume fraction of α-phase [%]:
820°C: ∼ 79 860°C: ∼ 74 900°C: ∼ 65 940°C: ∼ 45 (d) influence of strain on the strain rate exponent
(grain size and strain rate for TiAl6V4) [2.22] (left) strain rate exponent in different structural states
of TiAl6V4 [2.21]

2.2.2 Cold Forming

Fig. 2.27 gives an overview of the influence of material-related parameters on the flow stress in cold defor-
mation of light metals. In the subsequent sections the effects of degree, rate and temperature of deformation
are discussed in more detail.
Fig. 2.27. Material-related parameters on the flow stress in cold deformation. (a) Degree of deformation:
An increase of the flow stress σF as a result of hardening occurs until the plasticity limit is reached. In a
double logarithmic diagram, a linear correlation between flow stress σF and degree of deformation φ occurs
for certain ranges of degree of deformation (b) Degree of pre-forming: At constant load, pre-hardening
leads to an increase of the flow stress σF. 1 - soft-annealed; 2 - preformed with φpre. A change of loading
(tension vs. compression) leads to a mechanical hysteresis (Bauschinger effect) (c) Temperature: In the
single phase range the flow stress σF decreases with increasing temperature according to the Arrhenius-
equation (curve 1). Precipitation processes can disturb the monotonous decrease (curve 2). (d) Deformation
rate: In a double logarithmic diagram (with different temperatures ϑ1 < ϑ2), a linear correlation between flow
stress σF and deformation rate exists, although the slope is much smaller than at hot deformation. (e)
Method of determination: Despite a translation into reference stresses and reference deformation degree,
the flow stress depends on the method of investigation such as torsion test, compression test and bending test.
2.2.2.1 Degree of Deformation

Cold forming leads to work hardening until the capability of deformation of the material is exhausted.
Strongest work hardening is observed for face centered cubic materials [2.23]. Other light metals have a
hexagonal lattice with close packing of spheres. In Fig. 2.28, the work hardening behaviour of Al99.98
and titanium at room temperature and magnesium at 150°C are compared. The latter hardened less than alu-
minium.

Fig. 2.28. Relative flow stress Fð’Þ =Fð’¼0;1Þ of light metals
It is typical for all light metals that their alloys harden less than the pure metals. For aluminium an increase
of the degree of deformation from 0.10 to approximately 0.30 leads to an increase in flow stress by 40 %. To
achieve the same effect in titanium, the degree of deformation has to be increased to approximately 0.40,
since the hexagonal lattice of it has a less pronounced hardening tendency.
Hardening is expressed by the hardening exponent n quantifying the slope of the flow curve in a double
logarithmic representation:
F ¼ F ð’¼1;0Þ ’n ’;
_ # ¼ const ð2:4Þ
For many materials and material states, the hardening exponent n is not a constant but a function of the
degree of deformation [2.24, 2.9]. In a rough approximation, two ranges of the flow curve can be observed
in which the hardening exponent is constant (“double-n-behaviour” [2.24]). If upsetting tests are used to
determine the flow curve, flow curves with one hardening range are obtained for magnesium and titanium
alloys. For aluminium alloys flow curves with two hardening ranges are characteristic. If a material has two
hardening ranges, the value of the hardening exponent at the beginning of deformation (up to forming
degrees of approximately 0.20…0.30) is a multiple of the value for higher degrees of deformation.
2.2.2.2 Rate of deformation

The rate exponent m, (Equation 2.3) which depends on the material and its state, increases continuously
with increasing temperature of deformation if no phase transitions and precipitation processes take place
in the material. The example of magnesium alloys shows the influence of temperature on the strain rate
exponent.
Table 2.5. Strain rate exponent of Mg alloys at various temperatures

Temperature ϑ [°C] Strain rate exponent
Mg99.8 MgAl6Zn
20 0.00318 0.00274
50 0.00795 0.00685
100 0.0159 0.01370
150 0.0238 0.02055
200 0.0318 0.0274
Depending on the material, the strain rate exponent of cold deformation of aluminium and titanium alloys
ranges between 0.02 and 0.04. In some cases it can be negative especially when age hardened material states
are deformed.

2.2.2.3 Temperature of deformation

In the product range under consideration a reduction in flow stress with increasing temperature at constant
degree and rate of deformation occurs almost exclusively for magnesium, aluminium and titanium alloys
(Fig. 2.29).
Fig. 2.29. Relative temperature dependence of the flow stress in cold deformation (a) aluminium alloys (b)
magnesium alloys (c) titanium alloys
The flow stress decreases with increasing temperature for the observed deformation at φ = 0.10 at a strain
rate of ’_ = 10 s–1. The decrease is more pronounced for the pure metals than for the alloys. It is interesting
that the flow stress of Al99.98, Mg99.8 and Ti99.9 decreases almost identically between 20°C and 200 °C.
Fig. 2.29 is based on compression tests.

2.3 Modelling
2.3.1 Influence of chemical composition

The following assumptions hold for hot forming of aluminium and magnesium alloys:
– the alloying elements are completely dissolved in the α phase, hence solid solution hardening is provided
by their differences in atomic radii compared to aluminium and magnesium respectively;
– the alloying elements do not form intermetallic compounds;
– the effect of an alloying element on the yield stress can be expressed by an exponential function
(Table 2.5);
– the material condition is homogeneous;
– the material is isotropic regarding its plastic properties.
Table 2.5 contains constants for flow stress calculations of aluminium alloys at ϑ = 400 °C, φ = 0.10 and
’_ =10 s–1 of the relationship
F ¼ F1% cnEi ð2:5Þ
with σF-1% the flow stress at an alloy content Cei of 1%
Table 2.6. Constants for flow stress calculations by Eq. (2.5)

Type of alloy Element Thermal Testing Flow stress at Exponent n Correlation
content treatment mode CEi = 1% coefficient
[mass %] temperature [°C] [MPa] Rxy
Al - Zn Zn: 0.10… 550 -400 compression 21.002 0.1575 0.9543
7.25 400 compression 20.347 0.1072 0.9843
550–400 torsion 18.152 0.0745 0.9591
AlMn1Cr Cr: 0.04… 550 -400 compression 58.548 0.1422 0.9788
0.50 400 compression 59.321 0.1423 0.9478
550–400 torsion 52.672 0.1396 0.8911
AlMn0.5Mg Mg: 0.20… 550 -400 compression 69.063 0.4231 0.9829
2.50 400 compression 68.739 0.4243 0.9878
550–400 torsion 62.799 0.4012 0.9911
AlZn6Mg2Cu Cu: 0.50… 550 -400 compression 111.19 0.1121 0.4345
1.50 400 compression 100.02 0.2318 0.9682
550–400 torsion 103.82 0.1222 0.9434
For the flow stress of these alloys at defined forming conditions, one can write [2.25, 2.26]
Y
i¼x
Bi
F0 ¼ F0pure metal þ A CEi ð2:6Þ
i¼4
with
σF0 - Al99.999 = 19.6 [MPa] or σF0 - Mg99.9 = 46.9 [MPa] (in compression)
A - constant
CEi - content of the alloying element i
Bi - Exponent of the content of the alloying element i
In Table 2.7 the alloy-specific constants to calculate the flow stress σF0 from the chemical composition,
including the determination, are compiled. Table 2.8 contains the limiting amounts of alloying and tramp
elements of (equation 2.6).

Table 2.7. Constants to calculate the flow stress of aluminium alloys by Eq. (2.6) at ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10
and ’_ = 10 s–1
Type of Const. Exponent of the content of the alloying element i Rxy
alloy A Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti
Pure Al 26.243 0.0136 0.4887 0.0718 0.0458 0.927
and Al-Fe
Al-Cu-Mg 75.477 0.0406 0.1763 0.0373 0.2823 0.919 0.0097
Al-Mn 35.166 0.0858 0.1667 0.0199 0.9047 0.0347 0.0514 0.937
Al-Si 16.267 0.3955 0.0250 0.0105 0.873
Al-Mg 35.845 0.0724 0.0653 0.0455 0.0362 0.8490 0.0351 0.944
Al-Mg-Mn 44.034 0.0885 0.0065 0.0230 0.0252 0.5770 0.979
Al-Mg-Si 61.664 0.1759 0.0129 0.0373 0.2823 0.976
Al-Zn 38.313 0.8914 0.6896 0.937
Al-Zn-Mg 448.3 0.0908 0.0256 0.1225 0.7764 0.0535 1.3586 0.999
Al-Zn-Mg- 185.4 0.0891 0.1089 0.0211 0.0982 0.2043 0.0077 0.933
Cu
Table 2.8. Limits of contents of alloying elements in Eq. (2.6)

Type of alloy Chemical composition [10–2 mass %]
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Zr
Pure Al and 0.1…6.5 5…300 0.2…2 0.1…15 0.05..2 <0.1 <0.3 <0.1 <0.2
Al-Fe
Al-Cu-Mg 0.5…110 0.3..110 20..450 0.2..100 50..250 <0.5 <0.1 0.1..20 0.2..25
Al-Mn 0.2…30 0.2..60 0.2..30 0.1..140 0.1..10 0.1..15 <0.5 <0.1 <0.2
Al-Si 10…120 0.3..40 0.2..15 0.1..30 0.4..20 0.3..0.5 <0.1 <0.1 <0.3
Al-Mg 0.2…20 0.3..35 0.3..12 0.3..25 20..750 0.2..50 <0.5 <0.1 <0.2
Al-Mg-Mn 1…30 2..70 0.4..20 25..120 30..550 0.1..2 <0.5 <0.2 <0.3
Al-Mg-Si 30…180 0.3..50 0.3..25 0.1..100 40..120 0.2..20 <0.2 <0.1 <0.3
Al-Zn 0.5…10 0.3..20 0.3..1 0.01..0.5 0.01..0.5 0.1…02 35..750 <0.02 0.2..25
Al-Zn-Mg 0.5…40 1.5..50 0.5..5 0.2..40 40..200 2..20 300..550 0.1..1 0.2..25
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu 0.5…20 2..30 50..250 0.2..60 150..350 <0.2 450..700 0.1..20 0.2..25
The assumptions on which the modelling is based have the following physical background:
Only elements with an atomic radius that differs from aluminium by 15 % at most are dissolved. When these
elements have a cubic face-centered or a hexagonal close packed structure, they dissolve very well in the
face centered cubic host crystal lattice. This applies to the alloying elements Mg, Cu and Zn
The tendency to form intermetallic compounds with aluminium is given for manganese, iron, silicon and
chromium, which have no significant influence on the flow stress in hot forming because of their low con-
tent.
The constants for equation (2.6) were determined with highly deformed aluminium alloys. One can hence
assume that the material is homogeneous and may be considered to be quasi-isotropic.

Apart from the chemical composition, the state of the grain structure determines the flow stress. It is known
that under the same forming conditions the flow stress of cast grain structures is lower than the flow stress of
deformed grain structures. Moreover, if the cast structure is dendritic the yield stress is anisotropic.
Fig. 2.30 shows the fit between measured and calculated flow stress data for ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10 and
’_ = 10 s–1 and for the group of Al-Mg-Mn alloys. This diagram shows the results of the binary experimental
alloys containing a very low content of tramp elements and impurities. Moreover, the results of commercial
AA alloys are plotted. The discrepancy between the measured and calculated values is very small.
Fig. 2.30. Comparison of measured and calculated data of

the flow stress at ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10 and ’_ = 10 s–1 for the
group of Al - Mg-Mn alloys
The same observation can be made for the group of Al-Cu-Mg alloys, Fig. 2.31. It shows the dependence of
the σF0 value [MPa] on the copper content for different magnesium contents at constant Si, Mn and Ti con-
tents. In this diagram the results of experimental alloys and commercial AA alloys are also plotted.
Fig. 2.31. comparison of measured and calculated values of

flow stress at ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10 und ’_ = 10 s–1 for the
group of Al-Cu-Mg alloys
The dependence of flow stress of Mg-Al-Zn alloys can be calculated in the same way as for aluminium
alloys [2.27] (Table 2.9).

Table 2.9. Constants for calculating the flow stress [MPa] of magnesium alloys by Eq. (2.6) at ϑ = 400°C,
φ = 0/10 and ’_ = 10 s–1
Testing Const. Exponent of the content of the alloy Correlation coefficient
mode A element i Rxy
Al Zn Mn Fe
Hot working torsion 3.760 1.1267 0.3912 0.7277 0.0705 0.9998
upsetting 298.24 0.7476 0.4131 0.9741 0.2624 0.9363
Cold upsetting 43.49 0.9273 0.1578 0.5853 0.9937
working
Validity [%] 0.01… 0.005… 0.01… 0.005…
10.0 1.20 0.30 0.025
According to eq. (2.6) alloying with aluminium and zinc leads to an almost linear increase in flow stress
(Fig. 2.32). In this diagram, the measured values for the commercial Al-Zn alloys (points) are pkotted. Since
the Zn content is not that of the calculated curves for 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0% corresponding deviations occur.
Taking these into consideration the measured and calculated values almost identical.
Fig. 2.32. Comparison of measured and calculated values of

flow stress at ϑ = 400°C, φ = 0.10 und ’_ = 10 s–1 in the
group of Mg-Al-Zn alloys
2.3.2 Influence of forming conditions
2.3.2.1 Hot working

Flow stress models as a function of the deformation conditions can be calculated by using either the so-
called thermodynamic factors (which contain the influence of the state of transformation, temperatureϑ,
_ or the activation energy of hot deformation. Both methods are only applicable
strain φ and strain rate ’)
to limited temperature ranges validated.
Further calculation models for hot flow curves, e.g. by Sellars and Tegart [2:28], Luton and Sellars [2.29.],
Laasraoul et al. [2.30], Avrami-Voce or Voce-Avrami-Zener-Hollomon (ref. Hensger [2.29]), do not yield
any improvement of the approximation and extrapolation [2.31], although in their equations the authors
account for dynamic softening, for the difference in flow stress between the maximum and the steady-state
range, respectively, the distance between the degree of deformation considered, and the flow stress maxi-
mum.
2.3.2.1.1 Modelling by means of the thermodynamic factors

The mathematical modelling of the hot stress-strain curve is based on multiplying a material-specific initial
value by factors that express the influence of the conditions of deformation [2.32]:

F ¼ A K# K’ K’& ð2:7Þ
The material-related basis considers the temperature influence by the Arrhenius term. The influence of
strain is taken care of by a power law for work hardening and by exponential functions for softening effects.
Furthermore, the influence of the strain rate is included by the temperature dependent proportionality
between changes in strain and flow stress.
Different model terms have been tried out for the different thermodynamic factors Kφ [2.33]:
F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 ’_ m3 ðterm0Þ; ð2:8Þ
F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ’_ m3 ðterm1Þ; ð2:9Þ
F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 # ðterm2Þ; ð2:10Þ

where A is a constant, m1 to m8 are exponents expressing the influence of the deformation conditions on the
flow stress and ϑ is the deformation temperature (in °C). The following comments can be made regarding
the mathematical modelling of stress-strain curves as a function of the conditions of deformation:
Term 0 traces back to Zjuzin [2.32], Hajduk and Elfmark [2.34] and is suitable for defining stress-strain
curves in a single phase range for hot deformation with a strain up to 0.35, because it does not allow for
dynamic softening. This disadvantage is mitigated by term 1, and the scope of application is extended to
a strain up to approximately 1.00. However, the drawback of term 1 is that hardening and softening are
not defined as a function of the temperature, which is also true for the influence of the strain rate on the
stress-strain curve. In addition, the steady state range of the hot stress-strain curve is not computed correctly.
The best agreement between measured and calculated hot stress-strain curves is hence obtained from term 2.
This term is well suitable for the mathematical description of stress-strain curves in engineering calculations
[2.33, 2.35].
– If variations in flow stress due to precipitation or grain growth are small, the temperature dependence Kϑ
can be expressed by a simple exponential function if the deformation occurs in a single-phase range:
K# ¼ em1 # ð2:11Þ
– The influence exerted by strain on flow stress as defined in term 1,
K’ ¼ ’m2 em4 =’ ; ð2:12Þ
is sufficiently accurate for some materials only. A marked improvement can be achieved by considering the
temperature influence on hardening and softening,
K’ ¼ ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ : ð2:13Þ
A better agreement between measured and calculated flow stress is achieved if the power function for the
strain rate ’_ contains a temperature-dependent and a temperature-independent exponent.
Fig. 2.33 shows the profile of relative flow stress dependence on temperature, deformation and strain rate
for the Al-alloy AA6082 (AlSi1MgMn). Term 2 (2.10) describes the influence of the deformation on the
hot flow curve qualitatively correctly.

The hardening decreases with increasing temperature; however the rate dependence of flow stress increases.
Fig. 2.33. Relative dependence of flow stress on the deformation parameters during the hot forming of
AA6082 (AlSi1MgMn).
Fig. 2.34 shows for the alloy AA2014 (AlCu4SiMg) how precisely the flow curve modelling according to
equation (2.8) matches with the measured values for the deformation temperature of ϑ = 420 °C at three
strain rates. Normally the correlation coefficient in modelling of the flow curve according to equation
(2.10) is approximately 0.02 times higher than that according to equation (2.9).
Fig. 2.34. Comparison of calculated (curve) and measured

(symbol) flow stress values of AA2618 at strain rates in the
range of 0.01 … 10 s–1 and at ϑ = 420°C.
According to both terms, the flow stress decreases with increasing temperature. The modelling of flow
stress according to equation (2.10) reflects the variation in flow stress with rising temperatures very pre-
cisely, while term 1 yields an increasing flow stress for the complete range of degrees of deformation. Term
2 reflects, also, the influence of dynamic recovery at ∼250°C, while the mathematical model selected for
term 1 does not incorporate the shifting of the flow curve maximum by the deformation conditions. It yields
an average curve only for both the range of dynamic recovery and the range of steady state.
The relation between rate of deformation and the flow stress with increasing temperature rises faster in
term 2. By comparison, term 1 leads to somewhat higher flow stress values at lower temperature and to
somewhat lower values at higher temperature.

As for the relation between degree of deformation and flow stress, term 1 yields a levelled relationship. At a
low degree of deformation the values for σF are too high, near the maximum of the flow curve they are too
low, and for high degrees of deformation they are too high again. Hence, term 2 is exclusively used for flow
curve modelling.
Despite the high determination of more than 0.98 for term 2 at several degrees of deformation, differences
between measured and calculated curves can occur (more than 5% in some cases). Normally the difference
between measured and calculated values increases with decreasing deformation temperature, increased
degree of deformation and increased deformation rate.
As pointed out earlier, modelling of stress-strain curves can be applied to some temperature ranges only.
Modelling for aluminium and magnesium alloys was carried out in accordance with term 2 for the entire
temperature range between 250 and ca. 600°C. Fig. 2.34 shows how precisely modelling of the flow curve
according to equation (2.9) and (2.10) matches the measured values for deformation temperatures between
800 and 1200°C. Normally the correlation coefficient in flow curve modelling according to equation (2.10)
is approximately 0.02 higher than with equation (2.9).
The constants for calculation of the stress-strain curves of light metal alloys for hot deformation can be
defined for the temperature range between 250 and 600 °C. The constants are valid for the entire tempera-
ture range, see Fig. 2.35 for the alloy AA 5083 (AlMg4.5Mn0.7)
Fig. 2.35. Flow stress of AA5083 (AlMg4.5Mn0.7) in the

temperature range from 250 to 550°C at a deformation rate
of 10 [1/s]
2.3.2.1.2 Calculation using the activation energy of hot deformation

A different model for the modelling of flow stress was established by Zener und Hollomon [2.28]:
’_ ¼ A expðQ=RT Þ ½sinhð F Þn ; ð2:14Þ
1 1
with A, α and n constants, R = 8.317 J mol K the gas constant, ϑ the temperature and Q the activation
energy of hot forming,
@In’_
Q ¼ R for F ¼ const: ð2:15Þ
@ ð1=T Þ
According to equation (2.14), one can calculate the flow stress in the range of steady state of the hot
stress-strain curve. A linear relationship is assumed between the flow stress and the logarithm of the
Zener-Hollomon parameter
Z ¼ ’_ eðRT Þ
Q
ð2:16Þ
and it is required that the activation energy of the hot forming is known.
Equation (2.14) is based on the Arrhenius equation. It seems to offer a number of advantages in flow stress
calculation, as it respects the impact of temperature and rate of forming on flow stress at the same time. The
measured flow stress values found during tests are in relatively good agreement with the calculated results.

However, the linearity assumed in equation (2.14) is no longer correct for lower stresses, and the calculation
is actually only valid for degrees of deformation that are considerably larger than applied in most technical
hot forming processes. Hence numerous relationships have been developed from equation (2.14) in order to
describe all ranges of the hot flow curve or to simplify it. Among those are, for example [2.36]
F ¼ A þ B InZ; ð2:17Þ
where the constants A, B and the activation energy Q are determined as a function of the recorded stress-
strain curves. Another approach is given in [2.37]

’ ’ C#
F ¼ F;max exp 1 ; ’_ ¼ const:; ð2:18Þ
’max ’max
with Cϑ a temperature-dependent function.
Equation (2.17) can be used for all three partial ranges of a hot stress-strain curve, using a strain-dependent
activation energy. Flow stresses calculated with strain-independent activation energies are compared with
measured results in Fig. 2.36. The figure also shows how the linear relation between flow stress and the
Zener-Hollomon parameter of AA2618A and AZ31 holds for higher absolute flow stress values >20 MPa.
Fig. 2.36. Linear relation between flow stress and the Zener-Hollomon parameter for AA2618A (a-left) and
for AZ31 (b-right), which holds for flow stress values >20 [MPa]
While the relation between flow stress and the Zener-Hollomon parameter is linear for AA2618A in the
entire range of hot forming conditions studied (Fig. 2.36a), this relationship is described by two straight
lines intersecting at 300 °C for AZ31 (Fig. 2.36b). The reason for this phenomenon could be a change in
the deformation mechanism (see 2.1.1.2), or a possible phase transformation. (δ → δ + Mg17Al12). The
use of equation (2.15) for the flow stress calculation is limited to the single-phase range and a single defor-
mation mechanism. A further disadvantage regarding equations (2.15) and (2.13) is the requirement to
determine the activation energy from test results that extend in their strain rate for example over approxi-
mately four decades [2.38]. Such a wide range of test conditions is necessary for the determination of the
activation energy with sufficient accuracy. Even small deviations from the "correct" value lead to major dif-
ferences between measured and calculated values, as the activation energy Q enters into the calculation
exponentially.
Both base models of stress-strain curves permit to perform calculations with relatively small deviations
between measured and calculated values (Fig. 2.37) only if a sufficient number of measured data f is

Fig. 2.37a. Comparison of calculated and measured flow

stress values of AA2618A at a temperature of 420°C and at
different strain rates between ’_ = 0.01 s–1 and 10 s–1
Fig. 2.37b. Comparison of calculated and measured flow

stress values of AZ31 at a temperature of 420°C and different
strain rates between ’_ = 0.01 s–1 and 10 s–1
available for a wide range of forming conditions. This applies especially to models in which the activation
energy is used, since it enters the model exponentially and all inaccuracies of measurement enter into this
parameter. The activation energy for the calculation of the flow stress for the AA2618A alloy in hot forming
as shown in Fig. 2.37a was determined to be Q = 248 312 Jmol–1. The comparison of the flow stress values
with the values calculated by Eq. (2.10) and (2.18) for three strain rate reveals that only small differences
occur between measurement and calculation at the strain rates ’_ = 0.01 and 0.10 s–1.. At a strain rate of
’_ = 10 s–1, however, for lower calculated σF-values strains φ > 0.40 result according to eq. (2.18). Thus
the difference to the measured values increases with increasing degree of deformation.
The consistency of flow stress measurements with calculations according to Eq. (2.14) and (2.18) for light
metals is as good as for steels [2.39] and permits to perform a relatively simple mathematical modelling,
when the input data are trustworthy.
2.3.2.2 Cold deformation
2.3.2.2.1 Effect of the degree of deformation

Cold flow curves can be modelled mathematically under different aspects. If the effect of deformation only
is considered, a characterisation of the flow curve is possible according to [2.23]
F ¼ F;’¼1:0 ’n1 ð2:19Þ

or by the Ludwik equation [2.40]

F ¼ F;A þ F;’¼1:0 ’n2 ; ð2:20Þ
where σF,φ = 1.0 is the flow stress [MPa] at φ = 1.0, σF,A is the flow stress at φ = 0; ΔσF,φ=1.0 is the hard-
ening at φ = 1.0 (which equals the increase in flow stress between φ = 0 and φ = 1.0), and n is the hardening
exponent (n1 ≠ n2). The relations are valid for constant temperature and rate of deformation. For AA6056
the constants σF,φ=1.0 = 249.5 MPa, n1 = 0.1459 and a determination of 0.9846 were found for equation
(2.19), while the determination of the flow curve was based on the tensile strength of cold rolled samples.
Eq. (2.21) is a combination of power and exponential functions and avoids the use of two different work
hardening exponents [2.41].
F ¼ A ’n eð’Þ
B
ð2:21Þ
As σF = 0 for φ = 0, equation (2.19) is not suitable for low degrees of deformation, for instance for a skin
pass in rolling. Furthermore the equation does not consider the yield stress at the beginning of processing,
which can be easily determined but is often a factor of uncertainty, for instance after heat treatments.
These disadvantages can be avoided by applying equation (2.18), where the constants were found to be
σF,A = 113.4 MPa, ΔσF,φ=1.0 = 136.1 MPa, n2 = 0.2882 and a determination of 0.9872 for AA6056. The
low determination for equation (2.20) is due to the fact that two deformation ranges exist at cold rolling,
of unalloyed and alloyed steels, and in both the hardening coefficient is constant (“double-n-behaviour").
If this phenomenon is considered, we have
– φ = 0.0…0.08: σF,A = 113.4 MPa, ΔσF,φ=1.0 = 716.5 MPa, n2 = 0.9520, determination 0.9544;
– φ = 0.08…1.50: σF,A = 113.4 MPa, ΔσF,φ=1.0 = 135.7 MPa, n2 = 0.2991, determination 0.9905.
At the beginning of deformation, the hardening is obviously nearly twice as high as at high degrees of
deformation. The cold flow curve at constant temperature can be represented by a polynomial function
[2.42, 2.43]
F ¼ FA þ C1 ’ þ C2 ’2 þ C3 ’3 þ C4 ’4 þ C5 ’5 ð2:22Þ
with C1,…, C5 material related constants. It correlates measured and calculated values very well. Even
though for φ = 0 the regression analysis yields a finite value, flow stress modelling forms a problem. It only
applies to the range of measured values. Within the range of validity φ = 0…1.50 for AA1050 (Al99.5)
[2.43] it applies to an alloy with with the following chemical analysis:
Chemical composition [mass %]

Fe Mn Si Mg Ni Cu Zn Al
0.17 0.03 0.16 traces 0.009 0.003 0.009 rest
The numerical values for calculating the flow stress of AA1050 for various model approaches are listed in
Table 2.11.
Table 2.11. Numerical values of the equations to calculate the flow stress at ϑ = 20°
Type of the equation Equation Equation for Al99.5 at ’_ = 0.15 s–1 Rxy
Power function (2.19) σF = 172.78 φ 0.3231
0.9889
Ludwik equation (2.20) σF = 151.85 φ0.6154 + 38.62 0.9661
Power and exponential (2.21) σF =174.0 φ0.39514 e0.01367φ–1 0.9980
function
Polynomial (2.22) σF = 47.92+191.06 φ5701.46 φ4+1046.27 φ3791.21 0.9984
φ2+382.05 φ

The consequence of the use of the power and the exponential function, the Ludwik equation and polynomial
function of fifth grade on the calculation of the flow stress as a function of degree of deformation is shown
in Fig. 2.38.
Fig. 2.38a. Description of the flow stress curve of AA1050

(Al99.5) at room temperature by an exponential and a poly-
nomial function (2.19).
Fig. 2.38b. Percentage deviation of flow stress, as calculated

by different functional descriptions, from measured data.
The differences between measured and calculated values are small in this range (Fig. 2.38b). An extrapola-
tion beyond that range leads to drastic deviations between measured and calculated data, as the extrapola-
tion is not based on effective material behaviour. Equations (2.19) to (2.21) are a rough approximation of
flow curves only, because they only include the influence of the degree of deformation and were deter-
mined, as a rule, at room temperature and at low rates of deformation only. This does not correspond to real
deformation conditions in the deformation zone of cold deformation processes.
2.3.2.2.2 Influence of degree of deformation, deformation temperature and deformation rate

The mathematical modelling of the dependence on temperature, degree of deformation and deformation rate
was realised by multiplying the material-specific basic values by factors that reflect the influence of the
deformation conditions:
F ¼ A K# K’ K’_ ð2:23Þ

Kϑ, Kφ and K’_ are correction functions for the influence of the deformation temperature, degree of defor-
mation and deformation rate, respectively. At hot deformation, equation (2.23) is identical to equations
(2.7) and (2.9) respectively. For the thermodynamical factors Kϑ, Kφ and K’_ exponential functions based
on physical laws are used:
K# ¼ A1 em1 # ð2:24aÞ
K# ¼ A2 ’_ m2 :em4 =’ ð2:24bÞ
K’_ ¼ A3 ’_ m3 ð2:24cÞ
With σF0 the reference flow stress at cold deformation at ϑ = 20°C, φ = 0.10 and ’_ = 10 s–1 the flow stress
can be written as
F ¼ F0 A1 A2 A3 em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ’_ m3 ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ’_ m3 ð2:25Þ
The constants A1, A2 and A3 result from the definition that Kϑ = 20°C, Kφ = 0.10 and K’¼10
_ s1 are set to 1:
Fig. 2.39. Relation between the thermo dynamical factors Kϑ, Kφ and K’_ and the deformation temperature ϑ,
the degree of deformation φ and the deformation rate ’_ for the alloy AA3103 (AlMn1).
The degree of deformation is the variable of main influence on the flow stress. An increase in strain rate
from 10-3 s–1 to 100 s–1 leads to an increase in flow stress by only ca. 15.5 %,. An increase in temperature
of 20 °C reduces σF by ca. 33 % compared to ϑ = 200 °C. Apart from the degree of deformation the com-
position of the material affects the flow stress strongly also, as can be clearly seen in Fig. 2.40. The agree-
ment between measured and calculated flow stress curves at these temperatures has been well studied.

Fig. 2.40. Comparison between measured and calculated

flow stress σF for AlMn1Mg1 at ϑ = 20; 100 and 200°C;
’_ = 1.0 s–1
The work hardening processes are dependent on temperature. In order to improve the accuracy of flow
curve calculations at higher temperatures and deformation rates, it is hence useful to insert a temperature
dependent factor into the functions Kφ and K’_ . However, even considering the heat of deformation, cold
deformation occurs mostly at temperatures below 200°C, which is why flow curve calculations according
to equations (2.23)….(2.25) are sufficient in this case and are used for all data sheets of light metals in
section 5.
2.4 References
[2.1] Cyrener, K.: Conference Paper, MEFORM 94, Freiberg: Institut für Metallformung der TU BA,
1994, Proc. Paper No. 1.
[2.2] Glocker, W.: Materialprüfung mit Röntgenstrahlen, 4. Auflage, Berlin, Göttingen, Heidelberg:
Springer-Verlag, 1955.
[2.3] Lifsic, B.G.: Physikalische Eigenschaften der Metalle und Legierungen, Leipzig: VEB Deutscher
Verlag Grundstoffindustrie, 1988.
[2.4] Aluminium-Zentrale e.V. (ed.): Aluminium-Taschenbuch, 15. Auflage, Band 2, Düsseldorf:
Aluminium-Verlag GmbH, 1996.
[2.5] Merkel, M., Thomas, K.-H.: Taschenbuch der Werkstoffe, 5. Auflage, München: Fachbuchverlag
Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag, 2000.
[2.6] Seidel, W.: Werkstofftechnik, 4. Auflage, München, Wien: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2000.
[2.7] Spittel, M., Spittel, T.: Conference Paper, Sächsische Fachtagung Umformtechnik, Freiberg:
Institut für Metallformung der TU BA, 1998, Proc. Paper Nr.3, 18 pages.
[2.8] Zidek, M.: Metalurgicka Tvaritelnost Oceli za Tepla a za Studena, Praha: Aleko, 1995.
[2.9] Hensel, A., Spittel, T.: Kraft- und Arbeitsbedarf bildsamer Formgebungsverfahren, Leipzig: VEB
[2.10] Alder, J.F., Philips, V.A.: The Effect of Strain Rate and Temperature on the Resistance of Alumi-
num, Copper and Steel to Compression: J. Inst. Metals 83 (1954/55) 80-86.
[2.11] Poluchin, P.I., Gun, G.Ja., Galkin, A.M.: Soprotivlenie Plasticheskoy Deformacii Metallov i
Splavov, Moskva: Metallurgija, 1983.
[2.12] Doege, E., Meyer-Nolkemper, H., Saeed, I.: Fließkurvenatlas metallischer Werkstoffe, München,
Wien: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1986.
[2.13] Atlas of Hot Working Properties of Nonferrous Metals, Vol. 1, Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys,
Oberursel: DGM e.V.,1978.
[2.14] Spittel, T., Spittel, M., Teichert, H.: Deformation Properties of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys,
Düsseldorf: MDS Mannesmann DEMAG Sack GmbH, 1994.
[2.16] Lehnert, W., Spittel, M., Cuong, N.D.: Aluminium (Düsseldorf) 70 (1994) 708–712.

[2.17] Fechner, M., in: Verfestigung und Entfestigung metallischer Werkstoffe, Vol. 5, Freiberg: TU
Bergakademie, 1975, p. 44–45.
[2.18] Atlas of Cold Working Properties of Nonferrous Metals, Vol. 1, Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys,
Oberursel: DGM Informationsgesellschaft, 1987.
[2.19] Atlas of Cold Working Properties of Nonferrous Metals, Vol. III, Ti and Ti-Alloys, Oberursel:
DGM Informationsgesellschaft, 1987.
[2.20] Szkliniarz, W.: Working and Properties of TiAl Intermetallic Alloys, in: Schindler, I., Hadasik, E.:
Deformation Behavior and Properties of Selected Metallic Materials, Gliwice, 2007, p. 219–242.
[2.21] Semiatin, S.L., Seetharaman, V., Weiss, I.: Hot Workability of Titanium and Titanium Aluminide
Alloys - an overview; Mater. Sci. Eng. A 327 (2002) 233–245.
[2.22] Ghosh, A.K., Hamilton, C.H.: Mechanical Behavior and Hardening Characteristics of Superplastic
Ti-6Al-4V; Metall. Trans. A 10 (1979) 699–706.
[2.23] Hoffmann, O., Sachs, G.: Introduction to the Theory of Plasticity for Engineers, New York: Mc
Graw-Hill, 1953.
[2.24] Dahl, W., Rees, H.: Die Spannungs-Dehnungs-Kurve von Stahl, Düsseldorf: Stahleisen-Verlag,
1979.
[2.25] Spittel, T., Spittel, M.: Neue Hütte 36 (1991) 329–335.
[2.26] Spittel, M., Spittel, T.: Scand. Metall. Rev. (Helsinki) 20 (1990) 85.
[2.27] Spittel, T., Spittel, M., Schmidt, D., Egel, M.: Warmumformverhalten von Magnesiumlegierungen,
Unpublished Report, Freiberg: TU Bergakademie, Institut für Metallformung, Juli 2000.
[2.28] Sellars, C.M., Tegart, W.J.: Rev. Metallurg. (Paris) 63 (1966) 731–746.
[2.30] Yue, S.: Proc. Met. Soc. Canadian Inst. Mining, Montreal, 1990.
[2.31] Wahlen, A.: Regressionsmodelle für Warmfließkurven, ETH Zürich, Nov. 1995.
[2.32] Zjuzin, V.I., Brovman, M.Ja., Melnikov, A.F.: Soprotivlenije Deformacii Stalej pri Gorjacej Pro-
katke, Moskva: Metallurgija, 1964.
[2.33] Spittel, T., Spittel, M.: Neue Hütte 36 (1991) 329–335.
[2.34] Hajduk, M., et alet al.: Hutn. Listy 27 (1972) 567–572.
[2.35] Spittel, M., Spittel, T.: Fließspannung und Umformvermögen einiger Stähle, Unpublished Report,
Freiberg: TU Bergakademie, Institut für Metallformung, März 1992.
[2.36] Hakulinen, E., Roberts, W.: Report 1725, Stockholm: Inst. för Metalforskning, 1982.
[2.37] Kliber, J.: Plasticita pri Tvareni Materialu, Ostrava: VSB TU, 1997.
[2.38] Spittel, M., Spittel, T.: Neue Hütte 36 (1991) 222–228.
[2.39] Spittel, M., Spittel, T.: Landoldt-Börnstein, Group VIII, Materials: Metal Forming Data, Part 1:
Ferrous Alloys, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag, 2009.
[2.40] Ludwik, P.: Elemente der technischen Mechanik, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1909.
[2.41] Spittel, T.: Kaltfließkurvenmodellierung, Unpublished Report, Freiberg: TU Bergakademie Frei-
berg, Institut für Metallformung, 1998.
[2.42] Neubauer, A., Meyer, P., Osterburg, V.: Fertigungstech. Betr. 25 (1975) 488–493.
[2.43] Benes, M., Jednovicky, B., Kuzdas, M., Maros, B.: Krivky Pretvarnych Oceli, Vol. 1-3, Praha:
TEVUH, 1982.

Plasticity of light metal alloys 1
Plasticity of light metal alloys
3 Plasticity
The plastic behaviour of metallic materials during hot deformation can be assessed objectively only if reli-
able information about their plasticity is available. Plasticity is given by the strain φFr up to which a material
can be deformed without cracking. It permits to define the optimal ranges of temperature and rate of a form-
ing process. If hot deformation is used to achieve the maximum plasticity, a high yield, satisfactory surface
finish and accuracy in size are required. In the case of primary deformation, i.e. deformation from the as-cast
condition, a detailed knowledge of plasticity is essential, because it limits the strain potential.
3.1 Hot plasticity
Figs. 3.1 and 3.2 [3.1] summarise schematically the influence of material and process related factors on the
plasticity in hot deformation. In the following chapters the most important parameters will be discussed by
means of typical examples.
Fig. 3.1. Influence of material related factors on the plasticity at hot deformation. (a) Material: In the single-
phase range the plasticity is reduced with rising flow stress. σF in the steady state range σF,ss. Z denotes the
Zener-Hollomon-Parameter, σm/σF is the mean flow stress. (b) Purity: At equal deformation conditions, the
plasticity is decreased by impurities and admixtures. (c) Phase composition: Multiphase materials have a lower
plasticity than single-phase materials, the minimum value occurs at a second phase ratio between 25 and 40%.
(d) Crystal structure: As a rule of thumb, the plasticity of body-centred cubic metals is higher than that of
face-centred cubic and hexagonal metals (with deformation temperature Tu and solidus temperature Ts).
(e) Initial structure: The plasticity of an as-cast structure is lower by a factor 0.4…0.95 compared to an as-
rolled structure. The factor depends on material and deformation conditions. For as-cast structures and other
heterogeneous structures, the plasticity depends on the deformation direction and varies widely.

2 Plasticity of light metal alloys
Fig. 3.2. Process related parameters

at hot deformation. (a) Deformation
temperature: At single-phase mate-
rials, the plasticity rises with tem-
perature up to 0.78…0.90 Tmelt [K].
After exceeding this temperature the
plasticity decreases. During phase
transformations, superplasticity may
occur. (b) Deformation rate: At a
specific rate which depends on the
material and deformation conditions,
the plasticity reaches its maximum
value. In special cases and at a very
low deformation rate, superplasticity
may occur. (c) Holding time: If the
strain up to the interruption is smaller
than the deformation degree of the
flow curve maximum, the plasticity
increases The longer the holding time
tH and the smaller the degree of
deformation before the interruption
the steeper the increase. (d) Mean
stress: The plasticity is strongly
influenced by the mean flow stress
σm/σF and the ratio of the main nor-
mal stresses. Compression stresses
yield a high plasticity, tensile stresses
a lower plasticity.
3.1.1 Influence of the material

As can be seen in Fig. 3.3, the plasticity φFr of various aluminium alloys depends strongly on the groups of
material and the grades of aluminium for all three temperatures under consideration. The low-alloyed grades
of Al-alloys have the highest plasticity, ternary or higher alloyed eutectic alloys have the lowest plasticity.
The reduced plasticity of aluminium alloys can be explained by the content of alloying and impurity ele-
ments and their different effects, Fig. 3.4a shows examples for some selected elements. For the eutectic
alloy AlSi12 the low plasticity results from the silicon content of the α phase. This applies also at higher
temperatures. Fig. 3.4a also confirms the general observation that binary alloys a exhibit a lower plasticity
than pure metal. Only Mg–Al–alloys do not conform this rule (Fig. 3.4b). The decrease appears to occur
with the formation of the γ–phase., Investigations at low strain rates indicate this effect.
Fig. 3.3. Hot plasticity φFr of Al–alloys at ϑ = 400°C.

Fig. 3.4a. Al–alloys, ϑ = 400°C; ’_ ¼ 10s1
Fig. 3.4b. Mg–Al–alloys, ϑ = 400°C; ’_ ¼ 5s1
3.1.2 Material condition

As-cast structures have different values of plasticity than as-roughed structures. This is shown for two
aluminium alloys in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Relation between the deformation at fracture in an as-cast and as-deformed condition (torsion
test)
AA 5017 AA 3105 AA 3105
ϑ = 440°C, ’_ ¼ 3:00s1 ϑ = 400°C, ’_ ¼ 1:80s1 ϑ = 500°C, ’_ ¼ 1:80s1
cast state deformed state cast state deformed state cast state deformed state
0.64 1.38 1.18 1.72 1.50 2.34

Furthermore this relation is influenced by the actual composition, the temperature and the strain rate.
Fig. 3.5. Influence of the processing condition on

the plasticity of AlMgSi0,7 (torsion test) a:– not
homogenised b:– homogenised at 570 °C/holding
time 0.5 h c:– homogenised at 570 °C/holding time
6.0 h
Fig. 3.5 shows, how the degree of deformation at fracture of AlMgSi0.7 between 400 and 550 °C can be
influenced by the homogenisation conditions. At higher deformation temperatures, even below the homo-
genization temperature, reduced plasticity was found compared to the non-homogenised condition. This
could be caused by grain growth. A significant improvement in plasticity is achieved by a homogenisation
for 6.0 hours, followed by a deformation at 480 °C.
3.1.3 Influence of temperature and strain rate

The effect of deformation temperature and strain rate on the plasticity is determined by the following
factors:
Relation of strain rate to rate of dynamic softening,
Hot brittleness,
Precipitation processes during deformation,
Deformation heat and
Deformation mechanism
At hot deformation the plasticity increases with temperature up to a maximum; after exceeding this value
the plasticity decreases significantly, even if the temperature still increases. This characteristic behaviour
is shown in Fig. 3.6 for some aluminium alloys in relation to the homologous deformation temperature.
Fig. 3.6. Relation between plasticity and homologous tem-

perature of aluminium alloys
It is interesting that for all materials examined the maximum plasticity was found at nearly the same homo-
logous deformation temperature of approximately 0.80. The increase in plasticity with increasing, tempera-
ture is the result of both an acceleration of softening and an increase in dislocation mobility. Further

contributions to this increase may be the dissolution of precipitates inside the grains and at the grain bound-
aries. Reduction in plasticity results at overheating, grain growth and structural variations.
The effect of strain rate on plasticity is not clear. Depending on the deformation conditions it can be positive
or negative. The relation between strain rate and the rate of dynamic softening is essential, i.e. the kinetics of
work hardening and softening processes. If the rate of dynamic softening is higher than the deformation rate,
the dislocation density is reduced and dislocation motion is promoted. This leads to higher plasticity. If the
rate of dynamic softening is smaller than the strain rate, so that the material is work hardened during defor-
mation, the dislocation density rises accordingly. Crack nuclei can be formed and widened. These processes
reduce plasticity.
It is possible to describe the effect of strain rate on plasticity schematically (Fig. 3.7) [3.3; 3.4],
In a temperature range between ϑd/ϑm = 0.90…1.00 (Fig. 3.7a) of the homologue deformation tempera-
ture the deformation heat can lead to an exceeding of the critical temperature, which leads to a reduced
plasticity at rising strain rates. Technically this can be significant at deformation processes with high sin-
gle deformation degrees in the upper range of deformation temperatures, for instance at extrusion.
At homologous deformation temperatures between 0.50 and 0.90 (Fig. 3.7b) the plasticity of materials
increases with rising strain rate (curve 1 and 2). Alloys, which tend to dynamic precipitation, show with
rising strain rate a higher plasticity (curve 1).With reduced ductility (as-cast condition, coarse grained
structures) it rises up to a certain deformation rate, but after a maximum it decreases again (curve 3).
For alloys with low stacking-fault energy plasticity may also decrease with increasing strain rate
(curve 4).
Fig. 3.7. Schematic presentation of the strain rate effects on plasticity in hot deformation. (a) ϑd/ϑm =
0.9..1.0. (b) ϑd/ϑm = 0.5 … 0.9.; ϑd – deformation temperature, ϑm – melting temperature; for numbers of
the curves: see text
Fig. 3.8a shows the relation between the degree of deformation at rupture in a tensile test as a function of
strain rate for AlSi1MgMn and Al1Mn1. At all temperatures an improved plasticity up to strain rates of
’_ ¼ 10s1 can be seen. Beyond this point plasticity is reduced marginally. Thus the behaviour corresponds
to curve 3 (Fig. 3.7b) as described above.

If alloy AlMn1 is deformed in a torsion test, higher strain rates reduce the plasticity over the entire range
investigated, Fig. 3.8b. After a strong reduction at strain rates ’_ < 1:0s1 and temperatures between 300
and 550 °C, the plasticity is nearly constant at higher strain rates.
Fig. 3.8. Relation between plasticity and deformation rate
3.2 Cold plasticity
3.2.1 Factors influencing cold plasticity

Apart from the material itself and, in particular, its chemical composition and structural state, the most
important factors influencing cold plasticity are the state of stress during the deformation (expressed by
the mean stress value σm/σF and the main normal stress relations), the temperature and a possible pre-strain
(i.e. previous work hardening) [3.5, 3.6]. Many factors of influence concerning material and process are
interdependent, which makes the examination of cold plasticity rather difficult. Furthermore the mean
stress value is difficult to quantify in deformation processes, which is why only qualitative evaluations
are available in numerous cases.

3.2.2 Parameters of cold plasticity

The influence of material and process related factors on plasticity in cold forming is treated in Figs. 3.9 and
3.10 [3.1]. In [3.1] the torsion test was used for plasticity measurement in cold deformation, and the results
were combined with results from tensile and notch impact tests as well as from forming tests.
Fig. 3.9. Influence of material related parameters on the plasticity in cold deformation.
(a) Material: plasticity in cold deformation depends strongly on the material properties.
(b) State of heat treatment: plasticity can be widely affected by heat treatment (solution
annealing, recrystallization annealing etc.). Apart from the annealing temperature and time or
the re-heating and cooling rate, i.e. the entire history of heat treatment affects the cold plas-
ticity drastically. (c) Grain size: In face–centered cubic (fcc) materials the cold plasticity
decreases less steeply with higher grain size. In body–centred cubic (bcc) materials, the
transition from ductile to brittle occurs in a small range of grain size.

Fig. 3.10. Influence of process-related parameters on the plasticity in cold deformation. (a) Initial struc-
ture: Pre-formed material conditions lead to a higher plasticity than materials with an as-cast structure. Also,
as-cast structures are more sensitive to tensile stresses. (b) Deformation temperature: If the phase structure
is constant, φFr raises in the temperature range of cold deformation (curve 1). In hot deformation this curve is
continuous and uninterrupted unless phase transformations such as precipitation reactions or solution pro-
cesses occur. For example a minimum exists for discrete Mg–alloys below 300°C (curve 2). (c) Degree of
pre-forming: The plasticity is reduced by a pre-forming process if the load is applied in the same direction
(effect of work hardening), whereas the Bauschinger effect appears at alternating loads.
Other than the process related factors mentioned in Fig. 3.10, the relative mean stress value σm/σF as well as
the relations between the main normal stresses have an essential effect on the plasticity, with high φFr under
compressive stress and low φFr under tensile stress, corresponding to the hot deformation in Fig. 3.2 (d).
Beside the differences in absolute values of the cold plasticity caused by the mean stress values, the multi-
tude of test procedures entails different characteristic values. If standard test procedures including techno-
logical test methods for flat products, rods and tubes are used, the user of metallic materials can obtain
appropriate plasticity data.
3.2.3 Influence of the material

The degree of deformation at fracture of non-ferrous alloys in torsion test at room temperature can vary
widely as Table 3.2 shows.
Table 3.2. Degrees of deformation at fracture in torsion testing at room temperature and ’_ 10 s1
Alloy State of material Degree of deformation at fracture φFr1)
Mg 99.8 homogenized 345°C, 8h, vacuum 0.142
MgAl3Zn homogenized 345°C, 8h, vacuum 0.123
MgAl8Zn homogenized 385°C, 8h, vacuum 0.096
Al99.5 soft annealed 350°C,2.5h 1.85
AlMgSi0.5 hot rolled 1.20
AlMgSi0.5 soft annealed 1.60
AlMgSi0.5 homogenized 385°C, 8h 1.67
AlMg2Mn0.8 homogenized 385°C, 8h 1.17
AlMg3 hot rolled 0.61
1)
Average value of 3 specimens
Fig. 3.11 illustrates that an increase in solute content, e. g. in Al–Mg–alloys, impairs the plasticity in the
cold deformation range. In cold deformation of binary Al – Mg – alloys magnesium causes a significant
reduction in plasticity.

Fig. 3.11. Influence of the Mg content on the reduction in

plasticity of Al–Mg alloys in cold deformation
Beside the material and its crystal structure plasticity depends heavily on the state of processing and detailed
treatment. Thus, softening by annealing of AlMgSi0.5 can lead to improvement of plasticity by up to 30%
compared to the hot rolled condition, especially at low deformation rates.
3.2.4 Temperature
The effect of deformation temperature on the cold plasticity of aluminium alloys varies for different materi-
als (Fig. 3.12).
Fig. 3.12. Plasticity of Al materials in cold deformation as a

function of temperature
The plasticity of alloys, which do not undergo phase transformations between ϑ = 20 and 200 °C, varies
hardly as the temperature rises (e. g. Al99.5; AlMg1; AlFe0.8). For some alloys (AlMg1.5, AlMg4.5Mn)
a larger increase of formability has been observed between 100 and 200°C than between 20 and 120°C. This
tendency becomes more pronounced for AlMgMn alloys and the precipitation-hardenable AlMgSi1. The
reason may be the phase transformation α+β→α. Between room temperature and ca. 250 °C the plasticity
of magnesium alloys increases considerably; this is caused by the activation of additional slip systems with
increasing temperature. Due to additional slip on pyramidal plains {1101}, {1122} and in the <1010>–
direction, magnesium is deformable more easily above 225 °C [3.15].

3.2.5 Strain rate

At a deformation temperature lower than 0.20 ϑm the effect of deformation rate on plasticity is low. (Curve 1
in Fig. 3.13a). Plasticity is reduced for alloys, which are deformed by the mechanism of twinning (Curve 3),
but plasticity can be improved by application of higher temperature or lubricants inside the deformation
zone (Curve 2).
In cold or semi-hot deformation plasticity increases with increasing deformation rates (Curves 4 and 5 in
Fig. 3.13b).
Fig. 3.13. Schematic presentation of the deformation rate effects on plasticity in cold deformation ϑd –
deformation temperature, ϑm – melting temperature; for numbers of the curves: see text
If the deformation is realized below the temperature of recrystallization, as is the case in many alloys with
low melting temperatures, which are deformed between 20 and ~200 °C, a moderate improvement of
plasticity can be observed. This also holds for alloys, which tend to precipitations hardening.
Table 3.3. Strain at fracture for light metal alloys

AA – No. Alloy ϑ [°C] Cold plasticity φ in a torsion test at ’_ ¼
0.20 s−1 0.50 s−1 3.00 s−1
5049 AlMg2Mn0.8 20 1.10 1.10 1.10
5052 AlMg2.5 20 1.12 1.12 1.12
5556A AlMg5Mn 20 0.880 0.880 0.880
5556A AlMg5Mn 100 0.860 0.860 0.860
5556A AlMg5Mn 200 1.360 1.360 1.360
8076 AlFe0.8 200 1.88 1.88 1.88
0.20 s−1 2.00 s−1 5.00 s−1
Mg99.8 20 0.142 0.142 0.142
MgAl8Zn 140 0.109 0.103 0.105

3.2.6 Influence of the stress condition

The value of mean stress [3.5]
m =F :¼ ð1 þ 2 þ 3 Þ=F ð3:1Þ
has a decisive impact on hot plasticity, while the relationship between the mean values of the normal stress
σ1, σ2 and σ3 play an important role also. Plasticity is higher under compressive stress (negative related
mean stress value) than under tensile stress. This basic dependence explains the difference in deformation
behaviour of a material when subjected to different test methods. The related mean stress value is nearly
zero in a torsion test, which is usually employed for the determination of plasticity.
3.3 Modelling of the plasticity in hot working
3.3.1 Modelling of the influence of the chemical composition

Fig. 3.14 shows the effects of alloying and tramp elements on the degree of deformation at fracture, at a
deformation rate of ’_ ¼ 10s1 for the as-cast condition. For the tests ingots of 5kg were machined to obtain
specimens normal to the crystallization direction. The binary alloys of all elements investigated lead to a
reduced plasticity, which is very pronounced already for low contents (<0.10%). This applies also to alloy-
ing elements such as Zr, which lead to a fine grained structure when added. The strong decrease in plasticity
of Al alloys sets in already in the range of homogenous solid solution, partly far before the solubility limit.
After exceeding the solubility limit the plasticity approachesnears a low limiting value which is nearly inde-
pendent of the content of alloying elements, because is the notch effect of precipitated phases (for instance
Al6Mn, Al3Fe, Al2Cu and others) is responsible for the crack initiation and expansion. Zn causes the lowest
reduction of plasticity, Fe the highest. At contents >1.50% the effect of Mg and Cu is nearly the same.
Fig. 3.14. Effect of alloying and impurity elements on the degree of deformation at fracture of Al-
alloys at ϑ = 400 °C and ’_ ¼ 10 s1
Mathematically the effect of alloying and impurity elements on the degree of deformation at rupture of Al-
alloys at ϑ = 400 °C and ’_ ¼ 10 s1 can be expressed by the equation

0 1
i¼
Qn
’Fr ¼ ’FrAl99:99 A@ Bi A
CEi ð#; ’_ ¼ const Þ ð3:2Þ
i¼4
with
φFr Al99.99 – deformation degree of pure Aluminium, at ϑ = 400 °C and ’_ ¼ 10 s1 ¼ 5:75
A - constant
CEi - content of alloying element i [mass-%]
Bi - specific exponent for element i
The effect of alloying and impurity elements in ternary alloys such as Al–M–Si or Al–Mg–Mn is similar.
The application of equation (3.2) on the plasticity calculation in hot deformation of Al – Mg – Mn –alloys
leads to results, which are summarised in Fig. 3.15. An increase in Mn content leads to a significant reduc-
tion of plasticity, even at low Mn-content (Fig. 3.15a). In the two-phase region α + AlMn6 at 400 ° C crys-
tals of AlMn6 lead to a large decrease in the plasticity.
As can be seen in Fig. 3.15b, alloying with magnesium reduces the plasticity noticeably at contents as low
as < 1.0%. For a constant M content above this concentration plasticity at hot deformation approaches a
constant level the absolute value of which is determined by the Mn content.

Fig. 3.15. Hot plasticity of Al-Mg-Mn–alloys
3.3.2 Influence of deformation conditions
3.3.2.1 Modelling of temperature influence

The dependence of hot plasticity on the temperature is mainly due to the acceleration of the softening, the
dissolution of precipitations, phase transformations, grain growth and incipient grain boundary fusion at
high temperatures.
A relationship between hot plasticity and the rate of softening exists in terms of a power function [3.8].
Because of the great number of processes that occur simultaneously during hot deformation it is not possible
to model their influence on hot plasticity mathematically except for limited ranges of temperature and rate of
deformation. For the single-phase range of alloys the relation
’Fr ¼ A expð#d =#s Þ ð#d =#s ÞB ð1 ð#d =#s ÞÞC ð3:3Þ
with ϑd and ϑs the deformation and solidus temperature (in °C) and A, B, C, D constants, can be used to
define the influence of temperature on hot plasticity.

Fig. 3.16 shows the temperature dependence of the individual factors in equation (3.3) for light alloys and
the typical range of exponents.
Fig. 3.16. Temperature dependence of the individual factors in equation (3.3) for light alloys and the
typical range of exponents.
As can be seen, the product of the exponential and power function expð#d =#S Þ ð#d =#S ÞB offers the possi-
bility to describe a non-linear increase of plasticity at in deformation as dependent on the deformation tem-
perature. The factor ð1 ð#d =#S ÞÞC characterizes the drop of plasticity in hot deformation in the
temperature range between the maximum and the solidus temperature. In this context the exponent C plays
a significant role for the intensity of the decrease. In Fig. 3.17 the calculated and the measured plasticity
values of two light alloys are compared. In both cases, good agreement between the measured and calcu-
lated values is found over the entire temperature range. The relatively simple equation can be recommended
for mathematical modelling of the temperature dependence at constant deformation rates.

Fig. 3.17. Comparison of measured and calculated (according to eq.(3.3)) values of plasticity at hot defor-
mation. (a) for AlMg1.5Mn0.5, (b) for MgAl8Zn.
Table 3.5 summarises the constants for the calculation of the deformation degree at fracture at hot deforma-
tion for selected non-ferrous metal alloys. These are based on torsion tests with a ratio L/D = 2.50 and a
translation of the shear factor γ to the respective amount of deformation according to Nadai–v. Mises.
Table 3.5. Constants for the calculation of the degree of deformation at fracture as dependent on the
temperature of deformation according to equation (3.3)
Alloy _ 1 ln A
strain rate ’½s ϑd/ϑS B C Range of validity ϑ [°C]
AlMn1 0.10 5.05599 2.91008 3.11476 0.33388 250…550
AlMn1 7.00 1.48627 6.13787 0.56076 1.46480 250…550
AlMg1.5Mn0.5 2.30 8.89118 20.3074 3.21425 4.4497 250…550
AlMg1.5Mn0.5 6.40 11.1954 22.3773 4.41078 4.39452 250…550
MgAl8Zn 0.20 38.7386 60.4746 19.6355 8.16407 200…500
MgAl8Zn 2.00 25.2763 37.5331 13.0363 4.78497 200…450
MgAl8Zn 5.00 6.1928 9.01191 2.45155 1.1086 200…450
The correlation coefficient of the constants lies between 0.9576 (AlCu4Mg2) and 0.9972 (AlMg1.5Mn0.5).
The solidus temperature was determined by DTA or taken from a phase diagram.
3.3.2.2 Modelling of the influence of strain rate

The influence of the strain rate on hot plasticity is relatively weak. It amounts to 30% at most when the
strain rate changes by three powers of ten. A correction in equation (3.3) with respect to the strain rate
can be introduced by means of a product of a power function and an exponential function,
jfracture ðj_ Þ ¼ A j_ B expðC=j_ Þ ð# ¼ constÞ: ð3:4Þ
For some light metal alloys the constants are listed in Table 3.6

Table 3.6. Constants to calculate the effect of strain rate on plasticity from equation (3.4)
Alloy Testing method Temperature ϑ [°C] Constants
A B C
MgAl3Zn torsion 300 0.51760 0.10133 0.08720
AlFe0.8 torsion 400 4.02969 0.08173 0.02582
Ti-48Al-2.5Cr-Nb torsion 1000 1.24555 0.47317 0.11666
The equation above allows describing all relevant cases of the relation between plasticity and deformation
rate:
Increase with increasing deformation rate
Decrease with increasing deformation temperature and
Maximum or minimum value within the range of deformation rate investigated
It is applicable also for other procedures to determine plasticity.
3.4 Calculation of the forming limit in hot rolling

It is a basic assumption for calculating the forming limit in hot rolling that the octahedral slip in torsion tests
is the same as the octahedral slip in the roll gap in rolling. The maximum possible strain over the height φH
in rolling is [3.3]:

’Fr 1 þ 2 hldm
’H ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ffi ; ð3:5Þ
h0 b h0 b
1þ b0 h þ b0 h
with φFr the equivalent strain at fracture in torsion tests, μ the friction coefficient in the roll gap, ld the roll
contact length (in mm), hm the mean thickness of the rolled material in the roll gap (in mm), h0 and b0 the
thickness and width before rolling, respectively (in mm); Δh and Δb are the variations of thickness and
width during the pass.
Zajkov et al. [3.9] have suggested an equation for calculations of the forming limit εH,Fr in rolling that
includes the structure and the microstructural states (as-cast or as-rolled) beside the plasticity in the torsion
test. The correction factors account for the effects of quality of the material surface, state of material and the
aspect ratio of the rolled samples [3.3]:
p1 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
"H;Fr ¼ 1 n ð1 ’Fr KCS Þ Ksize Ksurf ; ð3:6Þ
where β = 1.155 is the Lode coefficient, n a factor for the stress state, Kcs a coefficient related to the state of
the material (as-cast or as-rolled), Ksurf. a factor for the surface quality and Ksize a size related correction fac-
tor. A formulation of the possible variants of calculation of the limiting degree of deformation equation (3.6)
is
2 3
ld
6 ’Fr 1 þ 2 hm 7
’H;tot ¼ 6
4rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

7
2ffi5 KCS Ksize Ksurf : ð3:7Þ
h0 b h0 b
1þ b0 h þ b0 h
According to this equation higher friction, bigger roll diameters and smaller width-to-height ratios h0/b0 per-
mit to attain higher limits of the strain; on the other hand an increasing variation in spread reduces it. Since
deformation in the roll gap is inhomogeneous it should be noted that the degree of deformation according to
equation (3.6; 3.7) reflects the maximum possible local degree of deformation.
The calculation of the maximum possible reduction per pass in hot rolling of AA5017 (AlMg2MnFeCu),
AA 3004 (AlMg1Mn1) and AA 5182 (AlMg4.5Mn) strips is realised for the rolling schedules 20 mm

→5.0 mm →2 mm and 16 mm →4.8 mm →2 mm (Table 3.7) at an average deformation rate of 3.0 s−1.
The friction coefficient is assumed to be μ = 0.45. The maximum and minimum roll diameters are
Dw max = 710 mm, respectively Dw min = 660 mm, the strip width is 1683 mm. The first pass of the version
16.0 mm → 4.8 mm → 2.0 mm and Dw = 710 mm yields φ = 2.655 φFr and the 2nd pass φmax = 2.655 φFr.
Summarising we obtain for the following parameters
Table 3.7. Technical parameters of eq. (3.7) for calculating the limit of strain for rolling
Rolling schedule 1 Rolling schedule 2
20 mm→ 5 mm →2 mm 16 mm →4.8 mm →2 mm
Roll diameter [mm] Roll diameter [mm]
710 660 710 660
st
1 Pass 2.637 φFr 2.578 φFr 2.655 φFr 2.638 φFr
2nd Pass 3.443 φFr 3.357 φFr 3.415 φFr 3.329 φFr
Annotation: The factor before φFr is the value of eq (3.7) without taking into account the correction factors
Kcs, Ksize and Ksurf .
A reduction of the roll diameter to 50mm affects the limiting strain only marginally. The values of the max-
imum possible reduction per pass have to be corrected by the factors Kcs, Ksize and Ksurf .
Torsion tests of the above-named alloys at 500 °C und 400°C yield the degree of deformation at fracture
φFr listed in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8. Plasticity in torsion test from AA 5017, AA 8123 and AA 5182
Temperature ϑ [°C] Alloy grade
AA 5017 AA 8123 AA 5182
Casting Deformed Deformed Deformed
500 0.69 1.40 4.10 2.10
Casting Deformed Deformed Deformed
400 0.60 1.60 4.03 2.39
According to the rolling schedule the following strain (ln (h0/h1)) should be realised (Table 3.9):
Table 3.9. Strain required according to the pass program

Rolling schedule 1 Rolling schedule 2
20 mm →5 mm → 2 mm 16 mm → 4.8 mm →2 mm
1st pass 1.386 1.204
2nd pass 0.916 0.875
On the basis of the results with AA 5017 the following degrees of deformation are possible, using the fac-
tors Ksize = 0.80 (variation according [3.3] between 0.75…0.85) and Ksurf = 0.65 (variation according [3.3]
between 0.46 …0.70) as Kcs = 0.50

Table 3.10. Strain limit for selected rolling conditions

Temperature Rolling schedule 1 Rolling schedule 2
ϑ [°C] Rolling Forming limit Rolling Forming limit
schedule [mm] AA5017 AA5539 AA8123 schedule [mm] AA5017 AA5539 AA8123
500 20 →5 0.946 1.440 2.810 16 → 4.8 0.956 1.441 2.829

400 5 →2 1.432 1.874 3.681 4.8 → 2 1.420 2.232 3.578
Annotation: Calculation is based on a roll diameter of 710 mm.
In flat rolling there is no complicated material flow and in practice the material flow in the width direction is
very small, so that the values selected for Kcs, Ksize and Ksurface are probably ensuring crack-free forming in
rolling. From that point of view alloys 5539 and 8123 can be rolled without any problems. The same is true
for the 2nd pass in rolling of AA5017. For AA5017 (as-cast condition) cracks can be expected in the 1st pass
of the rolling schedule 20 mm →5 mm →2 mm, but rolling with smaller reductions per pass 16 mm →4
mm both improve the plasticity and reduce the danger of crack formation.
Semi-industrial trials with roughed alloy AA5017 and a reduction 16 mm →4 mm (φ = 1.386) showed only
a weak tendency to crack formation at the edges [3.10]. Therefore a 1st pass with a reduction of 16 mm → 4
mm appears to be applicable regarding the forming limit in terms of hot plasticity.
3.5 Calculation of the forming limit in hot extrusion

Workability is a complex property, which has no distinct definition. It is determined by the material and the
forming process (see Fig. 1.3). In general a material is well formable if it is able to change its geometric
form, requires a low energy of deformation, remains free of cracks, has a precise surface after forming,
and if the forming process is associated with a high yield and a high durability of the forming tool. The
workability is determined by the deformation properties, in particular by the flow stress σF and the plasticity
φFr. The ratio φFr/ σF provides a characteristic parameter with the dimension [mm3/Nmm], which expresses
the volume which can be deformed with an amount of work of 1 [Nmm]. In simulation procedures the limit-
ing strain is determined in tensile, torsion or compression tests. The possible limiting strain for technical
processes differ significantly from the results of the simulation experiments, because they differ widely in
their mean pressure -σm/ σF (see Fig.1.2). The results of the tests are converted to higher mean pressure -
σm/ σF so that they can be used for the hot extrusion for instance. But even though some equations have
been proposed [3.11; 3.12; 3.13 and 3.15] quantitative congruence relations do not exist. Therefore present
practice is limited to relying on the workability found in some simulation procedures and on the use of pro-
cess-specific empirical data to classify the effects of material and deformation conditions.
According to investigations by extrusion of non-ferrous metals and high alloyed steels (Laue and Stenger
[3.14]) the following classification was obtained:
Workability in extrusion φFr/σF

less suitable <0.01
moderate 0.01…0.02
good 0.02….0.04
very good >0.04
The calculation of the relation φFr/σF is based on a conversion of the shear strain γ, found in a torsion test,
into a reference degree of deformation according to Nadai – v. Mises and of the flow stress in [MPa].
Table 3.11 summarises all forming properties of different aluminium alloys, which were found in torsion
testing or in forming of specimens in extrusion of a billet in longitudinal direction according to [3.14].

Table 3.11. Forming parameters pertaining to the extrusion of aluminium alloys

Deformation Solidus limiting degree of Flow stress σF φ N –
temperature temperature deformation φ N - Mis [MPa] Mis/σF
ϑD [°C] ϑS [°C]
AlMgSi0.5 500 600 3.526 40 0.088
AlMgSi1 520 585 1.617 42 0.039
AlZn4.5Mg1 500 600 1.001 60 0.017
AlMg3 500 610 0.898 82 0.011
AlMg1 450 630 3.043 70 0.043
AlSi5 460 850 1.642 50 0.033
Fig. 3.18 shows the relation between temperature and workability of different non-ferrous alloys; deforma-
tion rate 10 s−1.
Fig. 3.18. Workability of light metal alloys.
The relation φFr/ σF is strongly temperature-dependent. AlMg1SiCu shows a steady increase with increas-
ing temperature, it has a very good workability above 300 °C. On the other hand, after exceeding a maxi-
mum at 500 respectively 950°C, Mg–alloy WE 43 and Ti1 present a reduced workability, however this
leads to no serious aggravation.
The classification of workability, presented here, coincides qualitatively with the processing instructions for
hot forming in [3.17].
Aluminium alloys differ in plasticity and extrudability [3.18]. Alloy selection is important, because it estab-
lishes the minimum thickness for a shape and has a basic effect on the extrusion cost. In general, the higher
the alloy content and the flow stress of a material, the more difficult it is to extrude and the lower is the limit
of its extrusion rate.
The relative extrudabilities as measured by the limit for the extrusion rate for several commercial extrusion
alloys are listed in Table 3.12.
Table 3.12. Extrudability of aluminium alloys

AA–Number Alloy Extrudability [%], compared to AA6063
1350 160
1060 Al99.7 135
1100 Al99 135
(continued)

AA–Number Alloy Extrudability [%], compared to AA6063

3003 AlMn1Cu 120
6063 AlMg0.7Si 100
6061 AlSiMgMn 60
2011 AlCu6BiPb 35
5086 AlMg4 25
2014 AlCu4SiMg 20
5083 AlMg4.5Mn0.7 20
2024 AlCu4Mg1 15
7075 AlZn5.5MgCu 9
7178 AlZn7MgCu 8
The extrudability depends on temperature, strain rate and other deformation conditions such as lubrication
and tool design.
3.6 References
[3.1] Spittel, M., Spittel, T.: Metal Forming Data, Landolt-Börnstein, Group VIII, Vol. 2, Part 1, Ferrous
Alloys, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag, 2009.
[3.2] Kolmogorov, V.L.: Naprazenije, Deformacija, Razruzenije, Moskva: Metallurgija, 1970.
[3.3] Bulat, S.I., et al.: Deformirujemost Strukturno-Neodnorodnych Stalei i Splavov, Moskva: Metal-
lurgija, 1975.
[3.4] Zidek, M.: Metalurgicka Tvaritelnost Oceli za Tepla a za Studena, Praha: Aleko, 1995.
[3.5] Stenger, H.: Bleche, Bänder, Rohre 8 (1967) 599–605.
[3.6] Spittel, T., Spittel, M.: Proc. Conf. MEFORM 2001, Freiberg: TU Bergakademie, 2001, p.
123–136.
[3.7] Spittel, M., Spittel, T.: Hermsdorfer Techn. Mitt. 20 (1980) 1796–1802.
[3.8] Spittel, M., Spittel, T: Umformverhalten von Stählen, Freiberg. Forschungsh. B 268, Leipzig: VEB
[3.9] Zaikov, M.A., Peretjatko, W.N.: Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn. Zaved. Chern. Metall. (1965) 75–86.
[3.10] Knauschner, A.: Unpublished Report, Warmwalzversuche mit Aluminiumlegierungen, Freiberg:
TU Bergakademie, 1993.
[3.11] Nerger, D., Reinbold, H.: Freiberg. Forschungsh. B 208, Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag für
Grundstoffindustrie, 1978.
[3.12] Pocta, J., in: Tvaritelnost Oceli za Tepla, Ostrava: CSVTS, 1974.
[3.13] Landgrebe, D.: Bestimmung der Formänderungsgrenzen durch duktiles Werkstoffversagen bei
Kaltumformverfahren mit Hilfe der FEM, Aachen: Shaker-Verlag, 2000.
[3.14] Laue, K., Stenger, H.: Strangpressen. Verfahren-Maschinen-Werkzeuge, Düsseldorf: Aluminium-
Verlag, 1976.
[3.15] Dedek, V., Boruta, J.: Nove Kriterium pro Hodnoceni Tvaritelnosti za Studena Pasovych Oceli,
Proc., Pokroky ve Vyrobe Pasovych Oceli, DT, Ostrava, 1981, p. 129–137.
Leipzig im Carl-Hanser-Verlag, 2000.
[3.17] Wieland Kupferwerkstoffe: Herstellung, Eigenschaften und Verarbeitung, 6. Auflage, Ulm: Wie-
land Werke AG, 1999.
[3.18] ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 2, Metals Park, Ohio, 1979.

Mechanical properties of light metal alloys 1
Mechanical properties of light metal alloys
4. Mechanical and physical properties
4.1 Mechanical properties after cold forming

Cold forming leads to higher yield point, tensile strength and hardness. Yet the elongation and reduction of
area in tensile testing are reduced. The effects of cold deformation will now be discussed in more detail.
4.1.1 Yield point and tensile strength

As the increase in yield point, tensile strength and hardness of a material by cold forming can be attributed
to work hardening, it is possible to express their dependence on strain and related strain by polynomials,
similar to stress-strain curves [4.1]. The influence of strain, or related strain, on the yield point, the tensile
strength and the elongation of a material can be expressed by the Ludwik equation with a high degree of
agreement between measured and calculated results.
Fig. 4.1a and b present the effect of the degree of deformation on yield point and tensile strength for 2
aluminium alloys.
Fig. 4.1a. Measured and calculated values of yield point as a

function of deformation
Fig. 4.1b. Measured and calculated values of tensile strength

as a function of deformation

2 Mechanical properties of light metal alloys
The change in the mechanical properties caused by work hardening in cold deformation can be calculated
by
Rp ¼ A0 þ A "n1 ð4:1Þ
Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2 ð4:2Þ
with
Rp yield strength [MPa]
Rm tensile strength [MPa]
ε related strain
A0 yield strength in the initial state at ε = 0 [MPa]
B0 tensile strength in the initial state at ε = 0 [MPa]
A and B constants [MPa]
ni exponent of work hardening
Obviously the calculated and measured values are in good agreement. The influence of cold deformation
(expressed by the degree of deformation or the related strain) on yield point and tensile strength after cold
deformation can be modelled by power and exponential functions.
4.1.2 Elongation
The decrease of elongation in the tensile test at higher forming strain can be described by
A5 ¼ C "n3 en4 =" ð4:3Þ
The elongation is hence given by
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4=" ð4:4Þ
where
A5 elongation [%]
C0 elongation in the initial state at ε = 0 [%]
ε related strain
C and ni constants
The relation between the natural logarithm of elongation and the strain can be described by a polynomial or
by a power function. For AlMn1 the following equations hold:
A5 ¼ 42:141 "0;21076 e0;00129=" ð4:5Þ
or
A5 ¼ 40:05 31:484 " þ 93:649 "2 64:960 "3 ð4:6Þ
It was found that the coefficients of the power function for alloys and treatment condition are almost inde-
pendent of the batch. The correlation coefficient of the polynomial is larger than the coefficient of the com-
bination of a power and an exponential function. However, the latter should be preferred because it yields
smaller deviations for extrapolation into ranges which are not covered by experimental data. The decrease in
elongation with increasing strain, which is yielded by equation (4.4) for the alloys mentioned above, can be
seen in Fig. 4.2. The correlation between measured and calculated values is good. The results of measure-
ment shown in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 were obtained from cold drawn and rolled samples but are applicable to
cold rolling of flat products, too.

Mechanical properties of light metal alloys 3
Fig. 4.2. Measured and calculated values of the elongation in

tensile testing of aluminium alloys as a function of the degree
of deformation.
References
[4.1] Machek, V., Novak, J.: Hutn. Listy 39 (1985) 400–404.

Young's modulus of light metal alloys 1
Young's modulus of light metal alloys
4.2 Young's modulus
4.2.1 Definition and functional relationships

The three elastic moduli - i.e. Young´s modulus E, shear modulus G and compression modulus D - are
interrelated as follows [4.2; 4.8]:
E ¼ 2Gð þ 1Þ ¼ 3Dð1 2 Þ ð4:7Þ
and hence
G ¼ E=2 ð þ 1Þ ð4:7aÞ
D ¼ E=3 ð1 2 Þ ð4:7bÞ
E
¼ 1 ð4:7cÞ
2G
with ν the Poisson ratio which lies between 0.25 and 0.35 for most metals (Table 4.1) [4.2, 4.3]. Table 4.2,
lists the Young's moduli E of the metals and alloys of present interest [4.2 … 4.5].
Table 4.1. Poisson´s ratio of light metals and alloys

Metal/Alloy Poisson's ratio ν (at ϑ = 20 °C)
beryllium 0.039…0.10
magnesium 0.291
aluminium 0.345
AlCu4Mg2 0.345
titanium 0.361
TiAl6V4 0.26
Table 4.2. Elastic modulus of metals and alloys

Metal/Alloy Young´s modulus E [GPa] Shear modulus G [GPa] Compression modulus D [GPa] Ref.
beryllium 245.3…304.1 147.2 102.2 …. 126.7 [4.5]
aluminium 70.6 26.2 75.2 [4.2]
AlCu4Mg2 70.8 26.3 75.4 [4.2]
iron 211.4 81.6 169.8 [4.2]
magnesium 44.7 17.3 35.6 [4.2]
titanium 120.2 45.6 108.4 [4.2]
Since the ν - values are not significantly different, the relation between G- and E-modulus is nearly the
same. Fig. 4.3 is a plot of the relation between shear modulus G and Young's modulus E for cubic and hex-
agonal metals. The ratio G/E of cubic metals is ≈ 0.,357.
The temperature coefficients αE of the three elastic moduli vary with temperature in exactly the same man-
ner as the specific heat, namely

2 Young's modulus of light metal alloys
3
12 4 T
E ¼ R at =T >> 1 ð4:8Þ
5
¼3R at = T << 1 ð4:9Þ

with:
αE temperature coefficient [dimensionless]
R universal gas constant [J mol1 K1]
ϑ temperature [K]
Θ Debye temperature [K]
ϑs melting temperature [K]
The two equations above mean that E varies as T 3 at low temperatures whilst it decreases linearly at high
temperatures (Θ < ϑ < 0.5 Ts) [4.2]. The Debye temperature is 374 K or 398 K for aluminium, and 350 K or
305 K for magnesium, respectively (depending on the basis of calculation i.e. absolute melting temperature
or specific heat).
Fig. 4.3. Shear modulus vs. Young´s modulus for cubic and
hexagonal metals.
Fig. 4.4a [4.3, 4.7, 4.8] shows the temperature dependence of Young’s modulus for AM20; AA1050
(Al99.5), AA6061 (AlMg1SiCu), AA7020 (AlZn5Mg1); AA7075 (AlZn5.5MgCu) and TiAl6V4. Fig. 4.4b
[4.7] shows the temperature dependence of Al99.99 as measured and calculated according to equation
(4.10).

Young's modulus of light metal alloys 3
Fig. 4.4a. Young´s modulus E as a function of temperature

for AM20, AA1050, AA6061, AA7020, AA7075 and
TiAl6V4.
Fig. 4.4b. Young's modulus E as a function of temperature

for AA7075.
4.2.2 Modelling of the temperature dependence of Young’s modulus

A fourth-order-polynomial is chosen to approximate the temperature dependence of Young's modulus for
the entire temperature range of interest

E ð#Þ ¼ E20 A1 þ A2 # þ A3 #2 þ A4 #3 þ A5 #4 ð4:10Þ
with the temperature ϑ [°C] and A1 … A5 constants. Fig. 4.4b shows the comparison of the measured
and calculated temperature dependence of Young´s modulus of AA 7075 in the range of 0…400 [°C].
Table 4.3 lists constants for equation (4.10) for magnesium and aluminium.
Table 4.3. Constants for the calculation of Young’s modulus for Mg and Al as a function of temperature
Metal Constants Range of Validity ϑ [°C]
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
7
Mg99.5 0.71696 0.03558 0.000049 1.2228·10 1.101552·1010 20…450
Al99.99 0.69483 0.02714 0.00010 1.8777·107 1.51240·10-10 20…500
The knowledge of Young’s modulus allows the determination of the propagation of the sound velocity cL
according to the relations [4.6]

4 Young's modulus of light metal alloys
sffiffiffiffi
E
cL ¼ for thin rods ð4:11Þ

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
E ð1 Þ
cL ¼ for arbitrary material; respectively ð4:12Þ
ð1 þ Þ ð1 2 Þ
with ρ the material density [g mm−3] and ν the Poisson ratio.
Fig. 4.5 shows the correlation between sound propagation velocity and temperature according to equations
(4.11) and (4.12).
Fig. 4.5. Sound propagation velocity versus temperature for

different light metals
References
[4.2] Livschitz, B.G.: Physikalische Eigenschaften der Metalle und Legierungen, Leipzig: VEB Deutscher
[4.3] VDI-Wärmeatlas, 9. Auflage, Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag GmbH, 2002.
[4.4] Encyklopedia Techniki-Metalurgia, Wydawnictwo-Slask, Katowice, 1978.
[4.6] Hering, E., Modler, K.H. (eds.): Grundwissen des Ingenieurs, 13. Auflage, München: Fachbuch-
verlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag, 2002.
[4.7] Tabellenbuch Aluminiumwerkstoffe: Eigenschaften und Verwendung, 1. Auflage, Leipzig: VEB
Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, 1982.
[4.8] Werkstoffdaten Hochleistungswerkstoffe, Druckschrift N 530, 08/1993, Werdohl: ThyssenKrupp
VDM GmbH.

Thermal conductivity of light metal alloys 1
Thermal conductivity of light metal alloys
4.3 Thermal conductivity
4.3.1 Basic data

The thermal conductivity λ of the light metals is well documented in standard handbooks [4.4, 4.5, 4.6].
For the pure light metals the data of λ [W m−1K−1] at room temperature are: 149 (Be), 230 (Al), 157
(Mg), 17 (Ti).
The thermal conductivity λ increases or decreases as the temperature increases. Fig. 4.6 shows the tempera-
ture dependence of the thermal conductivity for 3 aluminium alloys. If aluminium is alloyed with Mg, Si
and Zn it shows a reduced thermal conductivity, see Fig. 4.7; but when alloyed with copper the thermal con-
ductivity increases, [4.10]. The thermal conductivity of light metals and their alloys is decreased by defor-
mation, i.e. with increasing dislocation density.
Fig. 4.6. Temperature dependence of the thermal conduc-

tivity of aluminium alloys
Fig. 4.7. Thermal conductivity of Al-Mg- alloys as a func-

tion of the alloy content [4.3; 4.7; 4.11; 4.16. 4.18]
Fig. 4.8 shows the influence of thermal treatments on the thermal conductivity of aluminium alloys. At
room temperature the state to DIN EN 515 “O”(soft annealed) has the highest, the state “T” (heat treated

2 Thermal conductivity of light metal alloys
for other conditions than “O” or “H”) and “H” (cold deformed), respectively, the lowest thermal conductivity
[4.18]. The letters O, H or T refer to the basic states while one or more numbers are added to characterise the
particular heat treatment.
Fig. 4.8. Influence of heat treatments on the thermal conductivity of Al alloys. Temper
designations according to IADS
4.3.2 Calculation of the thermal conductivity

The calculation of the thermal conductivity can follow two paths. Either its temperature dependence can be
modelled specifically for each alloy, or it can be treated by a combined calculation of the effects of chemical
composition and temperature, where the composition is represented by the concentration of each alloying
element, the total content of all alloying and impurity elements, or the atomic mass ratio. If no phase trans-
formation takes place in the temperature range considered, the thermal conductivity varies with increasing
temperature [4.2] as
l ¼ l0 ð1 þ T Þ ð4:13Þ
where α is the temperature coefficient of the thermal conductivity. It is positive if the conductivity increases
with increasing temperature, which applies to a great number of alloys. A negative temperature coefficient is
typical of numerous pure metals including Al. Mathematical modelling of the thermal conductivity as a
function of the temperature ϑ on the basis of equation (4.13) is rewritten as
l ð # Þ ¼ l0 þ B # ð4:14Þ
−1
where B [°C ] is the temperature coefficient. The parameters for this calculation are shown in Table 4.4
for a number of light metals and alloys.

Table 4.4. Constants for thermal conductivity calculation

Material ϑ [°C] λ0 [Wm−1K−1] B [°C−1] Author for the measured results
Be 0…300 157.3 0.3032 [4.16]
Al99.99 0…600 241.8 0.04678 [4.17]
Al99 100…500 209.2 0.05190 [4.7]
AlCu4Mg2 100…200 158.2 0.18480 [4.7]
Mg 0…400 172.2 0.0495 [4.16]
Mg99.8 0…400 156.8 0.0386 [4.16]
MgAl6Zn 0…400 62.2 0.0712 [4.16]
MgMn2 0…300 113.6 0.0881 [4.16]
AZ91HP 0…400 52.1 0.0755 [4.12]
TiAl6V4 20…600 6.16 0.0146 [4.3]
An empirical equation permitting the calculation of thermal conductivity as a function of chemical composi-
tion and temperature of the material and its use for engineering computations was derived from an evaluation
of data taken from the literature, namely
lð#; Þ ¼ l0 ð Þ K#l ð#; Þ ð4:15Þ
with
λ thermal conductivity [Wm−1K−1]
λ0 thermal conductivity at 0 °C for a given chemical composition [Wm−1K−1],
Kϑ-λ. correction function for the influence of temperature (as dependent on the chemical composition) and
ψ atomic mass ratio,
X
¼ CEi ðAAl =Ai Þ ð4:16Þ
with
CEi mass percent of element i
AA atomic mass of aluminium
Ai atomic mass of element i
For aluminium alloys ψ may be calculated as

¼ 0; 961 cSi þ 0; 491 cMn þ 0; 519 cCr þ 0; 459 cNi þ 0563 cTi þ 0; 425 cCu þ 1; 110 cMg
þ 0; 413 cZn þ 0; 483 cFe þ 0; 529 cV þ 0; 296 cZr þ 0; 130 cPb þ 0; 129 cBi þ . . . :
ð4:17Þ
Ai and CEi denote the atomic mass and the mass percent of i-th element, respectively. AAl is the atomic mass
of aluminium.
Fig. 4.9a summarises the relation between the thermal conductivity at 20 °C and the atomic ratio for
some groups of Aluminium alloys. This relation can be characterised by a power function; for Al-Mn-
and Al-Mg-Mn-alloys at ϑ = 20 °C it is
ð0:2491Þ
l ¼ 182:5 ð4:18Þ
The correlation coefficient for a wide range of experimental data is 0.99227. According to the differences in
the temperature dependence of different groups of alloys of light metals, the functions λ0°C (ψ) and Kϑ–λ
(ϑ,ψ) are structured differently.

Fig. 4.9a. Thermal conductivities of Al–alloys
Fig. 4.9b. Calculated value of the temperature coefficient of the

thermal conductivity B in Al–Mn and Al–Mg–Mn alloys
The temperature coefficient of the thermal conductivity B can be calculated also by means of the atomic
mass ratio in percent. Fig. 4.9b presents the relation between both parameters for Al–Mn–, Al-Mg– and
Al-Mg–Mn–alloys. For this relation the following equation holds
B ¼ 0:0003 0:8907 ð4:19Þ
with a relatively high correlation value of 0.9975. From Figs. 4.9a and 4.9b it follows that the lower the
absolute value of thermal conductivity the higher its temperature dependence.

Fig. 4.10. Temperature dependence of the thermal conduc-

tivity of Al alloys
Fig. 4.10 shows the calculated relation between thermal conductivity and temperature for selected Al alloys
which is almost linear. Some numerical of examples of the agreement between measured and calculated
values at different temperatures are given in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5. Comparison of measured and calculated data of thermal conductivity

Alloy Thermal conductivity λ [W m−1K−1]
measured calculated
Temperature ϑ [°C] Ref. Temperature ϑ [°C]
20 200 300 20 200 300
AA1199 222 229 233 [4.16] 220.8 228.4 232.1
AA2024 164.5 191 [4.16] 168.7 195.3
AA5182 116 142 167 [4.16] 123.5 158 175.8
The differences between measured and calculated data may be attributed to (i) compositional differences
between measured and calculated materials (The calculation of thermal conductivity was always based on
the nominal composition of the material), (ii) possibly differing states of heat treatment, (iii) variations in
data from different authors due to the use of different methods of analysis (direct experimental measure-
ments, calculations based on the electrical conductivity according to the Wiedemann–Franz-law; for
instance: for alloy AA3003 (AlMn1Cu) λ - values of 160…190 [W m−1K−1] were found [4.3; 4.7; 4.20;
4.21].
Fig. 4.11 shows a comparison of measured and calculated values for the thermal conductivity of pure alu-
minium between 293 K and 933 K. The correlation between both sets of values is satisfactory.

Fig. 4.11. Comparison of the measured [4.17] and calcu-

lated temperature dependence of thermal conductivity of
Al99.98
Fig. 4.12 shows the variation of thermal conductivity with increasing content of Mg in the temperature
range 20…500 [°C] for aluminium–magnesium alloys: the lower the absolute value, the higher the tempera-
ture dependence.
Fig. 4.12. Thermal conductivity of Al-Mg- alloys as a

function of Mg content
References
[4.2] Livschitz, B.G.: Physikalische Eigenschaften der Metalle und Legierungen, Leipzig: VEB
[4.6] Hering, E., Modler, K.H. (eds.): Grundwissen des Ingenieurs, 13. Auflage, München: Fachbuch-
verlag Leipzig im Carl Hanser Verlag, 2002.
[4.10] Landoldt- Börnstein: Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik und Technik, Band 4, Teil 4b,
Wärmetechnik, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1972.
[4.21] Datta, J.: Aluminium-Werkstoff-Datenblätter, 3. Auflage, Düsseldorf: Aluminium-Verlag, 1998.
[4.18] ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 2, Metals Park Ohio, 1980.

[4.20] Fürbacher, I., Macek, K., Steidl, J.A.: Lexikon Technichkych Materialu, Praha: Verlag Dashöfer,
1998.
[4.17] Sinovjev, V.E.: Teplofisiceskije Svojstva Metallov pri Vysokych Temperaturach, Moskva: Metal-
lurgija, 1989.

Specific heat of light metal alloys 1
Specific heat of light metal alloys
4.4 Specific heat
4.4.1 Experimental data

The specific heat c depends on both material and temperature. Fig. 4.13 shows the heat capacity of alumi-
nium up to the melting temperature.
Fig. 4.13. Temperature dependence of the specific heat of

the pure aluminium [4.7]
Livschitz [4.2] concluded from the electron theory of the specific heat that the increase in heat capacity as a
function of temperature is linear in small temperature ranges but follows power and exponential functions in
larger ranges of temperature.
The specific heat of the light metals and its temperature differ considerably, Fig. 4.14a. Alloying and impur-
ity elements influence the specific heat. For material groups such as Al–Mg–Mn alloys a correlation exists
between the specific heat and the atomic ratio, Fig. 4.14b, which can be expressed by power functions or
exponential functions. In Al alloys the effect of alloying elements is relatively weak. In general the addition
of elements with a relative atomic mass higher than that of Al reduces the specific heat and vice versa.
Fig. 4.14a. Specific heat capacity of pure light metals as a

function of temperature [4.17]

2 Specific heat of light metal alloys
Fig. 4.14b. Specific heat capacity of Al–Mn–Mg alloys as a

function of atomic mass ratio
4.4.2 Calculation of the specific heat

For a temperature range that ranges from somewhat above 0 K to about 90 % of the absolute melting tem-
perature, the linear relation
cp ¼ a þ B:# ð4:20Þ
holds, with
cp specific heat at constant pressure ([J kg1 K1])
ϑ the temperature [K]
A a constant
B a coefficient [K1] that reflects the electron influence and thermal expansion
The mean specific heat cpm in a temperature range ϑ1 < ϑ < ϑ2 is defined by
#ð2
cpm ¼ cp ð#Þd# ð4:21Þ

#1
and hence the temperature – dependent mean heat capacity is given by

ð#
cpm ð#Þ ¼ cp ð#Þd# with #0 ¼ constant
#0
This relation can be used to calculate the thermal energy Q that is required to heat a material from ϑ0 to ϑ.
In this temperature range no structural changes should occur. Alloying and tramp elements affect the speci-
fic heat capacity. Therefore, the constants A and B of the temperature dependence of the mean specific heat
capacity according to equation (4.20) are different for specific metals and alloys. For AA5049
(AlMg2Mn0.8) the relation
Cpm ð#Þ ¼ 895:9 þ 0:2481 #½J kg1 K1 ; ð4:20aÞ
is valid between 20 °C and 500 °C. As can be seen in Table 4.6, the measured values are within the range
from different authors.

Specific heat of light metal alloys 3
Table 4.6. Measured values of the mean specific heat capacity of nonferrous metals at 20°C.
Metal Mean specific heat capacity cpm [J kg−1K−1]
measured [4.14] measured [4.20] measured [4.4] measured [4.7]
aluminium 874 930 900 896
magnesium 1026 1047 1017
titanium 380 523
The temperature dependence of the mean specific heat of light metal alloys can be expressed by an expo-
nential function also and this with a high coefficient of determination.
cpm ð#Þ ¼ A:e5:9 ð4:21Þ
For example the numerical relation for the material AA2618 (AlCu4Mg2NiSi) is
cpm ð#Þ ¼ 874 e0:0003:# ½J kg1 K1 ; ð4:21aÞ
Fig. 4.15 shows that the calculated mean specific heat capacity of Al corresponds closely to the measured
values. Deviations between the calculated and measured values amount to about 2%.
Fig. 4.15a. Comparison between the measured [4.17] and

calculated value of mean specific heat capacity of Al99.98
Fig. 4.15b. Ratio of measured and calculated values of the

mean specific heat capacity of Al und Mg

4 Specific heat of light metal alloys
References
[4.2] Livschitz, B.G.: Physikalische Eigenschaften der Metalle und Legierungen, Leipzig: VEB
[4.20] Fürbacher, I., Macek, K., Steidl, J.A.: Lexikon Technichkych Materialu, Praha: Verlag Dashöfer,
1998.
[4.17] Sinovjev, V.E.: Teplofisiceskije Svojstva Metallov pri Vysokych Temperaturach, Moskva:
Metallurgija, 1989.
[4.14] Heiligenstaedt, W.: Wärmetechnische Rechnungen für Industrieöfen, 3. Auflage, Düsseldorf:
Verlag Stahleisen, 1951.

Thermal expansion of light metal alloys 1
Thermal expansion of light metal alloys
4.5 Coefficient of thermal expansion
4.5.1 Definition and factors of influence

The mean linear coefficient of expansion αm is defined by
m ¼ ð1=L1 Þ ðL2 L1 Þ=ð#2 #1 Þ ð4:22Þ
L1 and L2 are the test length at the temperatures ϑ1 and ϑ2. With L(ϑ) the length at the temperature ϑ, the
differential coefficient of thermal expansion α(ϑ) is hence given by
1 dLð#Þ
# ¼ ð4:23Þ
Lð#Þ d#
The thermal expansion of materials with cubic crystal structure is isotropic. Since the volume expansion
coefficient β is given by
¼ 1 þ 2 þ 3 ð4:24Þ
with α1, α2 und α3 being the coefficients of linear expansion along the main axes, and since for cubic
structures: α1 = α2 = α3' therefore β = 3α.
The linear coefficient of thermal expansion α depends on the chemical composition of the alloys and the
fractions of the phases presennt. Fig. 4.16 shows how alloying elements affect the coefficient of thermal
expansion of Al99.99 (100% is pure aluminium).
Fig. 4.16. Variation of the coefficient of thermal expansion

with alloy content in binary Al alloys [4.7]
4.5.2 Influence of temperature on the coefficient of thermal expansion

Three temperature ranges regarding the effect of temperature on the coefficient of thermal expansion may be
distinguished:
The coefficient of thermal expansion and the specific heat capacity are proportional at intermediate tem-
peratures (ϑ (K) < Θ 100°C for aluminium). In this range the linear thermal expansion coefficient and
the specific heat capacity are proportional ϑ3.
Thermal expansion varies linearly with temperature in the temperature range ϑ << Θ.
The expansions coefficient decreases according to an exponential function with increasing temperature
near the melting point.

2 Thermal expansion of light metal alloys
For the light metals and alloys the temperature dependence of thermal expansion can be expressed by
# ¼ 0 þ B # ð4:25Þ
In Fig. 4.17a the temperature dependence of the average linear expansion coefficient is shown for light
metals. Because of the relationship between the melting temperature and the linear coefficient of expansion
of metals and alloys (Fig. 4.17b), the absolute values for similar alloys differ only slightly.
Fig. 4.17a. Temperature dependence of the linear coefficient

of thermal expansion of the light metals [4.12]
Fig. 4.17b. Correlation between melting temperature and the

coefficient of thermal expansion of metals and alloys
The constants α0 and β are listed for some metals and aluminium alloys in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7. Constants for the calculation of the linear thermal expansion coefficients of aluminium alloys
Material Linear thermal expansion coefficient Validity range ϑ [°C] Ref.
6 1 2
α0 [10 K ] B [K ]
beryllium 10.84 0.0087 0…600 [4.16]
Al99.99 22.84 0.00846 20…600
AlMg1 23.17 0.00802 20…300
AlZn6MgCu1.5 22.21 0.01030 50…300
(continued)

Thermal expansion of light metal alloys 3
Material Linear thermal expansion coefficient Validity range ϑ [°C] Ref.

6 1 2
α0 [10 K ] B [K ]
magnesium 24.94 0.0115 0…600 [4.16]
AZ91HP 24.42 0.0105 0…400 [4.12]
titanium 7.71 0.0038 0…700 [4.16]
TiAl6V4 8.81 0.0029 0…500 [4.3]
Because of the general correlation between the melting temperature and the linear expansion coefficient of
metals and alloys the absolute values for similar alloys do not differ very much as may be seen for the Al
alloys listed in Tab. 4.7. The variation is on the same order as the deviations of experimental determination
by different authors, Tab. 4.8.
Table 4.8. Mean linear coefficient of thermal expansion α0 between 0 and 100°C according to different
authors
Material Mean linear thermal expansion coefficient α0 [106 K1]
Al99.5 23.9 [4.11] 23.5 [4.7] 23.6 [4.18]
AlMg4 24.0 [4.11] 24.1 [4.7] 23.8 [4.18]
AlZn5Mg1 23.6 [4.11] 23.1 [4.7] 23.1 [4.21]
Titan 1 9.1 [4.8] 8.7 [4.22]
Fig. 4.18 shows the conformity between measured and calculated mean linear coefficients of thermal expan-
sion as a function of temperature for selected Al –, Mg – and Ti – alloys.
Fig. 4.18. Comparison of measured and calculated values of

the mean linear coefficient of thermal expansion for various
light metal alloys
References
[4.8] Werkstoffdaten Hochleistungswerkstoffe, Druckschrift N 530, 08/1993, Werdohl: ThyssenKrupp
VDM GmbH.
[4.11] Aluminium-Taschenbuch, 14. Auflage, 3. datenaktualisierter Druck, Düsseldorf: Aluminium-
Verlag, 1988.

4 Thermal expansion of light metal alloys
[4.12] Dies, K.: Kupfer und Kupferlegierungen in der Technik, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-
Verlag, 1967.
[4.16] Kazancev, E.J.: Promyslennye Peci, Moskva: Metallurgija, 1975.
[4.22] WIAM-Metall-INFO, Dresden: IMA GmbH, 1998–2005.
[4.18] ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 2, Metals Park Ohio, 1980.

Density of light metal alloys 1
Density of light metal alloys
4.6 Density
4.6.1 Definition and factors of influence

The density ρ is defined as the mass m per volume V
¼ m=V ð4:26Þ
3 3
The density of pure aluminium at 0 °C is 2698 kg m , of magnesium 1738 kg m and of titanium 4505 kg
m3. Alloying and impurity elements affect the density. The variation may be expressed as
alloy ¼ element þ i CEi ð4:27Þ
where ρelement is the density of the base metal [kg/m3], ΔρI the change in density for 1% of the alloying ele-
ment i [kg/m3] and ci content of the respective element i [mass %]. Strictly speaking equation (4.27) is valid
for solid solutions in the annealed state only. The presence of phases with different crystal structures and of
a high dislocation density may affect the density of light metals additionally.
4.6.2 Modelling the dependence on temperature

The definition of density as a function of temperature [4.11] reads:
ð# ¼ oð1 m #Þ ð4:28Þ
3
with ρ0 the density at 0°C [kg m ] and βm the mean volume expansion coefficient from equation (4.23).
If the mean linear expansion coefficient varies linearly with temperature, (4.23) and (4.28) yield

ð#Þ ¼ 0 ð1 3 m #Þ ¼ 0 1 3 106 #ð0 þ B #Þ ð4:29Þ
with αm the mean linear expansion coefficient. According to equation (4.29), the decrease in density with
increasing temperature is proportional to T2. Comparison of the temperature dependence of measured and
calculated density is shown for Al99.99 in Table 4.9, and for 2 Al base and 2 Mg base alloys, respectively,
in Fig. 4.19.
Table 4.9. Measured and calculated density of Al99.99 at different temperatures

Temperature ϑ [°C] Density ρ [kg m3]
measured (pyknometer) calculated
20 2698 2701
100 2685 2686
125 2678 2681
200 2665 2665
250 2655 2654
300 2645 2643
375 2630 2624
400 2620 2619
500 2597 2592
600 2565 2565

2 Density of light metal alloys
Fig. 4.19. Comparison of measured and calculated values

of the density of light metals
References
[4.11] Aluminium-Taschenbuch, 14. Auflage, 3. datenaktualisierter Druck, Düsseldorf: Aluminium-
Verlag, 1988.

Deformation parameters 1
Deformation parameters
Origin, preparation and selection of the data - References
5 Data bank of deformation parameters
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Basis of the data bank

Based on measured data from deformation and forming tests, material related forming data were compiled
for light metals and their alloys which are in frequent use. These data, which are provided for direct use and
for calculation of forming processes, are based on empirical determination. Functional relationships such as
the temperature and concentration dependence are treated in terms of semi-empirical equations for
Flow stress in hot and cold forming,
Plasticity,
Mechanical and physical properties.
References used for designation of the chemical composition and of the material grades are:
European Standards EN 573-3 and EN 515 [5.1, 5.2]
Lead, Magnesium, Nickel, Titanium, Zinc, Tin and their alloys, Beuth-Verlag, Berlin, Wien, Zürich [5.3]
comparison of international light metal grades in references [5.4 …5.17 and 5.183]
The range of chemical composition of material grades listed in different national standards does not always
correspond to the range given in the DIN/EN standards
5.1.2 Hot and cold flow curves

In the majority of cases the constants, given as data for individual alloys, permit calculations of flow
stress according to the following equations for several microstructural conditions and the indicated range
of validity:
Hot forming:
F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8# ð2:10Þ
Note: For magnesium and magnesium alloys for hot and cold forming and deformation the equation (2.10)
applies.
Cold forming:
F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’_ m3 ð2:9Þ
where:
σF flow stress [MPa]
A constant comprising σF0, A depending on the modeling approach [MPa]
m1 … m8 exponents which depend on the influence of the particular effects of a forming process on the
flow stress [–]
ϑ forming temperature [°C]
φ strain [–]
’_ strain rate [s–1]
Furthermore the data listed include the stress σF0. This term was found in the fundamental conditions for
flow stress evaluation in hot forming (700°C for Ti and Ti alloys, 400°C for Al and Mg and their alloys)

2 Deformation parameters
and in cold forming (20°C, φ = 0.10, ’_ ¼ 10 s1 ). For these conditions this term provides a rough compar-
ison of forces required and of deformation energies associated with the forming of the light metals listed.
5.1.2.1 Remarks on the data of flow stress

The data for the calculation of hot and cold flow curves are based on compression and/or torsion tests by the
authors with several heats of material and different microstructures. The tests were realised in part with
material from different alloy manufacturers. Furthermore flow curves from international publications were
included, if precise information about the chemical compositions, the test procedures and the material con-
ditions were given. Hot and cold flow curves, as a function of the deformation parameters, for light metals
discussed in 5.1 and for corresponding alloy grades from other sources are given in [5.18 … 5.42]. Sources
for aluminium and aluminium alloys are [5.50 … 5.121], [5.122 … 5.155] for magnesium and magnesium
alloys and [5.156 … 5.185] for titanium and titanium alloys. Flow stress data from these sources were also
included in the regression calculations. These publications also provided information for mathematical
modelling.
The decision to accept any flow curves from the literature for the data presented or for the regression
calculations is based on the following criteria:
For hot flow curves data of the relevant microstructural condition up to a degree of deformation of
φ = 1.00 at least for four temperatures and three deformation rates have to be available.
For cold flow curves a data matrix of three temperatures and three deformation rates is required.
The multiple determination after linear multiple regression is higher than 0.9500.
The maximum deviation between measured and calculated flow stress values for a material and a mate-
rial condition with the same chemical composition averages at ±3.0 [%].
For the same homologous temperature a relation exists between flow stress and activation energy in hot
deformation.
In any case the material-specific data (constant A and the exponents m1 … m8 or m1 … m4) are well proven para-
meters within the limits of analysis. The absolute value of the yield stress, its dependence on material, condition,
temperature, degree of deformation and deformation rate is based on experiments of the authors and on the above
literature. These sources also contain information on plasticity in hot and cold forming.
5.1.2.2 Extrapolation
Modern forming processes require stress-strain curves for conditions that can be simulated only within
limits in stress, temperature etc. by standard test procedures, that is, the measured data and the parameters
determined for calculation must be extrapolated.
For extrapolation to other ranges of forming parameters the following conditions need to be taken into
account:
Regarding the deformation temperature the calculated flow stress data should not be extrapolated beyond
the range of measured values.
If the volume fraction and composition of the phases present, the state of precipitation and the mode of
the forming process do not change, and if the grain size remains approximately constant, the constants
can be extrapolated down to the lowest possible deformation temperature. It must be kept in mind that
the thermally activated process such as annealing for example are influenced by the forming process
applied.
On the other hand the influence of the rate of deformation can be extrapolated by a power function, if the
rate exponent must be expressed as a function of temperature; room temperature is to be viewed as the
lower threshold value.
In cold forming, it is necessary to quantify the influence of the heat of forming on the stress-strain
behaviour.
The extrapolation of stress-strain curves beyond ranges for which they were determined requires knowl-
edge about the stress-strain behaviour of the group of materials under consideration.

In the steady state range of a flow curve the flow stress is given; this permits extrapolation to higher
degrees of deformation, e.g. for forging processes.
5.1.3 Plasticity curves

The plasticity curves covered by the data presented were mainly recorded in torsion tests. In some cases
they are based on tensile tests. Torsion tests performed by the authors [5.26, 5.57, 5.63, 5.64, 5.73 and
5.128] and by other groups [5.124 and 5.126…5.130] were carried out with massive specimens using fixed
clamping. The ratio of test length to test diameter of the test specimens was about 2.5. This ratio ensures
minimal deformation inhomogeneities within the test length. On the one hand the fraction of deformation
occurring in the specimen heads compared to the deformed total volume is relatively low. Yet it is possible
to avoid concentration of deformation in the centre of the test length, which would cause a significant
increase in local temperature.
Test results taken from the literature [5.20, 5.27, 5.29 and 5.30], which were based on using massive speci-
mens and a ratio of test length to test diameter of 10, were converted to a ratio of 2.5 by functions specific
for each group of materials [5.189].
The Data on the relation between plasticity and
deformation conditions, especially temperature, related mean stress and deformation rate,
chemical composition, effect of alloying and impurity elements or material conditions,
effects of deformation processes including the surface condition of the deformed material,
valuation of possible extrapolations
were taken from the authors’ investigations and from the following publications: [5.20, 5.24, 5.25, 5.27,
5.29,–5.30, 5.33, 5.38, 5.58, 5.72, 5.117, 5.123, 5.124, 5.125, 5.127, 5.133, 5.152, 5.154, 5.160, 5.181,
5.182 and 5.184].
The following criteria were used to select the data to be presented:
1. the experimental plasticity data of all tests with a particular set of forming conditions have to fit the rela-
tion ϕV = f (σF-SS) and have to pertain to a the single phase field of the alloy;
2. at the same deformation conditions and approaching the maximum of flow stress (i.e. at the onset of
dynamic recrystallisation), a qualitative relation between plasticity and degree of deformation exists:
the plasticity decreases with increasing degree of deformation, in the preceding forming process;
3. in the single phase field of an alloy plasticity increases with increasing temperature according to a power
function up to a maximum.
The scatter band of absolute plasticity values can be rather wide due to the high number of specimens and
process related parameters which were tested at nominally the same deformation conditions. Examples are
the data for the alloys AA 1050 (Al99.5), AA 5052 (AlMg2.5) and AA 6082 (AlSiMgMn). More than eight
heats of these alloys have been tested in parallel. The criteria of acceptance of torsion test results for present-
ing the data were also applied to the data obtained in tensile tests. Naturally the absolute values are not com-
parable because of different related mean stress values.
It is possible to extrapolate the plasticity results which are shown in the diagrams, if the following criteria
are satisfied:
under identical conditions of deformation and material and provided all tests are performed in the single
phase range of the material, a linear relation exists between plasticity and temperature in a double loga-
rithmic presentation. Therefore, an extrapolation is possible in the range between the lowest temperature
at which the phase is stable, and the temperature of maximum plasticity, i.e. 85% of the melting
(solidus) temperature.
the absolute magnitude of plasticity, derived from simulation calculations or from tests in semi-technical
processes, can never be expected to be applicable to a different forming process. The related stresses are
not identical and the stress distribution in the deformation zone is temporally and locally inhomoge-
neous.

if plasticity data are applied to materials in different structural states (e.g. as-cast, as-rolled) it should be
noted, that considerable differences in plasticity can occur [5.112]; the differences increase with the
extent of structural inhomogeneity.
extrapolation of plasticity to another deformation rate is possible, but it must have been thermally treated
similarly.
5.1.4 Mechanical and physical properties

The following equations were used to calculate the tensile properties after cold forming
Rp ¼ A0 þ A "n1 ð4:1Þ
Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2 ð4:2Þ
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4=" ð4:4Þ

with
Rp yield strength [MPa]
A0 yield strength in the initial state at ε = 0 [MPa]
Rm tensile strength [MPa]
B0 tensile strength in the initial state at ε = 0 [MPa]
ε related strain [dimensionless]
A, B, and ni constants [dimensionless]
A5 elongation [%]
C0 elongation in the initial state at ε = 0 [%]
C and ni constants [dimensionless]
The constants for calculation were derived from regression analyses of the results of investigations by the
authors and from data taken from the literature [5.20, 5.24, 5.25, 5.30, 5.33, 5.42, 5.43 and 5.162]. Parts
of these data pertain to different material conditions. The scatter in the initial values of yield strength, tensile
strength and elongation in the undeformed condition results from the fact that specimens from several heats
were tested.
The numerical values for the temperature dependence of the physical properties, i.e. thermal conductivity,
average specific heat, average coefficient of linear expansion, density and Young’s modulus, were calcu-
lated according to the relations discussed in chapter 4. These calculations were based on experimental data
[5.6… 5.8, 5.11, 5.16 and 5.43…5.48, 5.189…5.190]. More detailed information about the importance of the
limits of applicability of these calculations can be found in [5.49, 5.185…5.187]. For interpolation of the
data for physical properties it should be ascertained that no structural changes occur in the temperature
range considered.
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Be 1
Be
Metal Forming Data – Non-Ferrous Alloys – Light Metals –

deformation behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: Be DIN number:
Composition / impurities [Weight-%]
Be Al C Fe Mg Si BeO other elements impurities each impurities total

>99.8 <0.01 <0.03 <0.03 <0.06 <0.01 <0.03
Flow curves
State of material Hot deformation Cold deformation

cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed hot rolled
σF0 [MPa] 65.93 444.7
A 528.25 473.549
Effect of temperature Kϑ
m1 0.00341
Effect of strain Kφ
m2 0.13411 0.03211
m4 0.02120 0.00111
m5 0.00114
m7 0.05149
Effect of strain rate K’_
m3 0.00395
m8 0.000079
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 500…800 20
φ 0.05…0.60 0.04…1.00
_
’[1/s] 0.0005…1.0 10

2 Be
Fig. 1.1. Be. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

Be 3
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal Mean specific Average coefficient Density Young's-

conductivity heat capacities of linear expansion modulus
ϑ [°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [10-6/K] ρ [kg/m3] E [GPa]
20 189.5 1916.6 1845.5 245.3…304.1
100 172.4 1999.8 11.54 1841.9
200 152.8 2093.0 1836.5
300 135.5 2185.4 1830.1
400 120.2 2275.0 1822.6
500 107.2 2361.1 1814.0
600 96.2 2443.2 1804.4
700 87.4 2521.3 1793.7
800 80.7 2595.3 1782.0
900 76.2 2665.1 1769.3
1000 73.8 2730.7 1755.5
1100 73.6 2792.1 1740.7
1200 75.4 2849.2 1724.8

Mg 99.95 1
Mg 99.95

Designation
Chem. symbol: Mg 99.95 DIN number:
Mg Al Mn Zn Zr Cu Fe Si Ni other impurities impurities

elements each total
>99,95 <=0.010 <=0.004 <=0.003 <=0.005 <=0.001 0.005 0.001
National and international standards
EN United Kingdom
MB-MG99,95(B) 12421
France Russia
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
9995A B275 M19995
It should be noted that the chemical composition according to the standard applied in the table is not iden-
tical in all other national standards.
Flow curves

cast state deformed state homogenized
σF0 [MPa] 32.38 39.96 294.63
A [MPa] 125.486 159.271 569.408
m1 –0.00563 -0.00754 0.00037
m2 –0.69253 –0.79758 0.45407
m4 –0.11512 –0.07907 0.00080
(continued)

2 Mg 99.95

m5 –0.00081 0.00351 –0.04341
m7 0.78291 0.15596 4.40699
m3
m8 0.000439 0.000475 0.000218
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 300 … 550 300 … 550 20…200
φ 0.04 … 0.50 0.04 … 0.50 0.04 … 0.106 ·exp(0.00711·ϑ)
’_ [1/s] 0.001 … 100 0.001 … 100 0.01…20
Hot and cold deformation:

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #
[Equation (2.10), Chapter 5.1.2]

Mg 99.95 3
Fig. 2.1. Mg 99.95. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 Mg 99.95
Plasticity in tensile test
Fig. 2.2. Mg99.95. Hot plasticity as a function of tem-

perature. Initial state of test specimen: cast, deformed and
hot extruded.
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal Mean specific Average coefficient Density Young's-

ϑ [°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [106/K] ρ [kg/m3] E [GPa]
20 170.7 1007.1 26.37 1737.5 44.7
50 169.3 1022.0 26.71 1732.4
100 166.9 1046.9 27.29 1723.9
150 164.6 1071.7 27.86 1715.5
200 162.3 1096.6 28.43 1707.0
250 159.9 1121.5 29.01 1698.5
300 157.6 1146.4 29.58 1690.0
350 155.2 1171.2 30.15 1681.5
400 152.9 1196.1 30.73 1673.1
450 150.5 1221.0 31.30 1664.6
Bibliography
Kawalla, R., Lehmann, G., Vogt, H.-P.: Conference Paper SFU, 2007, p. 1–10.
Löffler, A.: Charakterisierung des Umformverhaltens von Magnesium-Knetlegierungen für geschmiedete
Fahrzeugräder, Dissertation, TU Hamburg-Harburg, 2008.
Ullmann, M., Oswald, M., Cuong, N.D.: Conference Paper, MEFORM 2006, Proceedings, Freiberg:
Doege, E., Dröder, K., Elend, L.E., in: Neuere Entwicklungen in der Blechumformung, Frankfurt:
Lehmann, G., Lange, R., Chabbi, L.: Conference Paper, MEFORM 2000, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut
Lehnert, W., Chabbi, L: Conference Paper, MEFORM 1999, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für
Spittel, T., Spittel, M., Schmidt, D., Egel, M.: Warmumformverhalten von Magnesiumlegierungen,
Unpublished Report, Freiberg: Institut für Metallformung TU Bergakademie, Juli 2000.

Mg 99.95 5
Lehmann, G., Brethfeld, A., Lange, R.: Conference Paper, MEFORM 2006, Proceedings, Freiberg:
Kawalla, R., Vorobjov, K., Stolnikov, A., Pircher, H., Engl, B., Weber, M.: Conference Paper, MEFORM
2003, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für Metallformung der TU BA, 2003, p. 129–141.
Chabbi, L., Lehnert, W.: Walzen von Magnesiumwerkstoffen, Magnesium Taschenbuch, Düsseldorf:
Aluminium Verlag, 2000.
Al Samman, T.: Magnesium - The Role of Crystallographic Texture Deformations Conditions and
Cheng Yong Qi, et al.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 208 (2008) 29–34.
Lukac, P., Trojanova, Z.: Mater. Sci. Forum 576/568 (2007) 85–88.
Perez, P., Gozales, S., et al.: Mater. Sci. Forum. 576/568 (2007) 385–388.
Fudetani, Sh., Mizunari, Sh., et al.: ISIJ Int. 47 (2007) 1692–1698.
Abu Farha Fadi, Khraisheh, M.: Adv. Eng. Mater. 9 (2007) 777–783.
Matsoumoto, R., Kubo, T., Osakada, K.: CIRP Ann. 56 (2007) 293–296.
Kim, W.J., Park, J.D.,Wang, J.Y., Yoon, W.S: Scr. Mater. 57 (2007) 755–758.
Rao, K.P., Prasad, Y.V.R.K., et al.: Key Eng. Mater. 340/341 (2007) 340–341.
Prasad, Y.V.R.K., Yellapregada, V.R.K., Rao, K.P.: Adv. Eng. Mater. 9 (2007) 558–565.
Trojanova, Z., Lukac, P., Kainer, K.-U.: Adv. Eng. Mater. 9 (2007) 370–374.
Kawalla, R., Schmidt, C., Riedel, H., Prakash, A.: Proc. Int. Conf. Magnesium Alloys and their
Beer, A.G., Barnett, M.R.: Mater. Sci. Eng. Part A 423 (2006) 292–299.
Guo, Q., Yan, H.G., Chen, Z.H., Zhang, H.: Mater. Sci. Technol. 22 (2006) 725–729.
Cerri, E., Leo, P., De Marco, P.P.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 189 (2007) 97–106.
McQueen, H.J., Leo, P., Cerri, E.: Mater. Sci. Forum 604/605 (2009) 53–65.
Yang, Y.Q., Li, B.C., et al.: Mater. Sci. Eng. Part A 499 (2009) 238–241.
Merklein, M.: Conference Paper, MEFORM 2006, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für Metallformung der
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.
Vogt, O.: Berichte aus dem IFUM, Universität Hannover 7 (2006) 1–139.
Brethfeld, A., Lehmann, G., Wißmeier, H.: Conference Paper, MEFORM 2007, Proceedings, Freiberg:
Sivakesavam, O., Rao, I.S., Prasad, Y.V.R.K.: Mater. Sci. Technol. 9 (1993) 805.

Mg 99.8 1
Mg 99.8

Designation
Chem. symbol: Mg 99.8 DIN number: 3.5003
Mg Al Mn Zn Zr Cu Fe Si Ni other elements impurities each impurities total

>99,8 <=0.10 <=0.02 <=0.005 <=0.01Sn; <=0.05
<=0.01Pb
EN United Kingdom
MB Mg99.8 12421
France Russia
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
9980A B275 M19980
9980B B275 M19981
It should be noted that the chemical composition according to the EN-standard applied in the table is not
identical in all other national standards.
Flow curves

deformed state homogenized
upsetting test torsion test
σF0 [MPa] 42.61 37.46 317.73
A [MPa] 989.423 1362.280 2525.330
m1 –0.00698 –0.00770 –0.00502
m2 0.24655 0.41685 0.81309
(continued)

2 Mg 99.8

m4 –0.00353 0.00570 0.00032
m5 0.00017 0.00110 –0.01045
m7 –0.89875 –0.73709 –0.90931
m3
m8 0.000362 0.000457 0.000159
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 400 250 … 450 20…200
φ 0.04 … 1.00 0.03 … 0.70 0.04 … 0.103·exp(0.00753·ϑ)
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 50 0.01 … 50 0.01…20
Hot and cold deformation

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

Mg 99.8 3
Fig. 2.3 Mg 99.8. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 Mg 99.8
Plasticity in torsion test
Fig. 2.4 Mg 99.8. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of
test specimen: deformed state and homogenized by 345 °C. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed. (c)
initial state of test specimen: deformed.
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal Mean specific heat Average coefficient of linear Density Young`s-
conductivity capacities expansion modulus
ϑ [°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [10-6/K] ρ [kg/ E [GPa]
m3]
20 156.8 1000.4 25.17 1737.4
(continued)

Mg 99.8 5
Temperature Thermal Mean specific heat Average coefficient of linear Density Young`s-
conductivity capacities expansion modulus
ϑ [°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [10 /K]
-6
ρ [kg/ E [GPa]
m3]
50 155.2 1008.8 25.51 1733.3
100 153.9 1022.7 26.09 1726.4
150 152.6 1036.7 26.66 1719.1
200 151.3 1050.6 27.23 1711.6
250 150.0 1064.5 27.81 1703.7
300 148.7 1078.4 28.38 1695.6
350 147.4 1092.4 28.95 1687.1
400 146.0 1106.3 29.53 1678.4
450 144.7 1120.2 30.10 1669.3
Bibliography
Lehnert, W., Chabbi, L: Conference Paper, MEFORM 1999, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für Metall-
formung der TU BA, 1999, Paper Nr.10, 20 pages.
Perez, P., Gozales, S., et al.: Mater. Sci. Forum 576/568 (2007) 385–388.
Fudetani, Sh.,Mizunari, Sh., et al.: ISIJ Int. 47 (2007) 1692–1698.
Kim, W.J., Park, J.D.,Wang, J.Y., Yoon, W.S.: Scr. Mater. 57 (2007) 755–758.

6 Mg 99.8
Kawalla, R., Schmidt, C., Riedel, H., Prakash, A.: Proc. Int. Conf. Magnesium Alloys and their Appli-
cation, Dresden, 2006, p. 274–280.
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

Mg 99.5 1
Mg 99.5

Designation
Chem. symbol: Mg 99.5 DIN number:

elements each total
>99.5 <=0.10 <=0.02 <=0.05 <=0.10 <=0.002 <=0.05 <=0.20
EN United Kingdom
MB Mg99,5 12421
France Russia
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 63.82 336.8
A [MPa] 192.713 238.980
m1 0.00506 0.00238
m2 0.25672 0.46887
m4 0.03006 0.08357
(continued)

2 Mg 99.5

m5 0.00002 0.01312
m7 0.27464 1.51213
m3
m8 0.000653 0.000446
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 200…400 20…200
φ 0.04…0.70 0.04…0.101·exp(0.0072·ϑ)
’_ [1/s] 0.0001…10 0.0001…10

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

Mg 99.5 3
Fig. 2.5. Mg 99.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 Mg 99.5
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal conductivity Mean specific Average coefficient Density Young’s-

heat capacities of linear expansion modulus
20 148.4 999.9 25.496 1737.3 44.7
50 147.5 1013.1 25.79 1733.3 43.8
100 145.9 1034.9 26.28 1726.3 42.2
150 144.3 1056.8 26.77 1719.0 40.8
200 142.7 1078.6 27.26 1711.5 39.5
250 141.1 1100.5 27.75 1703.8 38.1
300 139.5 1122.3 28.24 1695.8 36.7
350 137.9 1144.2 28.73 1687.5 35.4
400 136.3 1166.0 29.22 1679.0 34.0
450 134.7 1187.9 29.71 1670.2 32.7
Bibliography

Mg 99.5 5
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

MgAl2Zn 1
MgAl2Zn

Designation
Chem. symbol: MgAl2Zn DIN number:

elements each total
Bal. <=0.010 <=0.004 <=0.003 <=0.005 <=0.001 0.005 0.001
EN United Kingdom
France Russia
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
9995A B275 M19995
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 104.6 74.40 323.2
A [MPa] 1290.240 1572.100 1008.060
m1 –0.00434 –0.00543 –0.00084
m2 0.38879 0.51689 0.53424
m4 0.00171 0.00655 0.00321
(continued)

2 MgAl2Zn

m5 –0.00448 –0.00312 –0.01833
m7 –0.36088 –0.00253 1.05856
m3
m8 0.00034 0.000395 0.000139
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 400 250 … 450 20 … 200
φ 0.04 … 1.20 0.04 … 0.80 0.04 … 0.088·exp(0.01056·ϑ)
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 50 0.01 … 50 0.01…20

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8#

MgAl2Zn 3
Fig. 2.6. MgAl2Zn. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 MgAl2Zn
Fig. 2.7. MgAl2Zn. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
specimen: deformed. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed. (c) initial state of test specimen: deformed.

MgAl2Zn 5
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal Mean specific Average coefficient Density Young’s-

ϑ [°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [106/K]] ρ [kg/m3] E [GPa]
20 126.5 1025.1 25.41 1767.3 45
50 127.8 1038.8 25.68 1763.2
100 129.9 1061.6 26.13 1756.1
150 132.1 1084.4 26.58 1748.8
200 134.2 1107.2 27.03 1741.3
250 136.4 1130.0 27.48 1733.5
300 138.6 1152.8 27.93 1725.5
350 140.7 1175.6 28.38 1717.3
400 142.9 1198.4 28.83 1708.8
450 145.0 1221.2 29.28 1700.0
Bibliography
Kim, W.J., Park, J.D., Wang, J.Y., Yoon, W.S.: Scr. Mater. 57 (2007) 755–758.

6 MgAl2Zn
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

MgAl3Zn 1
MgAl3Zn

Designation
Chem. symbol: MgAl3Zn DIN number: 3.5312
Mg Al Mn Zn Ca Cu
Bal. 2.50…3.50 >=0.20 0.60…1.40 <=0.40 <=0.05
Fe Si Ni other elements impurities each impurities total
<=0.005 <=0.10 <=0.005 <=0.30
ISO United Kingdom

Mg-Al3Zn 3116 MAG E-111
France Russia
G-A3 Z1 ∼MA 2
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
AZ 31 B275 M11311
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 116.23 82.60 370.4
A [MPa] 1274.060 1317.070 542.330
(continued)

2 MgAl3Zn

m1 –0.00461 –0.00412 –0.00141
m2 0.29717 0.57997 0.16785
m4 0.00028 0.00776 –0.00866
m5 –0.00415 –0.00499 –0.01449
m7 –0.36804 0.02676 1.43153
m3
m8 0.00035 0.000352 0.000098
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 400 250 … 450 20…250
φ 0.04 … 1.00 0.04 … 0.75 0.04 … 0.117·exp(0.00844·ϑ)
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 50 0.01 … 50 0.01…20

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

MgAl3Zn 3

4 MgAl3Zn
Fig. 2.9. MgAl3Zn. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and the deformation rate. (a) initial state of
test specimen: deformed. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed. (c) initial state of test specimen: deformed.

MgAl3Zn 5
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal Mean specific Average coefficient Density Young’s-modulus

conductivity heat capacities of linear expansion
20 76.9 1025.1 25.05 1777.3 45
50 78.7 1038.8 25.28 1773.3
100 81.7 1061.6 25.66 1766.3
150 84.7 1084.4 26.04 1759.1
200 87.8 1107.2 26.42 1751.8
250 90.8 1130.0 26.80 1744.2
300 93.8 1152.8 27.17 1736.5
350 96.8 1175.6 27.55 1728.5
400 99.8 1198.4 27.93 1720.3
450 102.8 1221.2 28.31 1712.0
Bibliography
für Metallformung der TU BA, 2000, p. 367–390.s
Lehnert, W., Chabbi, L: Conference Paper, MEFORM 1999, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für Metall-
formung der TU BA, 1999, Paper Nr.10, 20 pages.
Freiberg: Institut für Metallformung TU Bergakademie, Juli 2000.Unpublished Report,

6 MgAl3Zn
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

MgAl6Zn 1
MgAl6Zn

Designation

elements each total
Bal. 5.80… >=0.15 0.40… <=0.05 <=0.005 <=0.10 <=0.005 <=0.30
7.20 1.50
ISO United Kingdom

MgAl6Zn1 3116 MAG E-121
France Russia
G-A6 Z1 ∼MA 3
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
AZ61A B275 M11610
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 118.07 106.02 375.86
A [MPa] 3003.846 1431.25 718.005
(continued)

2 MgAl6Zn

m1 0.00729 0.00524 0.0000380
m2 0.28599 0.34137 0.3265300
m4 0.00197 0.00016 0.0001600
m5 0.00085 0.00744 0.0183700
m7 0.88178 1.27704 1.3096000
m3
m8 0.000476 0.000470 0.0001370
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 280 … 500 200 … 450 20 … 200
φ 0.04 … 0.80 0.04 … 1.20 0.04 … 0.098·exp(0.00588·ϑ)
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 50 0.01 … 50 0.01 … 20

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

MgAl6Zn 3

4 MgAl6Zn

MgAl6Zn 5
Physical properties

20 62.4 1029.1 25.42 1797.3 47
50 64.5 1042.7 25.71 1793.1
100 68.0 1065.3 26.18 1785.9
150 71.6 1088.0 26.66 1778.4
200 75.1 1110.6 27.13 1770.7
250 78.6 1133.3 27.61 1762.7
300 82.1 1155.9 28.08 1754.5
350 85.7 1178.6 28.56 1746.0
400 89.2 1201.2 29.03 1737.3
450 92.7 1223.9 29.51 1728.3
Bibliography

6 MgAl6Zn
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

MgAl8Zn 1
MgAl8Zn

Designation

elements each total
Bal. 7.80… >=0.12 0.20… <=0.05 <=0.005 <=0.10 <=0.005 <=0.30
9.20 0.80
ISO United Kingdom

MgAl8Zn1 3116
France Russia
/G-A7 Z1) ~MA 5
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
AZ80A…F B275 M11800
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 168.68 147.58 388.1
A [MPa] 1220.33 1203.15 959.100
m1 –0.00501 –0.00368 –0.00021
(continued)

2 MgAl8Zn

m2 0.14771 0.37105 0.4193
m4 0.00020 0.00143 0.00036
m5 0.00023 –0.00697 –0.01409
m7 –1.02515 0.79890 0.86308
m3
m8 0.000496 0.000433 0.000041
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 280 … 500 200 … 450 20 … 200
φ 0.04 … 1.00 0.04 … 1.00 0.04 … 0.091·EXP(0.00365·ϑ)
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 50 0.01 … 50 0.01 … 25

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

MgAl8Zn 3

4 MgAl8Zn
Plasticity in torsion and tensile test
test specimen: deformed. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed. (c) initial state of test specimen: deformed. (d)
initial state of test specimen: deformed.

MgAl8Zn 5
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal Mean specific Average coefficient Density Young's-modulus

cpm
20 76.7 1009.1 25.457 1797.0 47
50 78.6 1026.1 25.742 1792.4
100 81.7 1052.2 26.217 1784.8
150 84.9 1078.3 26.692 1777.2
200 88.0 1104.4 27.167 1769.6
250 91.2 1130.5 27.642 1761.9
300 94.4 1156.6 28.117 1754.3
350 97.5 1182.7 28.592 1746.7
400 100.7 1208.8 29.067 1739.1
450 103.8 1234.9 29.542 1731.5
Bibliography
Cheng Yong Qi,et al.:J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 208 (2008) 29–34.

6 MgAl8Zn
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

MgMn2 1
MgMn2

Designation
Chem. symbol: MgMn2 DIN number: 3.5200
Mg Al Mn Zn Ca Cu Zr Si Ni impurities total
Bal. 1.2 … 2.0 <=0.30 <=0.05 <=0.10 <=0.01 <=0.30
ISO United Kingdom

MAG E-101
France Russia
G - M2 MA1
∼MA8
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
M1A B275 M15100
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 105.89
A [MPa] 763.330
m1 –0.00619
(continued)

2 MgMn2

m2 –0.03759
m4 –0.00798
m5 0.00540
m7 –0.34315
m3
m8 0.000350
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 300 … 400
φ 0.04 … 0.70
’_ [1/s] 0.004 … 50

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

MgMn2 3
Fig. 2.14. MgMn2. Flow stress in hot deformation.

4 MgMn2
Fig. 2.15. MgMn 2. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature. (a) initial state of test specimen: deformed.
(b) initial state of test specimen: deformed.
Physical properties

20 145.8 1029.1 25.47 1757.3 47
50 144.8 1042.7 25.71 1753.2
100 143.2 1065.3 26.11 1746.2
150 141.6 1088.0 26.51 1739.0
200 140.0 1110.6 26.91 1731.6
250 138.4 1133.3 27.31 1723.9
300 136.8 1155.9 27.71 1716.1
350 135.2 1178.6 28.12 1708.0
400 133.6 1201.2 28.52 1699.8
450 132.1 1223.9 28.92 1691.3
Bibliography

MgMn2 5
Al Samman, T.: Magnesium - The Role of Crystallographic Texture Deformations Conditions
and Alloying Elements on Formability, Monographie RWTH Aachen, 2008, p. 1–208.
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

AZ31 1
AZ31

Designation
Chem. symbol: AZ31 DIN number:
Mg Al Mn Zn Ca Cu
Bal. 2.50…3.50 >=0.20 0.60…1.40 <=0.40 <=0.05
<=0.005 <=0.10 <=0.005
ISO United Kingdom

MgAl3Zn 3116 MAG E-111
France Russia
G-A3 Z1 ~MA 2
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
AZ 31 B275 M11311
It should be noted that the chemical composition according to the ASTM-standard applied in the table is not
Flow curves
State of Hot deformation Cold deformation

material heating to 500°C –cooling to heating to deformation homogenized
deformation temperature temperature
σF0 [MPa] 95.43 89.96 370.41
A [MPa] 1055.970 961.667 542.330
m1 –0.00562 –0.00640 –0.00411
(continued)

2 AZ31
State of Hot deformation Cold deformation

material heating to 500°C –cooling to heating to deformation homogenized
deformation temperature temperature
m2 0.10905 0.04403 0.16785
m4 –0.01550 –0.00718 –0.00866
m5 –0.00221 –0.00042 –0.01449
m7 –0.17951 –0.21096 1.43153
m3
m8 0.000382 0.000435 0.000159
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 280 … 450 280 … 450 20…200
φ 0.03 … 0.75 0.03 … 0.75 0.04 … 0.103·EXP
(0.00753·ϑ)
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 100 0.01 … 100 0.01…20

¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’m8 #

AZ31 3
Fig. 2.16. AZ31. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AZ31
Fig. 2.17. AZ31. Hot plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate.(a) initial state of test specimen:
deformed.(b) initial state of test specimen: deformed and homogenized by 450°C.
Physical properties

20 76.9 1025.1 25.05 1777.3 45
50 78.7 1038.8 25.28 1773.3
100 81.7 1061.6 25.66 1766.3
150 84.7 1084.4 26.04 1759.1
200 87.8 1107.2 26.42 1751.8
250 90.8 1130.0 26.80 1744.2
300 93.8 1152.8 27.17 1736.5
350 96.8 1175.6 27.55 1728.5
400 99.8 1198.4 27.93 1720.3
450 102.8 1221.2 28.31 1712.0
Bibliography

AZ31 5
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

AZ61A 1
AZ61A

Designation
Chem. symbol: AZ61A DIN number:
Mg Al Mn Zn Zr Cu
Bal. 5.8 …7.2 0.15 … 0.50 0.40 … 1.50 <0.05
<=0.005 <=0.10 0.005 <=0.30
ISO United Kingdom

France Russia
~MA3
USA
ASTM AISI UNS
AZ61A A176 S44635 M11610
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 101.31
A [MPa] 1528.640
m1 –0.00363
m2 0.52963
m4 0.00587
(continued)

2 AZ61A

m5 –0.00954
m7 0.05096
m3
m8 0.000279
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 200…450
φ 0.04…0.60
’_ [1/s] 0.1…10

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

AZ61A 3
Fig. 2.18. AZ61A. Flow stress in hot deformation.
Bibliography

4 AZ61A
Abu Farha Faci Khraisheh, M.: Adv. Eng. Mater. 9 (2007) 777–783.
Kawalla, R., Schmidt, C., Riedel, H., Prakash, A.: Proc. Int. Conf. Magnesium Alloys and their Appli-
cation, Dresden, 2006, p. 274–280.
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

AZ 91 1
AZ 91

Designation
Chem. symbol: AZ 91 DIN number:

elements each total
Bal. 8.30… 0.13… 0.35… <=0.10 <=0.50 <=0.03 <=0.30
9.70 0.50 1.00
ISO United Kingdom

France Russia
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
AZ91A…E B275 M11910…
M11918
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 139.3 118,91 368.69
A [MPa] 1096.4 1342.38 1167.1
m1 –0.00763 –0.00613 –0.00079
(continued)

2 AZ 91

m2 –0.32625 0.16719 0.51971
m4 –0.02508 0.00071 0.00339
m5 0.00363 –0.00197 –0.00884
m7 –0.96447 –0.03936 0.25000
m3
m8 0.000485 0.000527 0.00039
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 450 300 … 450 20 … 200
φ 0.04 … 0.80 0.04 … 0.80 0.04 … 0.087·exp(0.00377·ϑ)
’_ [1/s] 0.10 … 100 0.10 … 100 0.01 … 25

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

AZ 91 3
Fig. 2.19. AZ 91. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AZ 91
Plasticity tensile test
Fig. 2.20. AZ 91. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and the deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
specimen: deformed. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed.
Physical properties

20 54.0 1019.4 25.23 1813.8 45
50 56.2 1035.1 25.58 1809.2 44.2
100 60.0 1061.2 26.15 1801.6 43.6
150 63.7 1087.3 26.73 1794.0 41
200 67.5 1113.4 27.30 1786.4
250 71.3 1139.5 27.88 1778.8
300 75.0 1165.6 28.45 1771.2
350 78.8 1191.7 29.03 1763.6
400 82.5 1217.8 29.60 1756.0
450 86.3 1243.9 30.18 1748.3
Bibliography

AZ 91 5
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

AM 50 1
AM 50
Metal Forming Data - Non-Ferrous Alloys - Light Metals - deformation

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: AM 50 DIN number

elements each total
Bal. 4.40… 0.26… <=0.22 <=0.010 <=0.004 <=0.10 <=0.002 <=0.02 <=0.30
5.40 0.60
ISO United Kingdom

France Russia
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
AM50A B275 M10500
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 102.4
A [MPa] 536.319
m1 0.00589
Effect of strain K’
m2 0.24889
m4 0.02654
(continued)

2 AM 50

m5 0.00146
m7 0.37738
m3
m8 0.000407
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 220 … 550
’ 0.04 … 1.10
’_ [1/s] 0.10 … 50

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

AM 50 3
Fig. 2.21. AM 50. Flow stress in hot deformation.

4 AM 50
Physical properties

20 64.21 1018.56 24.76 1782.8 45
50 66.32 1032.15 25.08 1778.3 44.1
100 69.84 1054.80 25.60 1770.8 42.4
150 73.36 1077.45 26.13 1763.3 40.5
200 76.89 1100.10 26.65 1755.8
250 80.41 1122.75 27.18 1748.3
300 83.93 1145.40 27.70 1740.8
350 87.45 1168.05 28.23 1733.3
400 90.97 1190.70 28.75 1725.8
450 94.49 1213.35 29.28 1718.3
Bibliography

AM 50 5
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

AE 42 1
AE 42

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: AE42 DIN number:
Mg Al Mn Zn Cu Fe Be Si Ni other impurities impurities

elements each total
Bal. <=0.15 <=0.020 <=0.03 <=0.01 <=0.20 <=0.01 <=0.005 RE 2.4… <=0.30
4.4
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 90.5
A [MPa] 1516.9
m1 –0.00713
m2 0.11901
m4 –0.00053
m5 0.00106
m7 –1.05946
m3
m8 0.000410
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 220….350
φ 0.04…1.00
’_ [1/s] 0.10 … 50

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

2 AE 42
Fig. 2.22. AE42. Flow stress in hot deformation.
Bibliography

AE 42 3
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

WE 43 1
WE 43

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: WE43 DIN number:
Mg Al Mn Zn Zr Cu
Bal. <=0.15 <=0.20 0.40…1.0 <=0.03
<=0.01 <=0.01 <=0.005 Li <=0.20; RE 2.4…4.40; <= 0.20 <=0.30
Y3.70…4.30
ISO United Kingdom

France Russia
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
WE43A B275 M18430
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 186.45 302.20
A [MPa] 2528.300 1139.175
m1 –0.00511 –0.00361
m2 0.33786 0.47919
m4 0.00586 0.00422
(continued)

2 WE 43

m5 –0.00190 0.00012
m7 –0.89090 –1.27464
m3
m8 0.000345 0.000033
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 350…500 20…150
φ 0.04…1.10 0.04…0.30 (0,50)
’_ [1/s] 0.1…50 0.10…10

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

WE 43 3
Fig. 2.23. WE43. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 WE 43
Physical properties

20 52.5 974.7 25.98 1837.1 44
50 54.8 987.9 26.25 1832.8
100 58.5 1009.7 26.70 1825.3
150 62.3 1031.6 27.15 1817.5
200 66.0 1053.4 27.60 1809.5
250 69.8 1075.3 28.05 1801.3
300 73.6 1097.1 28.50 1792.8
350 77.3 1119.0 28.95 1784.1
400 81.1 1140.8 29.40 1775.1
450 84.8 1162.7 29.85 1765.9
Bibliography
Metallformung der TU BA, 1999, Paper Nr.10, 20 pages002E
Al Samman, T.: Magnesium -, Monographie RWTH Aachen, 2008, p. 1–208.

WE 43 5
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

MgZn5.5Zr 1
MgZn5.5Zr

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: MgZn5.5Zr DIN number:

elements each total
Bal. 5.50… 0.40… <=0.10 <=0.01 RE2.1…3.0 <=0.30
6.50 1.0
ISO United Kingdom

France Russia
~VM65
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
ZE63A B275 M16630
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 161.02
A [MPa] 1317.090
m1 –0.00545
m2 0.22252
m4 0.01265
(continued)

2 MgZn5.5Zr

m5 –0.00136
m7 0.01237
m3
m8 0.000559
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 300 … 400
φ 0.04 … 0.75
’_ [1/s] 0.004 … 50

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

MgZn5.5Zr 3
Fig.2.24. MgZn5.5Zr.Flow stress in hot deformation.

4 MgZn5.5Zr
Fig. 2.25. MgZn5.5Zr. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature. (a) initial state of test specimen:
deformed.. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed.
Physical properties

20 117.9 999.7 25.28 1827.2
50 119.2 1012.9 25.55 1823.0
100 121.3 1034.7 26.00 1815.7
150 123.5 1056.6 26.45 1808.2
200 125.6 1078.4 26.90 1800.5
250 127.8 1100.3 27.35 1792.5
300 130.0 1122.1 27.80 1784.2
350 132.1 1144.0 28.25 1775.7
400 134.3 1165.8 28.70 1767.0
450 136.4 1187.7 29.15 1758.0
Bibliography

MgZn5.5Zr 5
Kim, W.J., Park, J.D., Wang, J.Y., Yoon, W.S..: Scr. Mater. 57 (2007) 755–758.
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

LA 141 A 1
LA 141 A

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: LA141A (MgLi11.5Al) DIN number:
Mg Al Mn Zn Zr Cu Fe Si Ni Li Na impurities
total
Bal. 1.00… <=0.15 0.40… <=0.005 <=0.005 <=0.004 <=0.005 13.0… <= 0.005 <=0.30
1.50 1.00 15.0
ISO United Kingdom

France Russia
USA
ASTM AISI SAE UNS
LA141A B275 M14141
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 29.01 32.42
A [MPa] 452.559 678.504
m1 –0.00857 –0.00841
m2 0.00747 0.27333
m4 0.00061 0.03333
(continued)

2 LA 141 A

m5 0.00166 0.00336
m7 –0.49255 –1.42664
m3
m8 0.000736 0.000688
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 300 … 450 300 … 450
φ 0.04 … 0.50 0.04 … 0.50
’ [1/s] 0.001 … 100 0.001 … 100

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

LA 141 A 3
Fig. 2.26. MgLi11.5. Flow stress in hot deformation.
Bibliography

4 LA 141 A
TU BA, 2006, p. 220–235.

Al 99.98A 1
Al 99.98A

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 1098 Chem. symbol: Al 99.98A
Composition / impurities / impurities [Weight-%]
Si Fe Cu Ti Zn Al. other impurities impurities

elements each total
<=0.010 <=0.006 <=0.003 <=0.003 <=0.01 >=99.98 < 0.003 < 0.02
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 22.59 23.48 52.13 69.97
A [MPa] 125.118 157.453 103.250 128.070
m1 –0.00276 –0.00313 –0.00208 –0.00296
m2 0.35576 0.39585 0.26173 0.28206
m4 –0.00391 0.00393 –0.01170 0.00162
m5 –0.00283 –0.00283
m7 0.30489 0.33487

Effect of strain rate K’
m3 0.03312 0.03771
m8 0.000356 0.000321
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 600 250 … 600 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0

’ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500
Hot deformation: Cold deformation:

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8# F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’_ m3
[Equation (2.10), Chapter 5.1.2] [Equation (2.9), Chapter 5.1.2]

2 Al 99.98A
Fig. 3.1.1. Al 99.98. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

Al 99.98A 3
Plasticity in torsion
Fig. 3.1.2. Al99.98. Hot plasticity as a function of tem-

perature and deformation rate. Initial state of test specimen:
deformed
Physical properties

20 220.8 907.8 22.87 2699.0 72
50 222.7 920.0 23.12 2693.5 71.3
100 224.6 932.4 23.55 2683.8 69.1
150 226.5 944.8 23.97 2673.7 66.8
200 228.4 957.3 24.39 2663.3 64.4
250 230.2 969.7 24.81 2652.6 61.9
300 232.1 982.1 25.24 2641.5 59.2
350 234.0 994.5 25.66 2630.1 56.5
400 235.9 1006.9 26.08 2618.3 53.6
450 237.8 1019.3 26.51 2606.2 50.6
500 239.7 1031.8 26.93 2593.7 47.6
Bibliography
Spittel, M.; Spittel, T., Teichert, H.: Aluminium (Düsseldorf) 70 (1994) 68–75.
Senderski, J., Plonka, B.: Hot Forming of Aluminium and its Alloys, in: Schindler, I., Hadasik, E.:
Senderski, J., Pierewicz, L., Plonka, B.: Rudy I Metale Niezelazne 47 (2002) 284–288.
Kalacev, M.I.: Deformacionnoje Uprocnenije Metallov, Minsk: Izdat. Nauka i Technika, 1980.
Lehnert, W., Spittel, M., Cuong, N.D.: Aluminium (Düsseldorf) 70 (1994) 708–712.
Spittel, T., Spittel, M., Teichert, H.: Aluminium (Düsseldorf) 70 (1994) 68–75.
Spittel, T., Spittel, M., Teichert, H.: Deformation Properties of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys,

4 Al 99.98A
Hirsch, J.: Conference Paper MEFORM 2000, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für Metallformung der TU
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Heinemann, H.: Formänderungsfestigkeit verschiedener Aluminium- und Kupferlegierungen bei hohen
Formänderungsgeschwindigkeiten und Umformtemperaturen, Dissertation, TH Aachen, 1961.
Bühler. H.-E., Höpter, G., Löwen, J.: Metall (Berlin) 25 (1971) 162–164.
Rubin, J.L., Ermanok, V.A., Satkov, V.A.: Zvetnyje Metally 2 (1964) 62–65.
Bühler, H.-E., Wagener, H.-W.: Bänder Bleche Rohre 6 (1965) 625–630.
Gronotajski, Z., Misiolek, N.: Effect of Minor Deformation on Properties and Structure of Deformed
Materials, in: Hadasik, E., Schindler, I.: Plasticity of Metallic Materials, Gliwice, 2004, p. 67–94.
Spittel, M., Spittel, T.: Conference Paper, Sächsische Fachtagung Umformtechnik, Proceedings, Freiberg:
Institut für Metallformung der TU BA, 1998, Paper Nr.3, 180020pages.
Zhang Cunsheng, Leotoing, L., Guines D., Ragneau, E.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 209 (2009) 3849–3858.
Jin, Neng Ping, et al.: Mater. Charact. 60 (2009) 530–536.
Garcia-Bernal, M.A., et al.: Scr. Mater. 60 (2009) 850–853.
McQueen, H.J., Shen, A., Leo, P., Cerri, E: Proc. Symp. Aluminum Alloys: Fabrication, Characterization
and Applications, 2009, p. 37–44.
Rosoll, A., Moser, B., Weber, L., Mortensen, A.: Acta Mater. 57 (2009) 1795–1812.
Merklein, M., Hußnätter, W., Geiger, M.: CIRP Ann. 57 (2008) 269–274.
Schikorra, M., Tekkaya, A.E., Kleiner, M.: CIRP Ann. 57 (2008) 313–316.
Trojanova, Z., Lukac, P.: Ann. Conf. Metallurgists CIM 46 (2007) 389–400.
Hirsch, J., et al.: Proc. ICAA, Int. Conf. Aluminum Alloys 11 (2008) 2388–2393.
Zhang Xin Ming, Li Hui Jie, et al.: Transact. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 18 (2008) 1–5.
Lebedkina, T.A., Lebyodkin, M.A.: Acta Mater. 56 (2008) 5567–5574.
Banabic, D., Vos, M.: CIRP Ann. 56 (2007) 249–252.
Jansson, M., Nilsson, L., Simonsson, K.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 198 (2008) 14–21.
Brosius, A., Tekkaya, A.E.: FTF (Forming Technology Forum) 7 (2007) 89–93.
Lin Qi Quan, Peng Dashu, et al.: Light Met. Age 65 (2007) 46–49.
Kang, C.G., Seo, P.K., Bae, J.W.: Key Eng. Mater. 340/341 (2007) 611–618.
El Danaf, E.A., Soliman, M.S., Almajid, A.A., El Rayes, M.M.: Mater. Sci. Eng. Part A 458 (2007)
226–234.
Kim, W.J., Kang, C.G., Kim, B.M.: Mat. Sci. Eng. Part A 447 (2007) 1–10.
Kwon, Y.N., Lee, Y.S., Lee, J.H.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 187/188 (2007) 533–536.
Abedrabbo, N., Pourboghrat, F., Carsley, J.: Int. J. Plast. 22 (2006) 314–341.
Martinez, H.V., Coupard, D., Girot, F.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 173 (2006) 252–259.
Puchi-Cabrera. E.S.: Mater. Sci. Technol. 22 (2006) 699–705.
Han Bing, Q., et al.: Adv. Eng. Mater. 8 (2006) 945–947.
Serajzadeh, S.: Mater. Sci. Technol. 22 (2006) 713–718.
Kaltmann, S., Schnabl, A., Seitzberger, M., Degischer, H.-P.: Weld. World 52 (2008) 567–570.
Bruni, C., Forcellese, A., Gabriell, E., Simoncini, M.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 177 (2006) 323–326.
El-Magd, E., Abouridouane, M.: Int. J. Impact Eng. 32 (2006) 741–758.
Ramanathan, S., Karthikeyan, R., et al.: J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 22 (2006) 611–615.
Gracio, J.J., Barlatt, F., et al.: Int. J. Plast. 20 (2004) 427–445.
Green, D.E., Neale, K.W., et al.: Int. J. Plast. 20 (2004) 1677–1706.
Kugler, G., Knap, M., et al.: Metallurgiya 43 (2004) 267–272.
Shen, J., Gottstein, G.: Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 14 (2004) 491–495.
Agena, A.S.M.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 209 (2009) 856–863.
Zolotorevsky, N.Yu., Solonin, A.N., Churymov, A.Yu, Zolotorevsky, V.S.: Mater. Sci. Eng. A 502 (2009)
111–117.
Toros, S., Ozturk, F., Kacar, I.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 207 (2008) 1–12.

Al 99.98A 5
Sheikh, H., Serajzadeh, S.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 207 (2008) 115–119.
Yi, Y., Chen, H., et al.: Mater. Sci. Forum 546/549 (2007) 1065–1068.
Huang, G., Liu, Q., et al.: Mater. Sci. Forum 546/549 (2007) 1061–1064.
Noori, H., Mahmudi, R.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A - Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 38 (2007)
2040–2052.
Diak, B.J., Verlinden, B.: Mater. Sci. Forum 519/521 (2006) 1653–1658.
Poluchin, P.I.: Pressovanije Aljuminievych Aplavov, Moskva: Metallurgija, 1974.
Senderski, J., Plonka, B., in: Deformation Behaviour and Properties of Selected Metallic Materials,
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
Ryen, O., Nus, O., et al.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A - Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 37 (2006)
1999–2006.
Pedersen, K.O., Lademo, O.G., et al.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 200 (2008) 77–93.
Ocenasek. V., Sedlacek, V., Slama, P.: Conference Paper, METAL 97, Vol.3, Ostrava, 1997, p. 120–127.
Wißmeier, H.-J., Berndt, C.: Conference Paper, MEFORM 2007, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für

Al 99.5 1
Al 99.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 1050A Chem. symbol: Al 99.5
Composition / impurities / impurities [Weight-%]
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ti Al other impurities impurities

elements each total
<=0.25 <=0.40 <=0.05 <=0.05 <=0.05 <=0.07 <=0.05 > 99.5 0.03 max: 0.50
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 1050A Al 99.5 209 - 1
India. Japan
19500 A1050
Russia China
It should be noted that the chemical composition according to the AA-standard applied in the table is not
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 29.51 32.29 97.40 98.81 114.80
A [MPa] 362.986 367.651 153.939 155.290 179.756
m1 –0.00482 –0.00463 –0.00182 –0.00147 –0.00168
m2 0.33065 0.32911 0.22160 0.26266 0.18870
m4 0.00152 0.00167 0.00210 0.00637 –0.00571
m5 –0.00229 –0.00207
m7 0.16744 0.16592
(continued)

2 Al 99.5

m3 0.02950 0.04883 0.04334
m8 0.000254 0.000241
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 250 20 … 240 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


Al 99.5 3
Fig. 3.1.3. Al99.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 Al 99.5
Mechanical properties after cold deformation
State of material Yield stress ΔRp [MPa] Tensile strength ΔRm [MPa]
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 20…28 4.4420 0.62184 80…85 1.0973 0.95450
soft annealed crosswise – O 35…40 6.8206 0.62783 70…80 1.0298 0.98569
soft annealed lengthwise – O 40…45 7.0822 0.62305 75…85 0.2002 1.36858
State of material Elongation to fracture ΔA5 [%] Validity ε [%]

C0 C n3 n4
soft annealed – O 45…53 26.1106 0.13505 2.43242 <90
soft annealed crosswise – O 45…53 39.8069 0.02601 3.29623 <84
soft annealed crosswise – O 37…45 75.0091 0.09455 20.41270 <97
Yield stress: Tensile strength: Elongation to fracture:

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
[Equation (4.1), Chapter 5.1.4] [Equation (4.2), Chapter 5.1.4] [Equation (4.3), Chapter 5.1.4]

Al 99.5 5
Fig. 3.1.4. Al99.5. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test

6 Al 99.5
Physical properties

20 224.7 900 22.73 2702.9 71.7
50 226.2 912.3 23.02 2693.6 71.6
100 227.6 924.6 23.49 2683.9 70.6
150 229.1 936.9 23.97 2673.7 69.3
200 230.6 949.2 24.44 2663.3 67.7
250 232.1 961.6 24.92 2652.4 65.7
300 233.5 973.9 25.39 2641.1 63.4
350 235.0 986.2 25.87 2629.5 60.7
400 236.5 998.5 26.35 2617.4 57.7
450 237.9 1010.8 26.82 2605.0
500 239.4 1023.1 27.30 2592.2
Bibliography
Hirsch, J.: Conference Paper MEFORM 2000, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für Metallformung der
TU BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Bühler, H.-E., Höpter, G, Löwen, J.: Metall (Berlin) 25 (1971) 162–164.
Institut für Metallformung der TU BA, 1998, Paper Nr.3, 18 pages.

Al 99.5 7
226–234.
Puchi-Cabrera, E.S.: Mater. Sci. Technol. 22 (2006) 699–705.
111–117.
Noori, H., Mahmudi, R.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A - Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 38 (2007) 2040–
2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
Ryen, O., Nus, O., et al.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A - Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 37 (2006) 1999–
2006.

Al 99.7 1
Al 99.7

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 1070A Chem. symbol: Al 99.7
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Al min. other impurities impurities

elements each total
<=0.20 <=0.25 <=0.03 <=0.03 <=0.03 <=0.07 <=0.03 >=99.7 max: 0.03 max: 0.30
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 1070 Al 99.7 209 - 1
India Japan
19700 A1070
Russia China
A7
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 23.77 89.10 92.90 101.30
A [MPa] 177.331 151.323 154.970 162.635
m1 –0.00381 –0.00253 –0.00251 –0.00253
m2 0.32572 0.21142 0.18620 0.26297
m4 0.00157 –0.00654 –0.01060 0.01085
(continued)

2 Al 99.7

m5 –0.00329
m7 0.59243
m3 0.03177 0.03180 0.03222
m8 0.000342
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 300 … 550 20 … 250 20 … 250 20 … 250
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


Al 99.7 3

4 Al 99.7
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
annealed – O 25… 32 2.7158 0.74219 70 …90 0.6393 1.08320

C0 C n3 n4
annealed – O 30 … 35 105.0220 –0.20515 –0.2381960 <70

Rp ¼ A0 þ A "n1 Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2 A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
Fig. 3.1.6. Al 99.7. Cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate.

Al 99.7 5
Physical properties

ϑ [°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [10–6/K] ρ [kg/m3] E [GPa]
20 223.2 903.6 22.83 2701.6 70.7
50 224.3 915.9 23.13 2692.2 70.1
100 225.4 928.1 23.62 2682.5 67.9
150 226.5 940.4 24.11 2672.3 65.6
200 227.6 952.6 24.60 2661.7 63.2
250 228.7 964.9 25.09 2650.8 60.7
300 229.8 977.2 25.59 2639.4 58.1
350 230.9 989.4 26.08 2627.6 55.4
400 232.0 1001.7 26.57 2615.5 52.6
450 233.0 1013.9 27.06 2602.9
500 234.1 1026.2 27.55 2590.0
Bibliography
Spittel, M.; Spittel, T., Teichert, H.,: Aluminium (Düsseldorf) 70 (1994) 68–75.
Senderski, J. Plonka, B.,: Hot Forming of Aluminium and its Alloys, in: Schindler, I., Hadasik, E.:
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Gronotajski, Z. Misiolek, N.,: Effect of Minor Deformation on Properties and Structure of Deformed

6 Al 99.7
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.
Ocenasek. V., Sedlacek, V., Slama, P,: Conference Paper, METAL 97, Vol.3, Ostrava, 1997, p. 120–127.

Al 99 1
Al 99

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 1100 Chem. symbol: Al 99
Si + Fe Cu Mn Mg Be Zn Al. other impurities impurities

elements each total
<=0.95 0.05 … <=0.05 <=0.0003 <=0.10 >=99.00 max: 0.05 max: 0.15
0.20
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 573-3 : 2003-10 EN 1100 Al 99 Cu 209–1
India Japan
A1100 A1N00
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 31.50 102.90 101.30
A [MPa] 262.815 170.240 161.963
m1 –0.00334 –0.00253 –0.00209
m2 0.52699 0.17683 0.22305
m4 0.02215 –0.00659 0.00435
m5 –0.00267
m7 0.05178
(continued)
2 Al 99

m3 0.00878 0.01851
m8 0.000329
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


Al 99 3
Fig. 3.1.7. Al 99. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 Al 99
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
hot rolled – O 30…38 7.9962 0.59603 85…100 7.1431 0.59175

C0 C n3 n4
hot rolled – O 25…30 25,1596 0,04196 –15,28080 <70

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
Fig. 3.1.8. Al 99. Hot plasticity as a function of tempera-

ture and deformation rate. Initial state of test specimen:
deformed.
Physical properties

20 223.7 898.9 22.62 2705.4 69.0
50 225.7 911.2 22.93 2696.1 67.7
100 227.7 923.5 23.46 2686.4 66.8
150 229.7 935.8 23.98 2676.2 65.5
(continued)
Al 99 5

200 231.7 948.1 24.51 2665.6 63.8
250 233.7 960.4 25.03 2654.6 61.7
300 235.7 972.7 25.56 2643.2 59.3
350 237.7 985.0 26.08 2631.3 56.5
400 239.7 997.3 26.61 2619.0 53.3
450 241.7 1009.6 27.13 2606.3 49.8
500 243.7 1021.9 27.66 2593.2 45.8
Bibliography
TU BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 Al 99
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

Al 99.99 1
Al 99.99

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 1199 Chem. symbol: Al 99.99
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.006 <=0.006 <=0.006 <=0.002 <=0.006
Zn Ti Al. other elements impurities each impurities total
<=0.006 <=0.003 >=99.99 max: 0.003 max: 0.02
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

~EN 1098
India Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 19.418 20.44 55.4 52.5 64.7
A [MPa] 231.102 195.791 88.693 101.152 126.140
m1 –0.00487 –0.00428 –0.00100 –0.00188 –0.00326
m2 0.34752 0.37938 0.33995 0.25420 0.30222
m4 –0.00531 0.00332 0.01935 –0.01130 0.00144
m5 –0.00095 –0.00148
m7 –0.0657 –0.00674
(continued)

2 Al 99.99

m3 0.06073 0.03252 0.04679
m8 0.000397 0.00038
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 600 250 … 600 20 … 200 20 … 200 20 … 250
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


Al 99.99 3

4 Al 99.99
Fig. 3.1.10. Al 99.99. Hot plasticity as a function of tem-

perature and deformation rate; initial state of test specimen:
deformed; soft annealed.
Physical properties

20 220.8 907.8 22.87 2699.0 72
50 222.7 920.0 23.12 2693.5 71.3
100 224.6 932.4 23.55 2683.8 69.1
150 226.5 944.8 23.97 2673.7 66.8
200 228.4 957.3 24.39 2663.3 64.4
250 230.2 969.7 24.81 2652.6 61.9
300 232.1 982.1 25.24 2641.5 59.2
350 234.0 994.5 25.66 2630.1 56.5
400 235.9 1006.9 26.08 2618.3 53.6
450 237.8 1019.3 26.51 2606.2 50.6
500 239.7 1031.8 26.93 2593.7 47.6
Bibliography

Al 99.99 5
TU BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Institut für Metallformung der TU BA, 1998, Paper Nr.3, 18 pag0065s.
226–234.
111–117.

6 Al 99.99
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlCu4SiMg 1
AlCu4SiMg

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 2014 Chem. symbol: AlCu4SiMg
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ti Al. other impurities impurities

elements each total
0.50 … <=0.30 3.9 … 0.40 … 0.20 … <=0.25 <=0.10 Bal. max: 0.05 max: 0.15
1.2 5.0 s 1.2 0.8
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 2014 AlCu4SiMg 209-1
India Japan
24345 JIS H 4000 JIS H 4040
JIS H 4080 JIS H 4100
Russia China
4784 - 74 1110
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 88.55 100.61 222.1
A [MPa] 628.457 487.840 321.029
m1 0.00506 0.00421 0.00162
m2 0.05228 0.06575 0.14208
m4 0.00012 0.00002 0.00527
(continued)

2 AlCu4SiMg

m5 0.00015 0.00090
m7 0.08059 0.06252
m3 0.01902
m8 0.000214 0.000309
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 250
’ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlCu4SiMg 3
Fig. 3.2.1. AlCu4SiMg. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlCu4SiMg
Fig. 3.2.2. AlCu4SiMg. Hot and cold plasticity a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test

AlCu4SiMg 5
Physical properties

20 190.1 868.4 22.03 2787.6 72.2
50 196.5 880.2 22.32 2778.3 69.4
100 202.9 892.0 22.80 2768.5 66.0
150 209.3 903.7 23.27 2758.4 64.0
200 215.7 915.5 23.75 2747.9 61.0
250 222.2 927.3 24.22 2737.0 59.0
300 228.6 939.1 24.70 2725.6 52.0
350 235.0 950.9 25.17 2713.9
400 241.4 962.7 25.65 2701.8
450 247.8 974.4 26.13 2689.3
500 254.2 986.2 26.60 2676.4
Bibliography
Senderski, J., Plonka, B.:, in: Schindler, I., Hadasik, E.Hot Forming of Aluminium and its Alloys:
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlCu4SiMg
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlCu4MgSi (A) 1
AlCu4MgSi (A)

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 2017A Chem. symbol: AlCu4MgSi (A)
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
0.20 … 0,80 <=0.70 3.50 … 4.50 0.40 … 1.0 0.40 … 0.80 <=0.10
Zn Ti Al other elements impurities each impurities total
<=0.25 <=0.15 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 2017 AlCu4MgSi (A) 209 - 1
India Japan
24534 A2017
Russia China
1120
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 100.47
A [MPa] 1534.101
m1 –0.00696
m2 0.05228
m4 0.00012
(continued)

2 AlCu4MgSi (A)

m5 –0.00015
m7 –0.14059
m3
m8 0.000214
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550
φ 0.03 … 1.5
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500


AlCu4MgSi (A) 3
Fig. 3.2.3. AlCu4MgSi. Flow stress in hot deformation.

4 AlCu4MgSi (A)
Fig. 3.2.4. AlCu4MgSi. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate.(a) initial state of
test specimen: deformed. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed.
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Institut für Metallformung der TU BA, 1998, Paper Nr.3, 18 page

AlCu4MgSi (A) 5

226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
Ryen, O., Nus, O., et al.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A - Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 37 (2006) 1999–2006.
Metallformung der TU BA, 2007, p. 293-311

AlCu4Mg1 1
AlCu4Mg1

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 2024 Chem. symbol: AlCu4Mg1
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Al other impurities impurities

elements each total
<=0.50 <=0.50 3.8 … 0.30 1.2 … <=0.10 <=0.25 <=0.15 Bal. Ti+Zr max: 0.05 max: 0.15
4.9 … 0.9 1.8 max: 0.20
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 2024 AlCu4Mg1 209-1
India Japan
A2024
Russia China
1116
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 120.24 227.4
A [MPa] 791.738 349.013
m1 –0.00451 –0.00155
m2 0.08333 0.16985
m4 0.00063 –0.00478
(continued)

2 AlCu4Mg1

m5 –0.00109
m7 –0.02801
m3 0.01804
m8 0.000162
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 240
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlCu4Mg1 3
Fig. 3.2.5. AlCu4Mg1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlCu4Mg1
State of material Yield stress ΔRp [MPa] Tensile strength ΔRm [MPa] Validity ε [%]
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft 90 ..100 39.3202 0.40827 200…220 3.3916 0.81821 <90
annealed – O
soft 100…120 45.7749 0.41683 180…200 89.5469 0.19713 <90
annealed – O
hot 270…310 40.5066 0.67752 425…450 11.3641 0.93207 <40
tempered – T3
hot 320…360 21.1524 0.75494 425…460 5.1694 1.04018 <40
tempered – T6
Yield stress: Tensile strength:

Rp ¼ A0 þ A "n1 Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2
Fig. 3.2.6. AlCu4Mg1. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of

AlCu4Mg1 5
Physical properties

20 168.7 871.6 22.19 2778.1 73.8
50 175.3 883.4 22.46 72.6
100 182.0 895.3 22.90 69.9
150 188.6 907.1 23.35 66.5
200 195.3 918.9 23.80 62.5
250 201.9 930.7 24.25 57.8
300 208.6 942.6 24.69 52.5
350 215.2 954.4 25.14
400 221.9 966.2 25.59
450 228.5 978.0 26.04
500 235.2 989.9 26.48
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlCu4Mg1
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlCu2.5Mg0.5 1
AlCu2.5Mg0.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 2036 Chem. symbol: AlCu2.5Mg0.5

elements each total
<=0,50 <=0,50 2.2 … 0.1 … 0.3 … <=0,1 <=0.25 <=0.15 Bal. 0.05 0.15
3.0 0.4 0.6
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 2036
India Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 80.22 214.48
A [MPa] 622.317 331.92700
m1 0.00479 0.00152
m2 0.14778 0.28538
m4 0.00241 0.01972
m5 0.00037
m7 0.33558
(continued)

2 AlCu2.5Mg0.5

m3 0.02312
m8 0.000251
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 240
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
_
’[1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5’ em7’ ’_ m8’ F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’_ m3

AlCu2.5Mg0.5 3
Fig. 3.2.7. AlCu2.5Mg0.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlCu2.5Mg0.5
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft 100…120 9.4253 0.69768 190…220 6.7244 0.67249 <90
annealed - O

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2
Fig. 3.2.8. AlCu2.5Mg0.5. Hot plasticity as a function of

temperature and deformation rate. Initial state of test spe-
cimen: cast and deformed.
Physical properties

20 196.1 890.1 22.54 2748.6 73.9
50 196.9 902.3 22.85 2739.2 71.6
100 197.7 914.5 23.37 2729.3 69.0
150 198.4 926.6 23.89 2719.0 66.2
200 199.2 938.8 24.41 2708.3 63.2
250 200.0 951.0 24.93 2697.2 60.0
300 200.8 963.2 25.45 2685.6 56.5
350 201.6 975.3 25.97 2673.7 52.8
(continued)

AlCu2.5Mg0.5 5

400 202.3 987.5 26.49 2661.2
450 203.1 999.7 27.01 2648.4
500 203.9 1011.9 27.53 2635.1
Bibliography
Spittel, T., Spittel, M., Teichert, H.: Deformation Properties of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys, Düs-
seldorf: MDS Mannesmann DEMAG Sack GmbH, 1994.
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Heinemann H: Formänderungsfestigkeit verschiedener Aluminium- und Kupferlegierungen bei hohen
Zhang, Cunsheng., Leotoing, L., Guines D., Ragneau, E.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 209 (2009)
3849–3858.
Zhang Xin Ming., Li Hui Jie, et al.: Transact. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 18 (2008) 1–5.
226–234.

6 AlCu2.5Mg0.5
Zhang Xin, Ming., Li Hui Jie, et al.: Transact. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 18 (2008) 1–5.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlCuLi 1
AlCuLi

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 2090 Chem. symbol: AlCuLi
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0,10 <=0,12 2.4 … 3,0 <=0,05 <=0,25 <=0,05
<=0,1 <=0,15 Bal. Zr: 0.08…0,15; <=0,05 <=0,15
Li: 1.90…2,60
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 2090
India Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 111.72 233.9
A [MPa] 620.334 349.429
m1 –0.00456 0.00143
m2 0.06502 0.14391
m4 –0.00060 0.00118
m5 –0.00049
(continued)

2 AlCuLi

m7 –0.21622
m3 0.01303
m8 0.000332
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 240
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlCuLi 3
Fig. 3.2.9. AlCuLi. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.
Bibliography

4 AlCuLi
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.

AlCuLi 5

111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlCu2LiMg1.5 1
AlCu2LiMg1.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 2091 Chem. symbol: AlCu2LiMg1.5
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.20 <=0.30 1.8 … 2.5 <=0.10 1.1 … 1.9 <=0.10
<=0.25 <=0.10 >=91,95 Li: 1.7 … 2.3; <=0,05 <=0,15
Zr: 0,04 … 0.16
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 2091
India Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 60.37 216.8
A [MPa] 393.827 349.653
m1 0.00501 0.00157
m2 0.04571 0.16934
m4 0.00051 0.00152
m5 0.00149
m7 0.21186
(continued)
2 AlCu2LiMg1.5

m3 0.01807
m8 0.000298
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 240
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlCu2LiMg1.5 3
Fig. 3.2.10. AlCu2LiMg1.5. Flow stress hot and cold forming.

4 AlCu2LiMg1.5
Physical properties

ϑ[°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [106/K] ρ [kg/m3] E [GPa]
20 167.8 892.3 22.37 2726.5 73.1
50 172.3 904.5 22.68 2717.1 70.8
100 176.8 916.7 23.20 2707.4 68.2
150 181.4 928.9 23.71 2697.3 65.4
200 185.9 941.1 24.22 2686.8 62.4
250 190.4 953.3 24.73 2675.8 59.2
300 194.9 965.5 25.25 2664.4 55.7
350 199.4 977.7 25.76 2652.7 52.0
400 203.9 990.0 26.27 2640.4
450 208.5 1002.2 26.79 2627.8
500 213.0 1014.4 27.30 2614.8
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlCu2LiMg1.5 5
226–234.
Han Bing, Q., et al.: Adv. Eng. Mater.8 (2006) 945–947.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlCu4Mg1 (A) 1
AlCu4Mg1 (A)

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 2124 Chem. symbol: AlCu4Mg1 (A)
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.20 <=0.30 3.8 … 4.9 0.30 … 0.9 1.2 … 1.8 <=0.10
<=0.25 <=0.15 Bal. (Zr+Ti) max: 0.20 <=0,05 <=0,15
Int. Reg. Rec. EN

EN2124 EN 573-3 : 2003-07
India Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 128.95 221.1 224.9
A [MPa] 257.663 384.102 344.576
m1 –0.00223 –0.00161 –0.00141
m2 0.02512 0.18870 0.15457
m4 –0.00073 –0.00571 –0.00887
m5 –0.00151
m7 0.22234
(continued)

2 AlCu4Mg1 (A)

Effect of strain rate K ’_
m3 0.01229 0.02004
m8 0.000326
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 240 20 … 240
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7# ’_ m8# F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’_ m3

AlCu4Mg1 (A) 3
Fig. 3.2.11. AlCu4Mg1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlCu4Mg1 (A)
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 150…165 7.3027 0.74600 220…250 1.1390 1.09448
State of material Elongation to fracture ΔA5[%] Validity e[%]

C0 C n3 n4
soft annealed – O 15….20 1.4115 0.48712 2.13532 <95

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4 ="
Physical properties

20 174.0 873.8 22.48 2776.0 74.9
50 180.2 885.8 22.73 2766.5 72.6
100 186.5 897.7 23.14 2756.7 70.0
150 192.7 909.7 23.55 2746.6 67.2
200 198.9 921.6 23.97 2736.1 64.2
250 205.2 933.6 24.38 2725.2 61.0
300 211.4 945.5 24.79 2714.1 57.5
350 217.6 957.5 25.21 2702.5 53.8
400 223.9 969.4 25.62 2690.7
450 230.1 981.4 26.03 2678.4
500 236.3 993.3 26.44 2665.9
Bibliography

AlCu4Mg1 (A) 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.
111–117.

6 AlCu4Mg1 (A)
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.
Metallformung der TU BA, 2007, p. 293-311.

AlCu2Mg2NiSi 1
AlCu2Mg2NiSi

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 2618 Chem. symbol: AlCu2Mg2NiSi
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
0.15 … 0,25 0.9 … 1,4 1.8 … 2.7 <=0,25 1.3 … 1.8
<=0.15 <=0.2 Bal. (Zr + Ti): < 0.25; <=0.05 <=0.15
Ni: 0.8 … 1.4
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 2618A AlCu4Mg2NiSi 209 - 1
India Japan
A2618
Russia China
AK 1 4784 - 74
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 130.6
A [MPa] 914.214
m1 –0.00469
m2 0.15886
m4 0.00011
(continued)
2 AlCu2Mg2NiSi

m5 –0.00221
m7 0.09922
m3
m8 0.000400
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550
φ 0.03 … 1.5
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500

F ¼ A:em1# :’m2 :em4=’ :ð1 þ ’Þm5# :em7# :’_ m8# F ¼ A:em1# :’m2 :em4=’ :’_ m3

AlCu2Mg2NiSi 3
Fig. 3.2.12. AlCu4Mg2NiSi. Flow stress in hot deformation.

4 AlCu2Mg2NiSi
Fig. 3.2.13. AlCu4Mg2NiSi. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature.
Physical properties

20 158.1 875.0 22.37 2768.7 69.6
50 164.7 886.9 22.68 2759.3 67.3
100 171.4 898.7 23.20 2749.4 64.7
150 178.0 910.6 23.71 2739.2 61.9
200 184.7 922.5 24.22 2728.5 58.9
250 191.3 934.4 24.73 2717.3 55.7
300 198.0 946.2 25.25 2705.8 52.2
350 204.6 958.1 25.76 2693.8
400 211.3 970.0 26.27 2681.4
450 217.9 981.8 26.79 2668.6
500 224.6 993.7 27.30 2655.3
Bibliography

AlCu2Mg2NiSi 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.

6 AlCu2Mg2NiSi
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.
Metallformung der TU BA, 2007, p. 293-311.

AlMn1Cu 1
AlMn1Cu

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 3003 Chem. symbol: AlMn1Cu

elements each total
<=0.6 <=0.7 0.05 … 1.0 … <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
0.2 1.5
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 3003 AlMn1Cu ISO 209–1
India Japan
A3003 H 4000
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 39.75 44.05 113.79 89.10 143.41
A [MPa] 586.561 538.625 184.544 151.323 213.092
m1 –0.00509 –0.00522 –0.00217 –0.00253 –0.00196
m2 0.32557 0.25614 0.18035 0.21142 0.11707
m4 0.00058 0.00072 –0.00732 –0.00654 –0.01439
m5 –0.00004 –0.00032
m7 –0.37627 –0.17014
(continued)
2 AlMn1Cu

m3 0.02054 0.03177 0.02415
m8 0.000137 0.000212
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
_
’[1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMn1Cu 3
Fig. 3.3.1. AlMn1Cu. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMn1Cu
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
annealed – O 45…55 7.3858 0.71210 100…140 0.2883 1.34397

C0 C n3 n4
annealed – O 24….30 11.7427 0.19817 5.36173

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
Fig. 3.3.2. AlMn1Cu. Cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test spe-
cimen: deformed 0.57 % Cu. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed 0.12 % Cu.

AlMn1Cu 5
Physical properties

20 185.2 892 22.27 2731.4 69.7
50 190.6 904.1 22.58 2722.1 68.4
100 196.0 916.2 23.09 2712.5 67.5
150 201.4 928.3 23.60 2702.4 66.1
200 206.8 940.4 24.11 2691.9 64.4
250 212.3 952.5 24.62 2681.0 62.4
300 217.7 964.6 25.14 2669.6 59.9
350 223.1 976.7 25.65 2657.8 57.1
400 228.5 988.8 26.16 2645.7 53.8
450 233.9 1000.9 26.67 2633.1
500 239.3 1013.0 27.18 2620.0
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Bühler.H.-E., Höpter, G., Löwen, J.: Metall (Berlin) 25 (1971) 162–164.

6 AlMn1Cu
226–234.
Puchi-Cabrera. E.S: Mater. Sci. Technol. 22 (2006) 699–705.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMn1Mg1 1
AlMn1Mg1

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 3004 Chem. symbol: AlMn1Mg1

elements each total
<=0.30 <=0.7 <=0.25 1.0 … 0.8 … <=0.25 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
1.5 1.3
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 3004 AlMn1Mg1 209–1
India Japan
31500 A3004 JIS H 4170
Russia China
Flow curves

cast state deformed state recrystallized cast strip hot rolled
σF0 [MPa] 72.53 78.79 156.40 153.80
A [MPa] 594.684 592.849 217.574 225.660
m1 –0.00511 –0.00476 –0.00093 –0.00253
m2 0.06032 0.06137 0.15448 0.08812
m4 –0.01884 –0.01875 0.00069 –0.01800
m5 –0.00038 –0.00036
m7 –0.09246 –0.10141
(continued)
2 AlMn1Mg1

m3 0.01620 0.02177
m8 0.000315 0.000258
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMn1Mg1 3
Fig. 3.3.3. AlMn1Mg1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMn1Mg1
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
annealed – O 70…80 32.3239 0.40599 170…190 1.5842 0.94628

C0 C n3 n4
annealed – O 20 … 28 12.0367 0.11130 –2.91725 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4 ="
Fig. 3.3.4. AlMn1Mg1. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of

AlMn1Mg1 5
Physical properties

20 166.4 891.1 22.27 2722.7 69.9
50 173.5 903.2 22.58 2712.9 68.8
100 180.6 915.3 23.09 2703.2 66.9
150 187.7 927.4 23.60 2693.2 65.0
200 194.8 939.5 24.11 2682.7 62.9
250 201.9 951.6 24.62 2671.8 60.8
300 209.0 963.6 25.14 2660.5 58.5
350 216.1 975.7 25.65 2648.8 56.2
400 223.1 987.8 26.16 2636.7 53.8
450 230.2 999.9 26.67 2624.1
500 237.3 1012.0 27.18 2611.1
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlMn1Mg1
226–234.
111–117.
Sheikh, H., Serajzadeh, S.: Proc. Technol. J. Mater. 207 (2008) 115–119.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMn1Mg0.5 1
AlMn1Mg0.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 3005 Chem. symbol: AlMn1Mg0.5
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.60 <=0,70 <=0.30 1.0 bis 1.5 0.20 bis 0.6 <=0.10
<=0.25 <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 3005 AlMn1Mg0.5 209 - 1
India Japan
A3005 JIS H 4000
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 47.71 57.03 125.60 150.00
A [MPa] 449.612 516.408 190.761 212.968
m1 0.00434 0.00479 0.00224 0.00086
m2 0.32699 0.21274 0.07180 0.14811
m4 0.01215 0.00017 0.02483 0.00776
(continued)

2 AlMn1Mg0.5

m5 0.00267 0.00034
m7 0.17178 0.11118
m3 0.01759 0.03695
m8 0.000232 0.000247
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMn1Mg0.5 3
Fig. 3.3.5. AlMn1Mg0.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMn1Mg0.5
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
annealed - O 58…65 33.8136 0.35588 130…160 2.5591 0.83307

C0 C n3 n4
annealed - O 30…36 15.8479 0.14380 1.81118 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
Fig. 3.3.6. AlMn1Mg0.5. Cold plasticity as a function of

temperature and deformation rate. Initial state of test speci-
men: deformed
Physical properties

20 175.9 892.2 22.27 2726.9 69.4
50 179.3 904.3 22.58 2717.7
100 182.8 916.4 23.09 2708.0
(continued)

AlMn1Mg0.5 5

150 186.2 928.5 23.60 2697.9
200 189.7 940.6 24.11 2687.4
250 193.1 952.7 24.62 2676.5
300 196.6 964.8 25.14 2665.2
350 200.0 976.9 25.65 2653.5
400 203.5 989.0 26.16 2641.3
450 206.9 1001.1 26.67 2628.7
500 210.4 1013.3 27.18 2615.7
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlMn1Mg0.5
226–234.
Zhang Xin, Ming., Li Hui, Jie., et al. Transact. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 18 (2008) 1–5.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMn1 1
AlMn1

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 3103 Chem. symbol: AlMn1

elements each total
<=0.50 <=0.7 <=0.10 0.9 … <=0.30 <=0.10 <=0.20 <=0.10 Bal. Ti can <=0.05 <=0.15
1.5 partially
replace
by Zr
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 3103 AlMn1 209–1
India Japan
31000
Russia China
GOST 4784 SwAmz. 1400
Flow curves

cast state deformed state soft annealed extruding pressed hot rolled
σF0 [MPa] 37.25 46.90 116.20 135.10 144.00
A [MPa] 559.761 424.724 189.664 198.360 204.498
Effect of temperature K#
m1 –0.00491 –0.00479 –0.00189 –0.00225 –0.00203
(continued)

2 AlMn1

cast state deformed state soft annealed extruding pressed hot rolled
Effect of strain K#
m2 0.37939 0.17274 0.13484 0.16056 0.08643
m4 0.00128 –0.00017 –0.01963 0.00011 –0.01590
m5 –0.00041 –0.00034
m7 –0.35511 –0.11118
Effect of strain rate K0’_
m3 0.02381 0.01258 0.02078
m8 0.000179 0.000147
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMn1 3
Fig. 3.3.7. AlMn1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMn1
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
annealed – O 45…55 7.3596 0.66274 95…110 1.3202 0.95923
annealed crosswise – O 55….62 17.9036 0.46504 100…115 5.4286 0.66728
annealed lengthwise – O 58….64 12.4685 0.54447 100…115 0.8691 1.08074

C0 C n3 n4
annealed – O 35…45 14.3694 0.25214 5.85043 <90
annealed crosswise – O 35….45 11.7427 0.19817 5.36173 <73
annealed lengthwise – O 35…40 33.0361 0.01511 1.85404 <73

Rp ¼ A0 þ A:" n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B:" n2
A5 ¼ C0 C:"n3 :en4 ="
Physical properties

ϑ [°C] conductivity heat capacities of linear expansion ρ [kg/m3] E [GPa]
λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [10–6/K]
20 180.3 894.2 22.72 2728.6 70.0
50 185.4 906.3 23.03 2719.2
100 190.6 918.5 23.56 2709.3
150 195.7 930.6 24.08 2699.0
200 200.9 942.7 24.61 2688.3
250 206.0 954.9 25.13 2677.2
300 211.2 967.0 25.66 2665.6
350 216.3 979.1 26.18 2653.6
400 221.5 991.3 26.71 2641.2
450 226.6 1003.4 27.23 2628.3
500 231.8 1015.5 27.76 2615.0

AlMn1 5
Fig. 3.3.8. (a) initial state of test specimen: deformed. 1.11 weight-% Mn (b) initial state of
test specimen: deformed. 1.01 weight-% Mn, 0.28 weight-% Cr (c) initial state of test specimen:
deformed. 1.37 weight-% Mn, 0.60 weight-% Fe (d) initial state of test specimen: deformed.
1.11 weight-% Mn (e) initial state of test specimen: deformed. 1.01 weight-% Mn, 0.28 weight-
% Cr (f) initial state of test specimen: cast.

6 AlMn1
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.

AlMn1 7
111–117.
Noori, H., Mahmudi, R.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A – Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 38 (2007) 2040–
2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
Ryen, O., Nus, O., et al.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A - Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 37 (2006) 1999–
2006.

AlMn0.5Mg0.5 1
AlMn0.5Mg0.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 3105 Chem. symbol: AlMn0.5Mg0.5

elements each total
<=0.6 <=0.7 <=0.30 0.30 … 0.20 … <=0.20 <=0.40 <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
0.8 0.8
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 3105 AlMn0.5Mg0.5 209-1
India Japan
JIS H 4000 A3105
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 47.60 107.80
A [MPa] 582.562 200.991
m1 0.00522 0.00201
m2 0.25614 0.18904
m4 0.00072 0.01946
m5 0.00032
m7 0.17014
(continued)
2 AlMn0.5Mg0.5

m3 0.02031
m8 0.000212
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMn0.5Mg0.5 3
Fig. 3.3.9. AlMn0.5Mg0.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMn0.5Mg0.5
Physical properties

20 186.0 892.7 22.27 2715.4 69.0
50 190.9 904.8 22.58 2706.2 67.9
100 195.9 916.9 23.09 2696.6 67.5
150 200.8 929.0 23.60 2686.6 67.0
200 205.7 941.1 24.11 2676.1 66.5
250 210.7 953.3 24.62 2665.3 65.9
300 215.6 965.4 25.14 2654.0 65.3
350 220.5 977.5 25.65 2642.3 64.7
400 225.5 989.6 26.16 2630.2 64.0
450 230.4 1001.7 26.67 2617.6
500 235.3 1013.8 27.18 2604.7
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlMn0.5Mg0.5 5
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlSi1Fe 1
AlSi1Fe

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 4006 Chem. symbol: AlSi1Fe

elements each total
0.8 … 0.50 … <=0.10 <=0.05 <=0.01 <=0.20 <=0.05 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
1.2 0.8
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 4006
India Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 36.35 87.5
A [MPa] 229.358 157.790
m1 0.00415 0.00106
m2 0.16697 0.20746
m4 0.00004 0.01331
m5 0.00206
m7 0.29986
(continued)

2 AlSi1Fe

m3 0.01851
m8 0.000273
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500

F ¼ F0 A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’m8# F ¼ F0 A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’m3
[Equation (2.10), Chapter 2.3.2.1.1] [Equation (2.25), Chapter 2.3.2.2.2]

AlSi1Fe 3
Fig. 3.3.10. AlSi1Fe. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlSi1Fe
Physical properties

20 222.3 889.6 22.22 2710.4 64.6
50 225.8 901.7 22.53
100 229.3 913.7 23.06
150 232.8 925.8 23.58
200 236.3 937.9 24.11
250 239.8 950.0 24.63
300 243.2 962.0 25.16
350 246.7 974.1 25.68
400 250.2 986.2 26.21
450 253.7 998.2 26.73
500 257.2 1010.3 27.26
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Bühler, H.-E., Wagener, H.-W.: Bänd er Bleche Rohre 6 (1965) 625–630.

AlSi1Fe 5
226–234.
111–117.
Noori, H., Mahmudi, R.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A - Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 38 (2007) 2040–
2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlSi5 1
AlSi5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 4009 Chem. symbol: AlSi5

elements each total
4.5 … <=0.20 1.0 … <=0.10 0.45 … <=0.10 <=0.20 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
5.5 1.5 0.60
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 4009
India Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 47.86 115.8
A [MPa] 301.163 195.078
m1 0.00426 0.00167
m2 0.17198 0.15523
m4 0.00087 0.01765
m5 0.00071
m7 0.05627
(continued)

2 AlSi5

m3 0.02006
m8 0.000309
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500

F ¼A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’m8# F ¼A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’m3

AlSi5 3
Fig. 3.3.11. AlSi5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlSi5
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 65…73 157.04 0.72659 140…155 94.39 1.24153 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
Physical properties

20 170.1 959.7 21.93 2684.9 73.9
50 172.1 972.7 22.21 2676.0
100 174.2 985.7 22.67 2666.6
150 176.2 998.8 23.14 2656.9
200 178.3 1011.8 23.61 2646.9
250 180.3 1024.8 24.07 2636.4
300 182.4 1037.8 24.54 2625.6
350 184.4 1050.8 25.00 2614.4
400 186.5 1063.9 25.47 2602.8
450 188.5 1076.9 25.94 2590.9
500 190.6 1089.9 26.40 2578.6
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlSi5 5

226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.

6 AlSi5

Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlSi2 1
AlSi2

behaviour
Designation

elements each total
1.4 … 2.2 <=0.7 <=0.20 <=0.35 0.30 … 0.8 <=0.20 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 4014
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 39.70 99.0
A [MPa] 255.583 178.009
m1 –0.00407 –0.00152
m2 0.20704 0.18754
m4 –0.00005 –0.01532
m5 –0.00229
m7 0.25049
m3 0.01247
m8 0.000331
(continued)

2 AlSi2

Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlSi2 3

4 AlSi2
Physical properties

20 196.6 909.3 22.01 2700.5 69.0
50 199.4 921.6 22.29 2691.5
100 202.1 934.0 22.76 2682.1
150 204.9 946.3 23.22 2672.3
200 207.6 958.6 23.69 2662.1
250 210.4 971.0 24.15 2651.6
300 213.2 983.3 24.62 2640.7
350 215.9 995.7 25.08 2629.4
400 218.7 1008.0 25.55 2617.7
450 221.4 1020.3 26.01 2605.7
500 224.2 1032.7 26.48 2593.2
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlSi2 5
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlSi8 1
AlSi8

behaviour
Designation

elements each total
7.8 … 9.2 <=0,8 <=0,25 <=0.10 <=0.20 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 4044
India. Japan
Russia China
~AK 7pc
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 47.48 55.04 125.7
A [MPa] 305.583 243.755 200.596
m1 –0.00407 –0.00309 –0.00183
m2 0.20704 0.18933 0.11605
m4 –0.00005 –0.00005 –0.02091
m5 –0.00229 –0.00281
m7 0.25049 0.30286
(continued)

2 AlSi8

m3 0.01974
m8 0.000331 0.000283
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.05 … 1.5 0.05 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlSi8 3

4 AlSi8
Physical properties

20 170.1 959.7 21.93 2684.9 73.9
50 172.1 972.7 22.21 2676.0
100 174.2 985.7 22.67 2666.6
150 176.2 998.8 23.14 2656.9
200 178.3 1011.8 23.61 2646.9
250 180.3 1024.8 24.07 2636.4
300 182.4 1037.8 24.54 2625.6
350 184.4 1050.8 25.00 2614.4
400 186.5 1063.9 25.47 2602.8
450 188.5 1076.9 25.94 2590.9
500 190.6 1089.9 26.40 2578.6
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlSi8 5
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlSi10 1
AlSi10

behaviour
Designation

elements each total
9.0 … 11.0 <=0,8 <=0,30 <=0.05 <=0.05 <=0.10 <=0.20 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 4045
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 58.26 64.76 130.6
A [MPa] 543.241 432.362 195.078
m1 0.00444 0.00444 0.00183
m2 0.27908 0.12384 0.08993
m4 0.00053 0.00483 0.02308
m5 0.00149 0.00183
m7 0.17176 0.08434
m3 0.01939
m8 0.000287 0.000295
(continued)

2 AlSi10

Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlSi10 3
Bibliography

4 AlSi10
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.

AlSi10 5

111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlSi12 (A) 1
AlSi12 (A)

behaviour
Designation
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cu Zn Ti Al other impurities impurities

elements each total
11.0 … 13.0 <=0.6 <=0.30 <=0.15 <=0.05 <=0.20 <=0.15 Bal. <=0.05 <=: 0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 4047 AlSi12 209-1
India. Japan
46000 A4047
Russia China
~AK 12 1583 - 89
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 64.22 134.8
A [MPa] 465.286 199.983
m1 –0.00482 –0.00197
m2 0.12815 0.06381
m4 0.00158 –0.02525
(continued)

2 AlSi12 (A)

m5 –0.00102
m7 0.01530
m3 0.01939
m8 0.000287
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 240
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlSi12 (A) 3

4 AlSi12 (A)
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 60…70 10.1221 0.64641 125….145 6.0437 0.66667 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2

AlSi12 (A) 5
Fig. 3.3.16. AlSi12. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test

6 AlSi12 (A)
Physical properties

20 111.2 963 21.09 2678.3 71.5
50 112.9 976.1 21.40 2669.7
100 114.6 989.1 21.91 2660.7
150 116.3 1002.2 22.43 2651.3
200 118.0 1015.3 22.95 2641.4
250 119.8 1028.3 23.46 2631.2
300 121.5 1041.4 23.98 2620.5
350 123.2 1054.5 24.49 2609.4
400 124.9 1067.5 25.01 2597.9
450 126.6 1080.6 25.53 2586.0
500 128.3 1093.7 26.04 2573.7
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlSi12 (A) 7
Kang, C.G., Seo, P.K., Bae, J.W.: Key Eng. Mater. 340/34(2007) 611–618.
226–234.
Puchi-Cabrera.E.S.: Mater. Sci. Technol. 22 (2006) 699–705.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg1 (C) 1
AlMg1 (C)

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5005A Chem. symbol: AlMg1

elements each total
<=0.30 <=0.45 <=0.05 <=0.15 0.7 … 1.1 <=0.10 <=0.20 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5005A
India. Japan
51000–A A5005
Russia China
1510
Flow curves

cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed cast strip
σF0 [MPa] 56.54 82.87 145.9 167.75
A [MPa] 524.707 502.222 208.092 239.299
m1 –0.00458 –0.00458 –0.00190 –0.00146
m2 0.23490 0.18068 0.04796 0.16912
m4 0.00004 0.00720 –0.02114 0.00423
(continued)

2 AlMg1 (C)

m5 –0.00058 –0.00079
m7 –0.14777 –0.07223
m3 0.00216 0.00892
m8 0.000197 0.000197
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg1 (C) 3
Fig. 3.4.1. AlMg1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg1 (C)
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 40…50 26.7544 0.40772 110…130 1.5034 0.93741
temper – H111 100…120 11.3980 0.59175 180…200 6.6092 0.55163

C0 C n3 n4
soft annealed – O 22….28 12.7274 0.15832 -5.33580 <90
temper – H111 18….22 14.4990 0.04207 -9.76302 <70

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
Fig. 3.4.2. AlMg1. Cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test specimen:
deformed 0.94% Mg. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed 1.055 Mg.

AlMg1 (C) 5
Physical properties

20 202.7 893.1 22.72 2703.4 69.5
50 207.5 905.2 23.03 2694.1 67.9
100 212.2 917.3 23.56 2684.3 67.5
150 217.0 929.5 24.08 2674.1 67.0
200 221.7 941.6 24.61 2663.5 66.5
250 226.5 953.7 25.13 2652.4 65.9
300 231.2 965.8 25.66 2641.0 65.3
350 236.0 977.9 26.18 2629.1 64.7
400 240.7 990.0 26.71 2616.8 64.0
450 245.5 1002.2 27.23 2604.0
500 250.2 1014.3 27.76 2590.8
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlMg1 (C)
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg1Mn0.5 1
AlMg1Mn0.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5006 Chem. symbol: AlMg1Mn0.5

elements each total
<=0.40 <=0,8 <=0,10 0.4 … 0.8 … <=0.10 <=0.25 0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
0.8 1.3
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5006
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 72.74 209.7
A [MPa] 616.343 299.299
m1 –0.00334 –0.00146
m2 0.52699 0.16912
m4 0.02215 0.00423
m5 –0.00267
m7 –0.10178
(continued)

2 AlMg1Mn0.5

m3 0.00892
m8 0.000329
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg1Mn0.5 3
Fig. 3.4.3. AlMg1Mn0.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg1Mn0.5
Physical properties

20 184.9 892.0 2710.0 69.1
50 189.7 904.1
100 194.4 916.2
150 199.2 928.3
200 203.9 940.4
250 208.7 952.5
300 213.4 964.6
350 218.2 976.7
400 222.9 988.8
450 227.7 1000.9
500 232.4 1013.0
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlMg1Mn0.5 5
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg1.5Mn0.5 1
AlMg1.5Mn0.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5016 Chem. symbol: AlMg1.5Mn0.5

elements each total
<=0.25 <=0,6 <=0,20 0.4 … 1.4 … <=0.10 <=0.15 0.05 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
0.7 1.9
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5016
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves
Hot deformation Cold deformation

State of material cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed hot rolled
σF0 [MPa] 90.43 165.04
A [MPa] 690.234 232.987
m1 –0.00469 –0.00119
m2 0.17346 0.15423
m4 –0.00034 0.00060
m5 –0.00112
m7 –0.13965
(continued)

2 AlMg1.5Mn0.5
Hot deformation Cold deformation

State of material cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed hot rolled
m3 0.01195
m8 0.000329
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
_
’½1=s 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg1.5Mn0.5 3
Fig. 3.4.4. AlMg1.5Mn0.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg1.5Mn0.5
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 95…105 25.0700 0.45456 180…200 6.8769 0.62380 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A "n1 Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2
Fig. 3.4.5. AlMg1.5Mn0.5. Hot plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
specimen: deformed 1.64% Mg, 0.68% Mn. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed 1.51% Mg, 0.40% Mn.
Physical properties

20 171.0 895.5 22.86 2701.1 69.6
50 176.3 907.7 23.15 2691.7 68.9
100 181.7 919.8 23.65 2681.9 67.7
(continued)

AlMg1.5Mn0.5 5

150 187.0 932.0 24.15 2671.7 66.3
200 192.3 944.1 24.65 2661.1 64.6
250 197.6 956.3 25.15 2650.1 62.7
300 203.0 968.4 25.65 2638.7 60.6
350 208.3 980.6 26.15 2626.9 58.3
400 213.6 992.7 26.65 2614.7 55.7
450 218.9 1004.9 27.15 2602.1
500 224.3 1017.0 27.65 2589.1
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlMg1.5Mn0.5
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg2MnFeCu 1
AlMg2MnFeCu

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5017 Chem. symbol: AlMg2MnFeCu
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.40 <=0.7 0.18 … 0.28 0.6 … 0.8 1.9 … 2.2
<=0.09 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5017
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 104.74 110.89 209.7
A [MPa] 1069.506 1089.506 299.299
m1 –0.00440 –0.00420 –0.00146
m2 0.29195 0.29821 0.16912
m4 –0.00057 –0.00013 0.00423
m5 –0.00285 –0.00288
m7 0.02193 0.01324
(continued)

2 AlMg2MnFeCu

m3 0.00892
m8 0.000239 0.000207
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg2MnFeCu 3
Fig. 3.4.6. AlMg2MnFeCu. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg2MnFeCu
Fig. 3.4.7. AlMg2MnFeCu. Hot plasticity of as a function

of temperature and deformation rate. Initial state of test
specimen: deformed.
Physical properties

20 165.6 895.0 22.87 2699.6 69.3
50 171.8 907.1 23.18 2690.2
100 178.1 919.3 23.70 2680.4
150 184.3 931.4 24.21 2670.2
200 190.5 943.6 24.73 2659.5
250 196.8 955.7 25.25 2648.5
300 203.0 967.9 25.76 2637.0
350 209.2 980.0 26.28 2625.1
400 215.5 992.1 26.79 2612.8
450 221.7 1004.3 27.31 2600.1
500 227.9 1016.4 27.83 2586.9
Bibliography

AlMg2MnFeCu 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.
111–117.

6 AlMg2MnFeCu
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg5 1
AlMg5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5019 Chem. symbol: AlMg5
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.40 <=0.50 <=0.10 0.10 … 0.6 4.5 … 5.6 <=0.20
<=0.20 <=0.20 Bal. (Mn+Cr) 0.1 0.6 <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5019 AlMg5 209–1
India. Japan
55000
Russia China
SwAMg5 1550 GOST 4784
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 159.86 269.2
A [MPa] 1186.117 427.949
m1 0.00392 0.00126
(continued)

2 AlMg5

m2 0.36707 0.18207
m4 0.02628 0.00394
m5 0.00217
m7 0.14186
m3 0.00952
m8 0.000264
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
’ 0.08 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg5 3

4 AlMg5
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
tempered – H111 200…240 21.5568 0.57116 320…360 8.5167 0.71287
soft annealed crosswise – O 125…135 36.4712 0.46527 250….275 5.4132 0.79875
soft annealed lengthwise – O 125…135 40.7792 0.41568 250.…275 7.3001 0.69383

C0 C n3 n4
tempered – H111 18.…22 13.9942 0.02396 5.29999 <40
soft annealed crosswise – O 18….25 12.3466 0.18002 7.46015 <31
soft annealed lengthwise – O 18….25 4.8752 0.41759 1.50998 <32

Fig. 3.4.9. AlMg5. Cold plasticity as a function of tem-

perature. Initial state of test specimen: deformed.

AlMg5 5
Physical properties

ϑ [ [°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [106/K] ρ [kg/m3] E [GPa]
20 108.3 902.8 23.26 2660.3 70.6
50 116.8 915.0 23.57 2650.9 69.6
100 125.4 927.3 24.09 2641.1 68.2
150 133.9 939.5 24.60 2630.8 66.5
200 142.4 951.8 25.12 2620.2 64.5
250 150.9 964.0 25.64 2609.1 62.0
300 159.4 976.3 26.16 2597.7 59.2
350 168.0 988.5 26.68 2585.8 56.0
400 176.5 1000.8 27.20 2573.5 52.5
450 185.0 1013.0 27.72 2560.8
500 193.5 1025.3 28.23 2547.6
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlMg5
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg2Mn0.8 1
AlMg2Mn0.8

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5049 Chem. symbol: AlMg2Mn0.8
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.40 <=0.50 <=0.10 0.50 … 1.1 1.6 …s 2.5 <=0.30
<=0.20 <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5049
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 88.31 187.51 192.85
A [MPa] 973.775 300.044 338.160
m1 –0.00496 –0.00164 –0.00142
m2 0.28167 0.18207 0.04689
m4 –0.00054 –0.00394 –0.02481
m5 –0.00087
m7 –0.47919
(continued)

2 AlMg2Mn0.8

m3 0.00887 0.02238
m8 0.000346
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg2Mn0.8 3
Fig. 3.4.10. AlMg2Mn0.8. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg2Mn0.8
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
temper – H111 80…90 49.1144 0.34327 190…230 5.7430 0.68421
Mechanical properties after cold deformation (2nd part)

C0 C n3 n4
temper – H111 20 …25 31.7833 0.08400 9.42292 <60

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="

AlMg2Mn0.8 5
Fig. 3.4.11. AlMg2Mn0.8. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state
of test specimen: deformed. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed 2.18% Mg, 0.85% Mn, 0.32% Fe. (c) initial
state of test specimen: deformed 2.13% Mg, 0.88% Mn, 0.40% Fe.

6 AlMg2Mn0.8
Physical properties

20 145.9 897.7 22.87 2701.9 70.4
50 152.9 909.9 23.18 2692.5
100 159.9 922.1 23.70 2682.7
150 166.9 934.2 24.21 2672.5
200 173.9 946.4 24.73 2661.8
250 180.9 958.6 25.25 2650.7
300 187.9 970.8 25.76 2639.3
350 194.9 983.0 26.28 2627.4
400 201.9 995.1 26.79 2615.0
450 208.9 1007.3 27.31 2602.3
500 215.9 1019.5 27.83 2589.1
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlMg2Mn0.8 7
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg1.5 1
AlMg1.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5050 Chem. symbol: AlMg1.5

elements each total
<=0.40 <=0.70 <=0.20 <=0.10 1.1 … <=0.10 <=0.25 0.09 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
1–6
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5050
India. Japan
51000–B
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 76.06 154.6
A [MPa] 403.224 217.519
m1 0.00438 0.00097
m2 0.08390 0.15361
m4 0.00057 0.00040
m5 0.00189
m7 0.32614
(continued)
2 AlMg1.5

m3 0.01201
m8 0.000350
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
_
’[1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg1.5 3
Fig. 3.4.12. AlMg1.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg1.5
Fig. 3.4.13. AlMg1.5. Cold plasticity as a function

of temperature and deformation rate. Initial state of test
specimen: deformed.
Bibliography
Lehnert, W., Spittel, M., Cuong, N.D.: Aluminium (Düsseldorf ) 70 (1994) 708–712.
Lehnert, W., Spittel, M., Cuong, N.D.: Aluminium (Düsseldorf ) 71 (1995) 76–79.
Spittel, T., Spittel, M., Teichert, H.: Aluminium (Düsseldorf ) 70 (1994) 68–75.
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlMg1.5 5
Lin Qi, Quan, Peng, Dashu, et al.: Light Met. Age 65 (2007) 46–49.
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg2.5 1
AlMg2.5

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5052 Chem. symbol: AlMg2.5

elements each total
<=0.25 <=0.4 <0.10 <0.10 2.2 … 0.15 … <0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
2.8 0.35
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5052
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 109.38 109.92 97.48 114.91
A [MPa] 530.561 613.862 153.939 179.756
m1 0.00359 0.00387 0.00182 0.00283
m2 0.14472 0.17133 0.22160 0.18870
m4 0.00137 0.00025 0.00210 0.00571
m5 0.00046 0.00086
m7 0.25909 0.16654
(continued)

2 AlMg2.5

m3 0.02950 0.04334
m8 0.000268 0.000298
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg2.5 3
Fig. 3.4.14. AlMg2.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg2.5
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
tempered O 90…105 23.2856 0.46130 170….185 2.7542 0.84156
State of material Elongation to fracture ΔA5[%] Validity ε [%]

C0 C n3 n4
tempered O 20….26 18.3993 0.06903 4.05272 <90


AlMg2.5 5
Fig. 3.4.15. AlMg2.5. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
specimen: deformed 2.47% Mg, 0.21% Cr, 0.21% Fe. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed 2.55% Mg, 0.17% Cr,
0.22% Fe. (c) initial state of test specimen: deformed. (d) initial state of test specimen: deformed.

6 AlMg2.5
Physical properties

20 142.6 900 22.89 2683.4 70.6
50 148.6 912.3 23.20 2674.1 69.5
100 154.6 924.6 23.71 2664.3 67.6
150 160.5 936.9 24.23 2654.1 65.6
200 166.5 949.2 24.75 2643.6 63.6
250 172.5 961.6 25.26 2632.6 61.4
300 178.5 973.9 25.78 2621.1 59.1
350 184.5 986.2 26.29 2609.3 56.8
400 190.5 998.5 26.81 2597.1 54.3
450 196.5 1010.8 27.33 2584.4
500 202.4 1023.1 27.84 2571.3
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlMg2.5 7
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg4.5Mn0.7 1
AlMg4.5Mn0.7

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5083 Chem. symbol: AlMg4.5Mn0.7

elements each total
<=0.40 <=0.40 <=0.10 0.40 4.0 … 0.05 … <=0.25 <=0.15 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
… 1.0 4.9 0.25
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5083 AlMg4.5Mn0.7 209–1
India. Japan
54300 A5083 H 4040
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 112.00 115.53 273.40 294.7 276.4
A [MPa] 684.617 645.439 388.355 392.936 399.298
m1 0.00388 0.00365 0.00079 0.00036 0.00055
m2 0.12847 0.14265 0.06622 0.14130 0.15446
m4 0.01013 0.00920 0.03649 0.00080 0.00920
m5 0.00098 0.00106
m7 0.19891 0.20392
(continued)
2 AlMg4.5Mn0.7

m3 0.03918 0.01600 0.03415
m8 0.000212 0.000239
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg4.5Mn0.7 3
Fig. 3.4.16. AlMg4.5Mn0.7. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg4.5Mn0.7
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed O 125…140 55.5649 0.36938 275…300 4.2223 0.80457

C0 C n3 n4
soft annealed O 17…25 9.4047 0.17479 3.04193 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
Physical properties

20 100.3 902.6 23.39 2673.6 71.5
50 107.9 914.8 23.70 2664.1
100 115.4 927.1 24.21 2654.2 68.6
150 123.0 939.3 24.73 2643.8
200 130.6 951.6 25.25 2633.1 60.7
250 138.1 963.8 25.76 2621.9
300 145.7 976.1 26.28 2610.4 50.3
350 153.2 988.3 26.79 2598.4
400 160.8 1000.6 27.31 2586.0
450 168.4 1012.8 27.83 2573.2
500 175.9 1025.1 28.34 2559.9
Bibliography

AlMg4.5Mn0.7 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Zhang, Cunsheng., Leotoing, L., Guines, D., Ragneau, E.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 209 (2009)
3849–3858.
Zhang Xin, Ming., Li Hui, Jie, et al.: Transact. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 18 (2008) 1–5.
Lin Qi, Quan., Peng, Dashu, et al.: Light Met. Age 65 (2007) 46–49.
226–234.
Puchi-Cabrera, E.S.,: Mater. Sci. Technol. 22 (2006) 699–705.
111–117.

6 AlMg4.5Mn0.7
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg4 1
AlMg4

behaviour
Designation

elements each total
<=0.40 <=0.45 <=0.25 0.20 … 3.8 … <=0.15 <=0.40 <=0.15 Bal. 0.05% <=0.05 <=0.15
0.50 4.8 Zr
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5086 AlMg4 209 - 1
India. Japan
Russia China
1540
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 115.29 122.67 254.7
A [MPa] 800.221 731.034 414.786
m1 0.00375 0.00404 0.00134
m2 0.27293 0.18061 0.16903
m4 0.00011 0.00013 0.00006
m5 0.00197 0.00117
m7 0.09881 0.14230
(continued)
2 AlMg4

m3 0.01028
m8 0.000300 0.000330
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg4 3

4 AlMg4
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed O 100…125 57.6120 0.35699 250….290 5.4508 0.73794

C0 C n3 n4
soft annealed O 20….26 13.9153 0.12595 3.96046 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="
Fig. 3.4.18. AlMg4. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test

AlMg4 5
Physical properties

20 121.8 900 22.81 2674.7 70.3
50 130.1 912.3 23.35 2665.3 69.3
100 138.4 924.6 23.89 2655.5 68.0
150 146.7 936.9 24.42 2645.3 66.3
200 155.0 949.2 24.96 2634.6 64.2
250 163.3 961.6 25.50 2623.6 61.8
300 171.6 973.9 26.04 2612.0 59.0
350 179.9 986.2 26.57 2600.1 55.8
400 188.2 998.5 27.11 2587.7 52.3
450 196.5 1010.8 27.65 2574.9
500 204.8 1023.1 28.19 2561.6
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlMg4
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg5Mn 1
AlMg5Mn

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 5182 Chem. symbol: AlMg5Mn

elements each total
<=0.20 <=0.35 <=0.15 0.20 … 4.0 … <=0.10 <=0.25 <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
0.50 5.0
Int. Rec. ISO

EN 5182
India. Japan
H 4000 A5182
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 151.68 155.37 218.40 229.64 300.03
A [MPa] 795.206 710.485 370.483 367.907 441.365
m1 –0.00317 –0.00308 –0.00063 –0.00080 –0.00043
m2 0.24648 0.23542 0.06787 0.0418 0.15400
m4 –0.00413 –0.00175 –0.04186 –0.03734 0.00070
m5 –0.00264 –0.00178
m7 –0.02486 –0.05836
(continued)

2 AlMg5Mn

m3 0.02476 0.00550 –0.01320
m8 0.000350 0.000324
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’m8# F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’_ m3

AlMg5Mn 3
Fig. 3.4.19. AlMg5Mn. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg5Mn
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 150…160 14.2503 0.66871 255…280 2.6616 0.95369

C0 C n3 n4
soft annealed – O 20…25 3.9590 0.34683 3.13167 <93

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="

AlMg5Mn 5
Fig. 3.4.20. AlMg5Mn. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of
test specimen: deformed. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed; 4.57 % Mg 0.65 % Mn. (c) initial state of test
specimen deformed; 4.71 % Mg 0.64 % Mn.

6 AlMg5Mn
Physical properties

20 123.5 904.9 23.06 2664.1 71.3
50 132.3 917.2 23.38 2654.8 70.3
100 141.0 929.5 23.92 2645.0 68.9
150 149.7 941.7 24.46 2634.8 67.2
200 158.4 954.0 25.00 2624.1 65.1
250 167.1 966.3 25.54 2613.1 62.7
300 175.8 978.6 26.08 2601.6 59.8
350 184.6 990.8 26.62 2589.6 56.6
400 193.3 1003.1 27.15 2577.3 53.0
450 202.0 1015.4 27.69 2564.5
500 210.7 1027.7 28.23 2551.3
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlMg5Mn 7
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg3 1
AlMg3

behaviour
Designation
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.40 <=0.40 <=0.10 <=0.50 2.6 … 3.6 <=0.30
<=0.20 <=0.15 Bal. (Mn+Cr): 0.1 …0.6 % <=0.05 <=0.15
Mn min. 0,2%
Cr min 0,1%
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 5754 AlMg3 209 1
India. Japan
Russia China
1530
AMg 3 4784 74
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 104.21 112.24 170.64 191.8 226.5
A [MPa] 573.261 498.568 295.847 270.102 302.317
m1 0.00388 0.00371 0.00116 0.00098 0.00102
(continued)

2 AlMg3

m2 0.14169 0.09911 0.14087 0.11837 0.18610
m4 0.00166 0.00059 0.02164 0.00380 0.01230
m5 0.00111 0.00059
m7 0.01590 0.04065
m3 0.00531 0.00533 0.01510
m8 0.000214 0.000275
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg3 3

4 AlMg3
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
tempered H111 95…110 43.2995 0.38797 220…240 3.2069 0.83673
tempered H111 120…130 15.2471 0.69756 260….275 3.6758 0.90762
soft annealed crosswise - O 80…95 35.1537 0.45708 190…210 5.6560 0.71568
soft annealed lengthwise - O 80…95 36.6936 0.43252 190…210 6.2403 0.68511

C0 C n3 n4
tempered H111 20…25 10.7518 0.13955 2.43746 <90
tempered H111 22…28 34.9875 0.12649 8.28609 <80
soft annealed crosswise O 25…30 36.6968 0.07812 6.73141 <56
soft annealed lengthwise O 25…30 44.5023 0.12731 8.69485 <56


AlMg3 5
Fig. 3.4.22. AlMg3. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
specimen: deformed.

6 AlMg3
Physical properties

20 144.3 902.7 23.07 2679.1 70.4
50 152.1 914.9 23.38 2669.7
100 159.8 927.2 23.90 2659.9
150 167.6 939.4 24.41 2649.7
200 175.3 951.7 24.93 2639.0
250 183.1 963.9 25.45 2628.0
300 190.8 976.2 25.96 2616.5
350 198.6 988.4 26.48 2604.6
400 206.3 1000.7 26.99 2592.3
450 214.1 1012.9 27.51 2579.6
500 221.8 1025.2 28.03 2566.5
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Bühler, H.-E., Höpter, G., Löwen, J.: Metall (Berlin) 25 (1971) 162–164.
Zhang, Cunsheng., Leotoing, L., Guines, D., Ragneau, E.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 209 (2009)
3849–3858.

AlMg3 7
Lin Qi, Quan., Peng, Dashu, et al.: Light Met. Age 65 (2007) 46–49.
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.
Ocenasek, V., Sedlacek, V., Slama, P.: Conference Paper, METAL 97, Vol.3, Ostrava, 1997, p. 120–127.

AlSiMg 1
AlSiMg

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 6005 Chem. symbol: AlSiMg
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
0.6 … 0.9 <=0.35 <=0.10 <=0.10 0.40 … 0.6 <=0.10
<=0.10 <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 6005 AlSiMg 2091
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 60.63 132.1
A [MPa] 258.524 193.919
m1 0.00319 0.00153
m2 0.17255 0.17323
m4 0.00053 0.00164
m5 0.00024
m7 0.22237
(continued)

2 AlSiMg

m3 0.01269
m8 0.000282
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlSiMg 3
Fig. 3.5.1. AlSiMg. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlSiMg
State of material Tensile strength ΔRm [MPa] Validity ε [%]

B0 B n2
tempered H111 180…200 5.2829 0.70494 <80
Yield stress:
Rp ¼ A0 þ A "n1
Fig. 3.5.2. AlSiMg. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
Physical properties

20 205.7 909.8 22.55 2696.4 70.6
50 210.4 922.1 22.87 2687.1
100 215.2 934.5 23.42 2677.5
150 220.0 946.8 23.96 2667.3
(continued)
AlSiMg 5

200 224.8 959.2 24.50 2656.8
250 229.6 971.5 25.05 2645.7
300 234.3 983.9 25.59 2634.3
350 239.1 996.2 26.13 2622.4
400 243.9 1008.6 26.68 2610.1
450 248.7 1020.9 27.22 2597.3
500 253.5 27.76 2584.1
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlSiMg
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlSi1MgCuMn 1
AlSi1MgCuMn

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 6056 Chem. symbol: AlSi1MgCuMn
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
0.70 … 1.30 <=0.50 0.50 … 1.10 0.40 … 1.00 0.60 … 1.20 <=0.25
0.10 … 0.70 Bal. (Zr + Ti) 0.20 <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 6056
India. Japan
64423
Russia China
Flow curves

cast state deformed state recrystallized extruded hot rolled
σF0 [MPa] 68.03 155.6
A [MPa] 376.151 242.066
m1 0.00287 0.00168
(continued)

2 AlSi1MgCuMn

cast state deformed state recrystallized extruded hot rolled
m2 0.45366 0.10762
m4 0.03633 0.01430
m5 0.00231
m7 0.09110
m3 0.00766
m8 0.000235
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlSi1MgCuMn 3
Fig. 3.5.3. AlSi1MgCuMn. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlSi1MgCuMn
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed 95 26.0808 0.45194 146 23.7708 0.41417 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal Mean specific Average coefficiENt Density Young's-modulus

20 158.5 899.6 22.08 2727.9 70.6
50 166.0 911.8 22.45 2718.7
100 173.6 924.0 23.06 2709.0
150 181.1 936.2 23.67 2698.8
200 188.6 948.4 24.28 2688.2
250 196.1 960.6 24.90 2677.0
300 203.6 972.8 25.51 2665.3
350 211.1 985.0 26.12 2653.1
400 218.6 997.2 26.73 2640.4
450 226.2 1009.5 27.35 2627.2
500 233.7 1021.7 27.96 2613.5
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlSi1MgCuMn 5

226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.

6 AlSi1MgCuMn

Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMgSi 1
AlMgSi

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 6060 Chem. symbol: AlMgSi
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
0.30 … 0.6 0.10 … 0.30 <=0.10 <=0.10 0.35 … 0.6 <=0.05
<=0.15 <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 6060 AlMgSi 209-1
India. Japan
Russia China
identical in all other national standards
Flow curves

cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed extruded
σF0 [MPa] 66.45 156.99
A [MPa] 472.941 242.066
m1 0.00478 0.00128
m2 0.10664 0.10762
m4 0.00747 0.01430
m5 0.00101
m7 0.00274
(continued)

2 AlMgSi

cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed extruded
m3 0.00766
m8 0.000335
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMgSi 3
Fig. 3.5.4. AlMgSi. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMgSi
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
tempered T4 100…110 15.4355 0.55928 140…180 5.2829 0.70494 <90

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2

AlMgSi 5
Fig. 3.5.5. AlMnSi. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
specimen: deformed 0.68% Mg, 0.30% Si, 0.27% Fe. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed 1.09% Mg, 0.58%
Si, 0.27% Fe. (c) initial state of test specimen: deformed. (d) initial state of test specimen: deformed.

6 AlMgSi
Physical properties
Temperature Thermal Mean specific Average coefficient of Density Young's-modulus

conductivity heat capacities linear expansion
20 211.6 904.1 22.55 2698.8 69.9
50 215.8 916.4 22.87 2689.5
100 220.0 928.6 23.42 2679.8
150 224.1 940.9 23.96 2669.7
200 228.3 953.2 24.50 2659.1
250 232.4 965.4 25.05 2648.1
300 236.6 977.7 25.59 2636.6
350 240.7 990.0 26.13 2624.7
400 244.9 1002.2 26.68 2612.4
450 249.0 1014.5 27.22 2599.6
500 253.2 1026.8 27.76 2586.4
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlMgSi 7
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.
Metallformung der TU BA, 2007,p.293-311.

AlMg1SiCu 1
AlMg1SiCu

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 6061 Chem. symbol: AlMg1SiCu
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
0.40 … 0.80 <=0.7 0.15 … 0.40 <=0.15 0.8 … 1.2 0.04 … 0.35
<=0.25 <=0.15 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN6061 AlMg1SiCu 209–1
India. Japan
65028 A6061 H4180
Russia China
4784 1340
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 63.46 66.45 152.26 173.80
A [MPa] 407.755 408.753 232.495 250.742
m1 0.00411 0.00397 0.00141 0.00128
(continued)

2 AlMg1SiCu

m2 0.19425 0.19168 0.08185 0.16992
m4 0.00077 0.00008 0.02655 0.00073
m5 0.00082 0.00094
m7 0.15777 0.13063
Effect of strain rate Kj_
m3 0.02497 0.01840
m8 0.000293 0.000285
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8# F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’m3

AlMg1SiCu 3
Fig. 3.5.6. AlMg1Si. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg1SiCu
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
tempered – H13 110…120 1.5603 0.99407 150…170 0.8402 1.08380
soft annealed – O 70…80 17.3056 0.51415 110…120 48.4479 0.23582

C0 C n3 n4
tempered – H13 25…30 2356.847 0.88499 60.1968 <93
soft annealed – O <90

RP ¼ A0 þ A "n1 Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2 A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="

AlMg1SiCu 5
Fig. 3.5.7. AlMg1SiCu. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of

6 AlMg1SiCu
Physical properties

20 185.9 898.2 22.08 2704.8 68.8
50 188.2 910.4 22.45 2695.7
100 191.6 922.6 23.06 2686.1 65.8
150 197.3 934.8 23.67 2676.0
200 203.1 946.9 24.28 2665.4 60.3
250 208.8 959.1 24.90 2654.3
300 214.5 971.3 25.51 2642.7 52.4
350 220.2 983.5 26.12 2630.6
400 226.0 995.7 26.73 2618.0
450 231.7 1007.9 27.35 2604.9
500 237.4 1020.1 27.96 2591.4
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlMg1SiCu 7
226–234.
Zolotorevsky, N.Yu., Solonin, A.N., Churymov, A.Yu., Zolotorevsky, V.S.: Mater. Sci. Eng. A 502
(2009) 111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg0.7Si 1
AlMg0.7Si

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 6063 Chem. symbol: AlMg0.7Si
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
0.20 … 0.6 <=0.35 <=0.10 <=0.10 0.45 … 0.9 <=0.10
<=0.10 <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN6063 AlMg0.7Si 209–1
India. Japan
∼63400 H 4080 A6063
Russia China
Flow curves

cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed warm precidipation hardening
σF0 [MPa] 77.3 142.5 287.66
A [MPa] 300.98 198.555 376.135
m1 0.00321 0.00158 0.00196
m2 0.10584 0.03715 0.03264
m4 0.00006 0.02606 0.01934
m5 0.00168
m7 0.11905
(continued)

2 AlMg0.7Si

cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed warm precidipation hardening
m3 0.01998 0.01680
m8 0.000240
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg0.7Si 3
Fig. 3.5.8. AlMg0.7Si. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg0.7Si
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed T1 95…105 23.1057 0.35800 140….155 17.6944 0.31879 <90
hot tempered T4 135…150 61.1288 0.34575 175…190 39.4798 0.42185 <70

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2
Fig. 3.5.9. AlMg0.7Si. Hot plasticity as a function of tem-

deformed.
Physical properties

20 205.6 903.8 22.55 2697.6 70.6
50 209.8 916.1 22.87 2688.3 69.9
100 214.0 928.3 23.42 2678.6 68.7
150 218.2 940.6 23.96 2668.5 67.2
200 222.4 952.9 24.50 2657.9 65.5
250 226.6 965.1 25.05 2646.9 63.6
300 230.9 977.4 25.59 2635.5 61.5
350 235.1 989.6 26.13 2623.6 59.1
(continued)

AlMg0.7Si 5

400 239.3 1001.9 26.68 2611.2 56.5
450 243.5 1014.2 27.22 2598.5
500 247.7 1026.4 27.76 2585.3
Bibliography
Hirsch, J.: Conference Paper MEFORM 2000, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut f ür Metallformung der TU
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Institut f ür Metallformung der TU BA, 1998, Paper Nr.3, 18 pages.
226–234.

6 AlMg0.7Si
(2009) 111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlSi1MgMn 1
AlSi1MgMn

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 6082 Chem. symbol: AlSi1MgMn
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
0.7 … 1.3 <=0.50 <=0.10 0.10 … 0.45 0.6 … 1.2 <=0.10
<=0.20 <=0.15 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 6082 AlSi1MgMn 209–1
India. Japan
64430
Russia China
4784
~AD 35
Flow curves

cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed hot precipitation hardening
σF0 [MPa] 64.46 144 384.6
A [MPa] 250.98 215.404 432.674
m1 –0.00321 –0.00168 –0.00088
(continued)

2 AlSi1MgMn

cast state deformed state recrystallized soft annealed hot precipitation hardening
m2 0.10584 0.16992 0.03210
m4 –0.00006 0.00073 –0.00181
m5 –0.00168
m7 0.11905
m3 0.00646 –0.00351
m8 0.000240
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 # F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ’_ m3

AlSi1MgMn 3
Fig. 3.5.10. AlSi1MgMn. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlSi1MgMn
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 95…110 7.0940 0.64728 130…140 1.3156 0.99460
hot tempered – T4 130…160 77.5217 0.31598 200…225 89.8709 0.26605

C0 C n3 n4
soft annealed – O 24…30 6.1266 0.24479 1.89396 <94
hot tempered – T4 <60

Fig. 3.5.11. AlSi1MgMn. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of

AlSi1MgMn 5
Physical properties

20 194.2 907.5 22.55 2699.0 69.7
50 201.3 919.8 22.87 2689.8
100 208.5 932.1 23.42 2680.1
150 215.6 944.4 23.96 2670.0
200 222.7 956.8 24.50 2659.4
250 229.9 969.1 25.05 2648.4
300 237.0 981.4 25.59 2636.9
350 244.2 993.7 26.13 2625.0
400 251.3 1006.0 26.68 2612.7
450 258.4 1018.3 27.22 2599.9
500 265.6 1030.6 27.76 2586.7
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlSi1MgMn
226–234.
(2009) 111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

E–AlMgSi0.7 1
E–AlMgSi0.7

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 6201 Chem. symbol: E–AlMgSi0.7

elements each total
0.50 … <=0.50 <=0.10 <=0.03 0.6 … <=0.03 <=0.10 Bal. 0.06 B <=0.05 <=0.15
1.3 0.9
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 6201
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

cast state continuous casting homogenized soft annealed hot rolled
σF0 [MPa] 69.32 67.41 81.70 157.1
A [MPa] 985.875 588.278 936.454 234.230
m1 –0.00664 –0.00541 –0.00683 –0.00172
m2 0.13744 0.13245 –0.02367 0.17515
m4 0.00543 0.00755 –0.00457 0.00159
m5 0.00017 –0.00006 0.00063
m7 –0.30511 –0.10175 –0.11571
(continued)

2 E–AlMgSi0.7

cast state continuous casting homogenized soft annealed hot rolled
m3 0.00972
m8 0.000312 0.000260 0.000295
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 0.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


E–AlMgSi0.7 3
Fig. 3.5.12. E-AlMgSi0.7. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 E–AlMgSi0.7
Physical properties

20 202.6 904.6 22.55 2694.6 69.7
50 208.0 916.9 22.87 2685.4
100 213.5 929.1 23.42 2675.7
150 219.0 941.4 23.96 2665.5
200 224.5 953.7 24.50 2655.0
250 230.0 966.0 25.05 2644.0
300 235.4 978.2 25.59 2632.5
350 240.9 990.5 26.13 2620.7
400 246.4 1002.8 26.68 2608.3
450 251.9 1015.1 27.22 2595.6
500 257.4 1027.3 27.76 2582.4
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

E–AlMgSi0.7 5
226–234.
(2009) 111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlMg0.7Si 1
AlMg0.7Si

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 6463 Chem. symbol: AlMg0.7Si

elements each total
0.20 … <=0.15 <=0.20 <=0.05 0.45 … <=0.05 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
0.60 0.9
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 6463 AlMg0.7Si 209 - 1
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 61.01 154.1
A [MPa] 168.924 216.974
m1 –0.00245 –0.00153
m2 0.18147 0.22771
m4 0.00840 0.01737
m5 –0.00068
m7 –0.05636
(continued)

2 AlMg0.7Si

m3 0.01696
m8 0.000355
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlMg0.7Si 3
Fig. 3.5.13. AlMg0.7Si. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlMg0.7Si
Fig. 3.5.14. AlMg0.7Si. Hot plasticity as a function of

temperature and deformation rate. Initial state of test speci-
men: deformed.
Physical properties

20 204.6 909.6 22.08 2694.4 72.0
50 208.3 921.9 22.45 2685.3
100 212.0 934.3 23.06 2675.8
150 215.7 946.6 23.67 2665.7
200 219.5 959.0 24.28 2655.1
250 223.2 971.3 24.90 2644.1
300 226.9 983.6 25.51 2632.5
350 230.6 996.0 26.12 2620.5
400 234.4 1008.3 26.73 2608.0
450 238.1 1020.7 27.35 2594.9
500 241.8 1033.0 27.96 2581.4
Bibliography

AlMg0.7Si 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.
(2009) 111–117.

6 AlMg0.7Si
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn 1
AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 7005 Chem. symbol: AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn

elements each total
<=0.35 <=0.40 <=0.10 0.20 1.0 … 0.06 … 4.0 … 0.01 … Bal-. Zr: 0.08 <=0.05 <=0.15
… 0.7 1.8 0.20 5.0 0.06 … 0.20
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 7005 AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn 209-1
India. Japan
74530 H 4100 A7N01
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 98.09 210
A [MPa] 486.755 309.551
m1 0.00442 0.00166
m2 0.00499 0.06814
m4 0.00764 0.02377
m5 0.00021
m7 0.11513
(continued)
2 AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn

m3 0.01728
m8 0.000297
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn 3
Fig. 3.5.16. AlZn4.5Mg1.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn
Physical properties

20 166.4 875.9 22.77 2781.8 70.5
50 167.9 887.8 23.08 2772.2
100 169.4 899.7 23.60 2762.1
150 170.9 911.6 24.11 2751.6
200 172.4 923.4 24.63 2740.7
250 173.9 935.3 25.15 2729.3
300 175.4 947.2 25.66 2717.6
350 176.8 959.1 26.18 2705.3
400 178.3 971.0 26.69 2692.7
450 179.8 982.9 27.21 2679.6
500 181.3 994.7 27.73 2666.1
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlZn4.5Mg1.5Mn 5
226–234.
(2009) 111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlZn4.5Mg1 1
AlZn4.5Mg1

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 7020 Chem. symbol: AlZn4.5Mg1

elements each total
<=0.35 <=0.40 <=0.20 0.05 … 1.0 … 0.10 … 4.0 … Bal. Zr: 0.08 … <=0.05 <=0.15
0.50 1.4 0.35 5.0 0.20;
Ti+Zr [%]:
0.08 … 0.25
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 7020 AlZn4.5Mg1 209 - 1
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 91.62 210
A [MPa] 221.816 309.551
m1 –0.00464 –0.00166
m2 –0.46405 0.06814
m4 –0.04764 –0.02377
m5 0.00012
m7 0.91416
(continued)

2 AlZn4.5Mg1

m3 0.01728
m8 0.000308
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlZn4.5Mg1 3
Fig. 3.5.17. AlZn4.5Mg1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlZn4.5Mg1
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 120…140 35.5976 0.34678 200… 220 115.3288 0.04077 <80
natural ageing 3d T4 210…230 15.5082 0.76562 300… 325 22.9825 0.63593 <60

Rp ¼ A0 þ A e n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B en2
Physical properties

20 147.8 875.1 22.41 2782.0 70.5
50 149.0 887.0 22.68 2772.5
100 150.3 898.8 23.12 2762.7
150 151.5 910.7 23.57 2752.5
200 152.8 922.6 24.01 2741.9
250 154.0 934.5 24.46 2731.0
300 155.2 946.3 24.90 2719.6
350 156.5 958.2 25.35 2708.0
400 157.7 970.1 25.79 2695.9
450 159.0 982.0 26.24 2683.5
500 160.2 993.8 26.68 2670.7
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlZn4.5Mg1 5
226–234.
(2009) 111–117.
Noori, H., Mahmudi, R.: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A - Phys. Metallurgy Mater. Sci. 38 (2007) 2040–2052.

6 AlZn4.5Mg1

Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlZn8MgCu 1
AlZn8MgCu

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 7049A Chem. symbol: AlZn8MgCu

elements each total
<=0.40 <=0.50 1.2 … <=0.50 2.1 … 0.05 … 7.2 … <=0.15 Bal. (Zr+Ti) <=0.05 <=0.15
1.9 3.1 0.25 8.4 max: 0.25
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 7049A
India. Japan
Russia China
4784 1969
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 125.08 229.9
A [MPa] 728.539 336.942
m1 0.00367 0.00197
m2 0.19523 0.04773
m4 0.00160 0.02734
m5 0.00222
m7 0.00067
(continued)
2 AlZn8MgCu

m3 0.01486
m8 0.000278
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlZn8MgCu 3
Fig. 3.5.18. AlZn8MgCu. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlZn8MgCu
Physical properties

ϑ [°C] λ [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [106/K] ρ [kg/m3] [GPa]
20 184.9 849.8 22.41 2840.1 71.5
50 187.3 861.3 22.68 2830.4
100 189.8 872.9 23.12 2820.4
150 192.2 884.4 23.57 2810.0
200 194.7 895.9 24.01 2799.2
250 197.1 907.5 24.46 2788.0
300 199.6 919.0 24.90 2776.4
350 202.0 930.5 25.35 2764.5
400 204.5 942.0 25.79 2752.2
450 206.9 953.6 26.24 2739.5
500 209.4 965.1 26.68 2726.4
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Zhang Cunsheng, Leotoing, L., Guines D., Ragneau, E.: J, Mater. Proc. Technol. 209 (2009) 3849–3858.

AlZn8MgCu 5
226–234.
(2009) 111–117.
Sheikh, H., Serajzadeh, S.: J, Mater. Proc. Technol. 207 (2008) 115–119.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlZn6CuMgZr 1
AlZn6CuMgZr

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 7050 Chem. symbol: AlZn6CuMgZr

min elements each total
<=0.12 <=0.15 2.0… <=0.10 1.9 … <=0.04 5.7… <=0.06 Bal. Zr: 0.08 <=0.05 <=0.15
2.6 2.6 6.7 … 0.15
Int. Reg.Rec. ISO

EN 7050
India Japan
A7050
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 119.56 128.22 235.7
A [MPa] 570.41 577.742 343.647
m1 –0.00384 –0.00350 –0.00184
Effect of strain Kj
m2 0.12989 0.16207 0.11318
m4 0.00001 0.00002 –0.01084
m5 –0.00141 –0.00259
m7 –0.02594 0.16413
(continued)
2 AlZn6CuMgZr

m3 0.01249
m8 0.000357 0.000380
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 200 … 550 200 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlZn6CuMgZr 3
Fig. 3.5.19. AlZn6CuMgZr. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlZn6CuMgZr
Physical properties

20 169.4 860.0 23.19 2827.9 73.7
50 171.3 871.7 23.47 2817.9
100 173.2 883.3 23.94 2807.6
150 175.1 895.0 24.40 2796.8
200 176.9 906.7 24.87 2785.7
250 178.8 918.3 25.33 2774.2
300 180.7 930.0 25.80 2762.2
350 182.6 941.7 26.26 2749.9
400 184.5 953.3 26.73 2737.2
450 186.3 965.0 27.19 2724.1
500 188.2 976.7 27.66 2710.6
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlZn6CuMgZr 5
226–234.
(2009) 111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlZn1 1
AlZn1

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 7072 Chem. symbol: AlZn1
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
(Si +Fe) 0.7 <=0.10 <=0.10 <=0.10
0.8 … 1.3 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN7072
India. Japan
Russia China
AC1
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 32.36 244.2
A [MPa] 238.100 398.070
m1 –0.00442 –0.00138
m2 0.23298 0.20038
m4 0.00043 –0.00008
(continued)

2 AlZn1

m5 –0.00162
m7 0.14328
m3 0.00053
m8 0.000382
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlZn1 3
Fig. 3.5.20. AlZn1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlZn1
Fig. 3.5.21. AlZn1. Hot plasticity as a function of tem-

deformed.
Physical properties

20 227.8 892.3 22.76 2722.2 69.8
50 228.3 904.4 23.07 2712.8
100 228.9 916.5 23.60 2702.9
150 229.5 928.6 24.12 2692.7
200 230.0 940.7 24.65 2681.9
250 230.6 952.8 25.17 2670.8
300 231.2 964.9 25.69 2659.3
350 231.8 977.0 26.22 2647.3
400 232.3 989.2 26.74 2634.8
450 232.9 1001.3 27.27 2622.0
500 233.5 1013.4 27.79 2608.7
Bibliography

AlZn1 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.
(2009) 111–117.

6 AlZn1
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlZn5.5MgCu 1
AlZn5.5MgCu

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 7075 Chem. symbol: AlZn5.5MgCu

elements each total
<=0.40 <=0.50 1.2 … <=0.30 2.1 … 0.18 … 5.1 … <=0.20 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
2.0 2.9 0.28 6.1
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 7075 AlZn5.5MgCu 209-1
India. Japan
76528 H 4140, H4000
Russia China
∼V95 4784 - 74
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 142.23 131.92 240.2
A [MPa] 497.339 716.004 351.786
m1 0.00349 0.00409 0.00170
m2 0.01772 0.13897 0.13386
m4 0.00780 0.00004 0.00811
m5 0.00210 0.00199
m7 0.36596 0.13995
(continued)

2 AlZn5.5MgCu

m3 0.01816
m8 0.000244 0.000354
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlZn5.5MgCu 3
Fig. 3.5.22. AlZn5.5MgCu. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlZn5.5MgCu
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed - O 125…145 43.3196 0.40515 240…275 72.8584 0.17617 <60
natural ageing - T6 460…480 25.2757 0.67741 540…570 17.0740 0.73694 <25

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B "n2
Fig. 3.5.23. AlZn5.5. Hot plasticity as a function of

temperature. Initial state of test specimen: deformed.
Physical properties

20 162.6 856.9 22.42 2810.3 71.3
50 164.4 868.5 22.92 2800.6 69.2
100 166.2 880.2 23.44 2790.5 66.7
150 168.0 891.8 23.95 2780.0 63.6
200 169.8 903.4 24.46 2769.1 59.8
250 171.6 915.0 24.98 2757.7 55.4
300 173.4 926.7 25.49 2745.8 50.3
(continued)

AlZn5.5MgCu 5

350 175.3 938.3 26.00 2733.6 44.7
400 177.1 949.9 26.51 2720.9
450 178.9 961.5 27.03 2707.8
500 180.7 973.2 27.54 2694.2
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Zhang Xin, Ming., Li Hui, Jie., et al: Transact. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 18 (2008) 1–5.
Lin Qi, Quan., Peng, Dashu, et al: Light Met. Age 65 (2007) 46–49.

6 AlZn5.5MgCu
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.
Ocenasek, V., Sedlacek, V., Slama, P.: Conference Paper, METAL 97, Vol.3, Ostrava, 1997, p. 120–127.

AlZn5.5Mg2.5Cu (B) 1
AlZn5.5Mg2.5Cu (B)

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 7175 Chem. symbol: AlZn5.5Mg2.5Cu1.5

min elements each total
<=0.15 <=0.20 1.2 … <=0.10 2.1 … 0.18 … 5.1 … <=0.10 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
2.0 2.92 0.28 6.1
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 7175
India Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 105.51 239.4
A [MPa] 702.145 341.908
m1 0.00478 0.00179
Eeffect of strain Kφ
m2 0.08423 0.14955
m4 0.00137 0.00175
m5 0.00024
m7 0.18717
(continued)

2 AlZn5.5Mg2.5Cu (B)

m3 0.01787
m8 0.000244
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 200 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


Fig. 3.5.24. AlZn5.5Mg2Cu. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlZn5.5Mg2.5Cu (B)
Physical properties

20 167.7 862.6 22.42 2805.7 167.7
50 169.5 874.3 22.73 2796.1 169.5
100 171.3 886.0 23.24 2786.1 171.3
150 173.1 897.7 23.75 2775.7 173.1
200 174.9 909.4 24.27 2764.9 174.9
250 176.7 921.1 24.78 2753.6 176.7
300 178.5 932.8 25.29 2741.8 178.5
350 180.2 944.5 25.81 2729.7 180.2
400 182.0 956.2 26.32 2717.1 182.0
450 183.8 967.9 26.83 2704.1 183.8
500 185.6 979.6 27.34 2690.6 185.6
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlZn7MgCu 1
AlZn7MgCu

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 7178 Chem. symbol: AlZn7MgCu

elements each total
<=0.40 <=0.50 1.6 … <=0.30 2.4 … 0.18 … 6.3 … <=0.20 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
2.4 3.1 0.28 7.34
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 7178
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 129.49 254.1
A [MPa] 804.531 417.654
m1 0.00463 0.00203
m2 0.12365 0.14703
m4 0.00002 0.01617
m5 0.00278
m7 0.41385
(continued)

2 AlZn7MgCu

m3 0.01906
m8 0.000407
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’m8# : F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’m3

AlZn7MgCu 3
Fig. 3.5.25. AlZn7MgCu. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlZn7MgCu
Fig. 3.5.26. AlZn7MgCu. Hot plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
specimen: cast and deformed. (b) initial state of test specimen: cast and deformed.
Physical properties

conductivity λ heat capacities of linear expansion
ϑ [°C] [W/m·K] cpm [J/kg·K] αm [106/K] ρ [kg/m3] E [GPa]
20 169.0 848.7 22.44 2836.2 71.3
50 171.2 860.2 22.71 2826.5
100 173.3 871.7 23.15 2816.5
150 175.5 883.2 23.60 2806.1
200 177.6 894.8 24.04 2795.3
250 179.8 906.3 24.49 2784.1
300 181.9 917.8 24.93 2772.6
350 184.1 929.3 25.38 2760.6
400 186.2 940.8 25.82 2748.3
450 188.4 952.3 26.27 2735.6
500 190.5 963.9 26.71 2722.6
Bibliography

AlZn7MgCu 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.

6 AlZn7MgCu

111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlFe0.6 1
AlFe0.6

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 8005 Chem. symbol: AlFe0.6

elements each total
0.20 … 0.50 0.70 … 0.80 <=0.05 <=0.05 <=0.05 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 8005
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 32.99 37.22 96.8
A [MPa] 300.961 321.839 158.976
m1 –0.00441 –0.00468 –0.00193
m2 0.33589 0.32081 0.18626
m4 0.00159 0.00188 –0.00572
m5 –0.00192 –0.00187
m7 0.11851 0.15938
m3 0.01251
m8 0.000404 0.000432
(continued)

2 AlFe0.6

Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlFe0.6 3
Fig. 3.6.1. AlFe0.6. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlFe0.6
Fig. 3.6.2. AlFe0.6. Hot plasticity as a function of

temperature and deformation rate. Initial state of test
specimen: deformed.
Physical properties

20 231.2 885.6 22.73 2709.8 67.8
50 231.5 897.6 23.02 2700.4
100 231.9 909.6 23.49 2690.7
150 232.3 921.6 23.97 2680.6
200 232.7 933.7 24.44 2670.1
250 233.0 945.7 24.92 2659.2
300 233.4 957.7 25.39 2647.9
350 233.8 969.7 25.87 2636.2
400 234.1 981.7 26.35 2624.1
450 234.5 993.7 26.82 2611.7
500 234.9 1005.8 27.30 2598.8
Bibliography

AlFe0.6 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
Bühler. H.-E., Höpter, G., Löwen, J: Metall (Berlin) 25 (1971) 162–164.
226–234.

6 AlFe0.6
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlFeSi (A) 1
AlFeSi (A)

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 8011A Chem. symbol: AlFeSi

elements each total
0.40 … 0.8 0.50 … 1.0 <=0.10 <=0.10 <=0.10 <=0.05 Bal. <=0.06 <=0.25
Int. Reg. Rec. ISO

EN 8011A AlFeSi 209 - 1
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 27.71 40.65 132.4
A [MPa] 442.548 444.167 179.792
m1 –0.00547 –0.00485 –0.00145
m2 0.20333 0.31835 0.09719
m4 –0.00024 –0.00031 –0.01132
m5 –0.00010 –0.00070
m7 –0.20475 –0.28322
m3 0.02623
m8 0.000354 0.000369
(continued)

2 AlFeSi (A)

Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlFeSi (A) 3
Fig. 3.6.3. AlFeSi. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlFeSi (A)
A0 A n1 B0 B n2
soft annealed – O 35…45 16.9533 0.46192 85…95 2.8762 0.77399

C0 C n3 n4
soft annealed – O 30…45 30.9645 0.09351 1.87213 <94

Rp ¼ A0 þ A " n1
Rm ¼ B0 þ B " n2
A5 ¼ C0 C "n3 en4="

AlFeSi (A) 5
Fig. 3.6.4. AlFeSi. Hot and cold plasticity of AlFeSi as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial
state of test specimen: deformed 0.65% Si, 0.70% Fe. (b) initial state of test specimen: deformed 0.65% Si, 0.74% Fe.
(c) initial state of test specimen: deformed.

6 AlFeSi (A)
Physical properties

20 227.5 881.2 22.67 2713.4
50 228.0 893.2 22.98 2704.0
100 228.5 905.1 23.51 2694.3
150 229.0 917.1 24.03 2684.1
200 229.5 929.0 24.56 2673.4
250 230.0 941.0 25.08 2662.4
300 230.5 952.9 25.61 2650.9
350 231.0 964.9 26.13 2639.0
400 231.6 976.8 26.66 2626.6
450 232.1 988.8 27.18 2613.8
500 232.6 1000.8 27.71 2600.6
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

AlFeSi (A) 7
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlFe0.8 1
AlFe0.8

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 8076 Chem. symbol: AlFe0.8
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr
<=0.10 0.6 … 0.9 <=0.040 0.08 … 0.22
<=0.05 <=0.10 Bal. <=0.04 B <=0.03 <=0.10
Int. Reg.Rec. ISO

EN8076
India. Japan
Russia China
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 32.10 109.4
A [MPa] 301.802 174.044
m1 0.00453 0.00209
m2 0.28298 0.18919
m4 0.00141 0.00595
m5 0.00103
(continued)

2 AlFe0.8

m7 0.03122
m3 0.03091
m8 0.000303
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 20 … 200
φ 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 2.0
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlFe0.8 3
Fig. 3.6.5. AlFe0.8. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 AlFe0.8
Fig. 3.6.6. AlFe0.8. Hot and cold plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) initial state of test
Physical properties

20 235.2 876.3 22.73 2712.2 69.9
50 235.5 888.2 23.02 2702.8
100 235.9 900.1 23.49 2693.1
150 236.2 912.0 23.97 2682.9
200 236.6 923.9 24.44 2672.4
250 237.0 935.7 24.92 2661.5
300 237.3 947.6 25.39 2650.2
350 237.7 959.5 25.87 2638.5
400 238.1 971.4 26.35 2626.5
450 238.4 983.3 26.82 2614.0
500 238.8 995.2 27.30 2601.1
Bibliography

AlFe0.8 5
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.
226–234.

6 AlFe0.8

111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1 1
AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1

behaviour
Designation
EN number: 8090 Chem. symbol: AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1

elements each total
0.7 … <=0.50 <=0.10 0.10 … 0.6 … <=0.10 <=0.20 <=0.15 Bal. <=0.05 <=0.15
1.3 0.45 1.2
Int. Reg.Rec. ISO

EN6082 209-1
India. Japan
64430
Russia China
4784
Flow curves

cast state extruding pressed homogenized homogenized
Li–content [%] 2.3 1.7
σF0 [MPa] 106.32 108.67 111.25 105.84
A [MPa] 1375.497 1629.568 897.847 1254.660
m1 –0.00744 –0.00732 –0.00581 –0.00695
m2 –0.03847 0.05407 0.03733 –0.02060
(continued)

2 AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1

cast state extruding pressed homogenized homogenized
m4 –0.00504 0.00322 0.00026 –0.00599
m5 0.00070 0.00052 –0.00080 –0.00024
m7 –0.13331 –0.25033 0.00592 0.12125
m3
m8 0.000395 0.000345 0.000379 0.000344
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 250 … 550 250 … 550 250 … 550 250 … 550
φ 0.06 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.5 0.03 … 1.50
’_ [1/s] 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500 0.01 … 500


AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1 3
Fig. 3.6.7. AlLi2.5Cu1.5 with 2.3 % Li. Flow stress in hot deformation.

4 AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1
Fig. 3.6.8. AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1with 1.7 and 2.3 % Li in homogenized state. Flow stress in hot deformation.

AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1 5
Physical properties

20 180.3 895.5 22.37 2718.9 71.9
50 184.0 907.7 22.68 2709.6
100 187.8 919.8 23.20 2700.0
150 191.5 932.0 23.71 2689.9
200 195.3 944.1 24.22 2679.4
250 199.1 956.3 24.73 2668.5
300 202.8 968.4 25.25 2657.1
350 206.6 980.6 25.76 2645.4
400 210.4 992.7 26.27 2633.2
450 214.1 1004.9 26.79 2620.6
500 217.9 1017.0 27.30 2607.6
Bibliography
BA, 2000, p. 293–308.

6 AlLi2.5Cu1.5Mg1
226–234.
111–117.
2040–2052.
Gliwice, 2007, p. 133–162.
1999–2006.

Ti 1 1
Ti 1

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: Ti 1 DIN number: 3.7025
Al V Mo Zr Sn Cu N O2 Fe C Ti Impurities
<0.05 <0.12 <0.15 <0.06 >99.2 max. 0.40
Euronorm ISO
France United Kingdom
T - 35 AIR 9182 TA 1 BS TA 1
Japan Russia
USA
ASME ASTM UNS
Grade 1 B 265, B 337 R 50250
Grade 1 B 338, B 348
Grade 1 B 363, B381
Flow curves

cast state deformed state recrystallized annealed hot rolled
σF0 [MPa] 85.59 88.19 653.0 587.4
A 9769.200 7278.000 1159.350 1065.750
m1 0.00463 0.00427 0.00300 0.00225
m2 0.74522 0.70127 0.27028 0.29827
m4 0.03998 0.04036 0.00132 0.00653
(continued)

2 Ti 1

m5 0.00179 0.00192
m7 0.24785 0.12239
m3 0.04128 0.03072
m8 0.000206 0.000202
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 600…1000 600…900 20…300 20…300
φ 0.06 … 1.0 0.06 … 1.0 0.03 … 1.0 0.03… 1.0
’_ [1/s] 0.25…50 0.25…50 0.1…50 0.1…50


Ti 1 3
Fig. 4.1. Ti 1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 Ti 1
Fig. 4.2. Ti 1. Plasticity as a function of temperature.
Physical properties

20 22.3 530.8 4504.7 118
100 21.3 528.4 8.1 4501.4 115
200 20.0 553.7 8.5 4497.3 110
300 19.8 568.6 8.9 4493.0 103
400 19.8 579.1 9.2 4488.4 96.0
500 19.8 587.3 9.6 4483.4 91
600 19.8 593.9 10.0 4478.0 85
700 19.8 599.6 10.4 4472.2 79
800 19.8 604.5 10.7 4466.4 73
900 20.7 607.6
1000 22.3 612.2
1100 23.9 616.8
1200 25.5 621.4
Bibliography
Poluchin, P.I., Balcugov, B.A., Galkin, A.M.: Metallurgiya (1976) 81–84.
Semiatin, S.L., Lark, K.A., Barker, R.D., Seetharaman, V., et al.:Metall. Trans. A 23 (1992) 295.
Sagar, P.K., Banerjee, D., Muraleedharan, K., Prasad, Y.V.R.K.: Metall. Trans. A 27 (1992) 2593.
Lee,W.-S.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 71 (1997) 235–246.
Kubiak, K.: Plasticity of Titanium and its Alloys, in: Schindler, I., Hadasik, E.: Deformation Behavior
and Properties of Selected Metallic Materials, Gliwice, 2007, p. 191–218.

Ti 1 5
Szkliniarz, W.: Working and Properties of TiAl Intermetallic Alloys, in: Schindler, I., Hadasik, E.:
Ghosh, A.K., Hamilton, C.H.: Mechanical Behavior and Hardening Characteristics of Superplastic
Cui, W.F., Jin, Z., Guo, A.H., Zhou, L.: Mater. Sci. Eng. Part A 499 (2009) 252–256.
Warchomicka, F., Stockinger, M., Degischer, H.-P.: Proc. World Conf. Titanium 11 (2007) 511–514.
Bystrzanowski, S., Bartels, A., Clemens, H., Gerling, R.: Intermetallics 16 (2008) 717–726.
Lee Woei Shyan, Chen Tao Hsing, Hwang Hsin Hwa: Metallurg. Mater. Trans. A / Physical Metallurg.
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
Ko Young Gun, Lee Chong Soo, Shin Dong Hyuk: Scr. Mater. 58 (2008) 1094–1097.
Reddy, N.S., Park, C.H., Lee, Y.H., Lee, C.S.: Mater. Sci. Technol. 24 (2008) 294–301.
Colin, A., Mineur, M., Desrayaud, Ch., Montheillet, F.: Mater. Sci. Forum 539/543 (2007) 3661–3666.
Li, Z.Q., et al.: Mater. Sci. Forum 551/552 (2007) 591–596.
Liang Xiabo, Li Shiqiong, Zhang Jianwei, Cheng Yunjun: Mater. Sci. Forum 546/549 (2007)
1461–1466.
Molenat, G., Thomas, M., Galy, J., Couret, A.: Adv. Eng. Mater. 9 (2007) 667–669.
Imayev, V., Imayev, R., et al.: Scr. Mater. 57 (2007) 193–196.
El-Magd, E., Treppmann, C., Korthäuser, M.: Int. J. Mater. Res. / Z. Metallkd. 97 (2006) 1453–1459.
Kim, J.H., Semiatin, S.L., Lee, Chong Soo: Mater. Sci. Technol. 19 (2003) 1648–1652.
Kim, J.H., Semiatin, S.L., Lee, Chong Soo: Acta Mater. 51 (2003) 5613–5626.
Kim, J.H., Semiatin, S.L., Lee, Chong Soo: Mater. Sci. Forum 475-479 (2005) 2965–2968.
Semiatin, S.L., Seetharaman, V., Weiss, I.: Mater. Sci. Eng. Part A 243 (1998) 1–24.
Ezugwu, E.O., Wang, Z.M.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 68 (1997) 262–274.
Leyens, Ch., Peters, M.: Titanium and Titanium Alloys, Weinheim: WILEY-VCH, 2003.
Barthels, A., Kestler, H., Clemens, H.: Mater. Sci. Eng. Part A 329-331 (2002) 153–162.
Möllmann, M.: Conference Paper, MEFORM 1999, Proceedings, Freiberg: Institut für Metallformung
der TU BA, 1999, Paper Nr.12, 10 pages.
Borziak, A.N., Lepeskin, I.I., et al.: Physikalisch-mechanische und wärmephysikalische Eigenschaften
von Metallen, Moskva: Izdat. Nauka, 1976, p. 59–80.
Novikova, S.I.: Wärmeausdehnung von Festkörpern, Moskva: Izdat. Nauka, 1974, p. 292.
Peter, A.: Handbuch Spannungsmesspraxis. Experimentelle Ermittlung mechanischer Spannungen,
Braunschweig, Wiesbaden: Vieweg & Sohn Verlagsgesellschaft, 1992.
Spittel, T., Spittel, M.: Proc. Conf. MEFORM 2001, Freiberg: TU Bergakademie, 2001, p. 123–136.
Heiligenstaedt, W.: Wärmetechnische Rechnungen für Industrieöfen, 3. Auflage, Düsseldorf: Verlag
Stahleisen, 1951.
Böhler: Edelstahl-Handbuch, Kapfenberg: Böhler GmbH.

Ti 2 1
Ti 2

behaviour
Designation
<0.06 >0.25 <0.25 <0.08 >98.7 Max. 0.60
Euronorm ISO
T - 40 AIR 9182 TA 2….TA 5 BS TA 2…BS TA 5
Japan Russia
USA
ASME ASTM UNS
Grade 2 B 265, B 337 R 50400
Grade 2 B 338, B 348
Grade 2 B 363, B 381
It should be noted that the chemical composition applied in the table is not identical in all other national
standards.
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 81.38 599.1
A 117051.000 1047.6
m1 –0.0086 –0.00284
Effect of strain Kϕ
m2 0.31105 0.33957
m4 0.00464 0.01926
(continued)

2 Ti 2

m5 0.00173
m7 –1.34301
m3 0.03764
m8 0.000152
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 700…1000 20…300
φ 0.03 … 0.90 0.05 … 1.0
’_ [1/s] 0.1…50 0.1 … 50

F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 # F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ’m3

Ti 2 3

4 Ti 2
Fig. 4.4. Ti 2. Hot plasticity as a function of

temperature.
Physical properties

20 22.3 530.8 4504.7 118
100 21.3 528.4 8.1 4501.4 115
200 20.0 553.7 8.5 4497.3 110
300 19.8 568.6 8.9 4493.0 103
400 19.8 579.1 9.2 4488.4 96.0
500 19.8 587.3 9.6 4483.4 91
600 19.8 593.9 10.0 4478.0 85
700 19.8 599.6 10.4 4472.2 79
800 19.8 604.5 10.7 4466.4 73
900 20.7 607.6
1000 22.3 612.2
1100 23.9 616.8
1200 25.5 621.4
The physical properties of Ti1 were used.
Bibliography
Semiatin, S.L., Lark, K.A., Barker, R.D., Seetharaman, V., et. al.: Metall. Trans. A 23 (1992) 295.
Lee, W.-S., Lin, M.-T.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 71 (1997) 235–246.

Ti 2 5
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
Li, Z.Q., et alet al.: Mater. Sci. Forum 551/552 (2007) 591–596.
1461–1466.
Imayev, V., Imayev, R., et alet al.: Scr. Mater. 57 (2007) 193–196.
Kim, J.H., Semiatin, S.L., Lee, Chong Soo: Mater. Sci. Forum 475–479 (2005) 2965–2968.
Barthels, A., Kestler, H., Clemens, H.: Mater. Sci. Eng. Part A 329–331 (2002) 153–162.
Borziak, A.N., Lepeskin, I.I., et alet al.: Physikalisch-mechanische und wärmephysikalische
Eigenschaften von Metallen, Moskva: Izdat. Nauka, 1976, p. 59–80.
Stahleisen, 1951.

Ti 2 1
Ti 2

behaviour
Designation
<0.05 <0.18 <0.20 <0.06 >99.1 max. 0.40
Euronorm ISO
EN 24034
T - 40 AIR 9182 TA 2….TA 5 BS TA 2…BS TA 5
Japan Russia
USA
ASME ASTM UNS
Grade 2 B 265, B 337 R 50550
Grade 2 B 338, B 348
Grade 2 B 363, B 381
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 97.0 1025.8
A 3518.590 1490.600
m1 0.00327 0.00284
m2 0.68022 0.26169
m4 0.03841 0.02699
(continued)

2 Ti 2

m5 0.00121
m7 0.43501
m3 0.00684
m8 0.000186
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 500….900 20 … 300
φ 0.06 …1.0 0.1 … 1.0
’ [1/s] 0.25…50 0.004…1000

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’m8# F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ’m3

Ti 2 3

4 Ti 2
Plasticity by forging and tensile test
Fig. 4.6. Ti 2. Hot plasticity as a function of temperature.
Physical properties

20 22.3 530.8 4504.7 118
100 21.3 528.4 8.1 4501.4 115
200 20.0 553.7 8.5 4497.3 110
300 19.8 568.6 8.9 4493.0 103
400 19.8 579.1 9.2 4488.4 96.0
500 19.8 587.3 9.6 4483.4 91
600 19.8 593.9 10.0 4478.0 85
700 19.8 599.6 10.4 4472.2 79
800 19.8 604.5 10.7 4466.4 73
900 20.7 607.6
1000 22.3 612.2
1100 23.9 616.8
1200 25.5 621.4
The physical properties of Ti1 were used.
Bibliography

Ti 2 5
Lee,W.-S., Lin, M.-T.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 71 (1997) 235–246.
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
Colin, A., Mineur, M., Desrayaud, Ch., Montheillet, F.:Mater. Sci. Forum 539/543 (2007) 3661–3666.
1461–1466.
Braunschweig, Wiesbaden: Vieweg Sohn Verlagsgesellschaft, 1992.
Stahleisen, 1951.

TiAl5Sn2.5 1
TiAl5Sn2.5

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: TiAl5Sn2.5 DIN number: 3.7114
4.50…5.50 2.00…3.00 <0.05 <0.20. <0.50 <0.08 >90.3 max. 0.40
Euronorm ISO
T - A5E AIR 9183
Japan Russia
USA
ASME ASTM UNS
Grade 6 B 265, B 337 R 50550
Grade 6 B 338, B 348
Grade 6 B 363, B 381
standards.
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 402.80 1263.4
A 4010.940 1622.190
m1 0.00157 0.00151
m2 0.49642 0.11445
m4 0.01803 0.00253
(continued)

2 TiAl5Sn2.5

m5 0.00249
m7 0.16303
m3
m8 0.000051 0.02976
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 600…900 20…300
ϕ <0.5 0.03 … 0.40
’_ [1/s] 0.1…50 0.1 … 50


TiAl5Sn2.5 3
Fig. 4.7. TiAl5Sn2.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 TiAl5Sn2.5
Plasticity by forging
Fig. 4.8. TiAl5Sn2.5. Plasticity as a function of temperature.

TiAl5Sn2.5 5
Physical properties

20 7.5 527.5 119.5
100 8.4 538.0 9.4 4460
200 9.0 549.9
300 10.5 564.2
400 12.1 576.9
500 13.0 589.6
600 14.7 604.1
700 16.5 618.6
800 17.4 635.5
900 18.7
1000 20.0
Bibliography
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.

6 TiAl5Sn2.5
Stahleisen, 1951.

TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2 1
TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2 DIN number: 3.7144
Al V Mo Zr Sn N O2 Fe C Ti
5.50…6.50 1.80…2.20 3.60…4.40 1.80…2.20 <0.05 <0.15. <0.25 <0.08 >84.2
Flow curves
State of material Hot deformation

deformed state
σF0 [MPa] (996.0) (780.91)
A 3050000.000 606498.000
m1 0.00979 0.00796
m2 0.18362 0.22325
m4 0.00124 0.00017
m5 0.00092 0.00128
m7 0.19905 0.25754
m3
m8 0.000144 0.000161
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 890…1100 890…1100
φ <1.50 <0.6
’_ [1/s] 0.1…50 0.1…50
Hot deformation:
F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8#

2 TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2
Fig. 4.9. TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2. Flow stress in hot deformation.

TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2 3
Physical properties

20 5.86 4550 114
200 104
400 93
Bibliography
Semiatin, S.L., Lark, K.A., Barker, R.D., Seetharaman, V., et al.: Metall. Trans. A 23 (1992) 295.
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
Liang Xiabo, Li, Shiqiong,Zhang Jianwei,Cheng Yunjun: Mater. Sci. Forum 546/549 (2007) 1461–1466.

4 TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2

Stahleisen, 1951.

TiAl6Zr5Mo0.5Si0.25 1
TiAl6Zr5Mo0.5Si0.25

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: TiAl6Zr5Mo0.5Si0.25 DIN number: 3.7155
Al V Mo Zr Sn Si O2 Fe C N Ti
5,7 … 6,3 0,25 … 0,75 4,5 … 6,0 0,015 … 0,37 <0,20 <0,05 <0,08 <0,03 Bal.
Flow curves

cast state deformed state (0,11% O2)
σF0 [MPa] 855.4
A 47839.168
m1 0.00639
m2 0.59105
m4 0.06336
m5 0.00241
m7 2.38139
m3
m8 0.000166
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 800…1050
φ <0.40
’ [1/s] 0.001…10
Hot deformation:
F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8#


2 TiAl6Zr5Mo0.5Si0.25
Fig. 4.10. TiAl6Zr5Mo0.5Si0.25. Flow stress in hot deformation.
Bibliography

TiAl6Zr5Mo0.5Si0.25 3
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.
Stahleisen, 1951.

TiAl6V4 1
TiAl6V4

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: TiAl6V4 DIN number: 3.7164
5.50…6.75 3.50…4.50 <0.05 <0.20 <0.40 <0.08 >87.7. max. 0.40
Euronorm ISO
T - A6V AIR 9183 TA 10, 11, 12, 13, 28, 56 BS TA 10, 11, 12, 13, 28, 56
Japan Russia
VT 6
USA
AMS ASTM UNS
4981 Grade 23 Grade 5 B 265, B 337 R.56400
Grade 29 Grade 5 B 338, B 348 R 56401
Grade 5 B 363, B 381
standards.
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 297.6 313.3 1391.11
A 47957.602 13882.600 1485.770
m1 –0.00583 –0.00462 –0.00123
(continued)

2 TiAl6V4

m2 0.34491 0.09399 0.02147
m4 –0.00023 –0.00015 –0.00539
m5 –0.00023 –0.00164
m7 –2.09522 0.30494
m3 0.02684
m8 0.000133 0.000118
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 600…1000 800…1050 20…300
φ <0.50 <0.80 <0.50
’_ [1/s] 0.25…50 0.01…100 0.1…50

F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8# F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ’_ m3

TiAl6V4 3
Fig. 4.11. TiAl6V4. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

4 TiAl6V4
Fig. 4.12. TiAl6V4. Plasticity as a function of temperature. Initial state of test specimen: deformed.
Physical properties

20 6.3 565.2 8.15 4430 108
100 7.5 567.3 8.62 4418.5 103
200 8.6 569.4 9.1 4405.8 97
300 10.0 576.7 9.38 4392.6 91
400 11.3 587.0 9.58 4379.1 85
500 12.6 602.2 80
600 14.0 618.5 75
700 15.4 642.2
800 16.7 667.2
900 18.0
1000 19.4
1100 20.7
Bibliography
Semiatin, S.L., Lark, K.A., Barker, R.D., Seetharaman, V., et al: Metall. Trans. A 23 (1992) 295.
Lin, M.-T.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 71 (1997) 235–246.

TiAl6V4 5
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.
Stahleisen, 1951.

TiAl8V1Mo1 1
TiAl8V1Mo1

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: TiAl8V1Mo1 DIN number:
Al V Mo Zr Sn Cu Si O2 Fe C Ti
7,5 … 8,5 0,8 … 1,2 0,8 … 1,3 <0,15 0,25 <0,08 Bal.
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 486.2 1337.0
A 3839.510 1737.478
m1 –0.00222 –0.00136
m2 0.18423 0.15385
m4 0.00328 0.00266
m5 –0.00118
m7 0.32406
m3 0.04011
m8 0.000086
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 600…1100 20…300
φ <1.50 <0.50
’_ [1/s] 0.1…50 0.1 … 50


2 TiAl8V1Mo1
Fig. 4.13. TiAl8V1Mo1. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.
Bibliography

TiAl8V1Mo1 3
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.
der TU BA, 1999, Paper Nr.12, 10 pages
Stahleisen, 1951.

TiAl6.5Mo3.5Zr2Si 1
TiAl6.5Mo3.5Zr2Si

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: TiAl6.5Mo3.5Zr2Si DIN number:
Al V Mo Zr Sn Cu Si O2 Fe C Ti
5,5 … 6,5 3,0 … 4,0 1,8 … 2,2 0.20 …0,50 <0,20 <0,08 <0,06 Bal.
Flow curves

cast state deformed state
σF0 [MPa] 572.2
A 170450.464
m1 –0.00793
m2 –0.25632
m4 –0.02459
m5 0.00013
m7 –0.84177
m3
m8 0.000205
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 800…1050
φ <0.50
_
’½1=s 0.001…100
Hot deformation:
F ¼ A em1 # ’m2 em4 =’ ð1 þ ’Þm5 # em7 ’ ’_ m8 #

2 TiAl6.5Mo3.5Zr2Si
Fig. 4.14. TiAl6.5Mo3.5Zr2Si. Flow stress in hot deformation.
Bibliography

TiAl6.5Mo3.5Zr2Si 3
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.
Stahleisen, 1951.

TiV13Cr11A13 1
TiV13Cr11A13

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: TiV13Cr11Al3 DIN number: 3.7165
Al V Mo Zr Sn Cr N O2 Fe C Ti
3.60 14.1 10.60 0.03 0.11 0.27 0.02 Bal.
Flow curves

cast state deformed state annealed annealed hot rolled
σF0 [MPa] 541.6 (848.87) 1317.2
A 6520.140 2963.890 1776.197
m1 –0.0029 –0.000055 –0.00134
m2 0.1226 0.67728 0.10728
m4 0.00133 0.03508 –0.00981
m5 0.00036 –0.00282
m7 –0.98095 –0.40426
m3 0.03133
m8 0.000093 0.000089
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 600…1000 300…500 20…200
φ <0.80 0.05 … 0.80 <1,00
’_ [1/s] 0.1…50 0.1…50 0.1…10


2 TiV13Cr11A13
Fig. 4.15. TiV13Cr11Al3. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

TiV13Cr11A13 3
Fig. 4.16. TiV13Cr11Al3. Plasticity as a function

of temperature.
Physical properties

20 6.3 544.3 9.11 4820 99.8
100 7.6 542.2 9.47 4815.4
200 8.8 552.7 9.63 4810.7
300 10.7 576.7 9.72 4805.9
400 13.0 618.8 9.79 4801.1
500 15.1 9.84 4796.3
600 9.88 4791.4
700 9.92 4786.5
800 9.95 4781.6
900 9.98 4776.7
1000 10.01 4771.8
1100 10.03 4766.8
Bibliography
Semiatin, S.L., Lark, K.A., Barker, R.D., Seetharaman, V., et al.: Metall. Trans. A 23 (1992) 295.

4 TiV13Cr11A13
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.
Stahleisen, 1951.

TiAl4Mn1.5 1
TiAl4Mn1.5

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: TiAl4Mn1.5 DIN number:
Al V Mn Zr Sn Si N O2 Fe C Ti Impurities
3.50…5.00 1,2…2.00 <0.30 <0.12 <0.05 <0.15 <0.30 <0.10 Bal. max. 0.30
Flow curves

σF0 [MPa] 133.3 778.2
A 75312.394 965.909
m1 –0.00767 –0.00162
m2 0.15646 0.13755
m4 0.00126 0.00576
m5 0.00041
m7 –1.44377
m3 0.03264
m8 0.000141
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 700…1100 20…300
φ <0.70 <0.50
_
’½1=s 0.01…100 0.1 … 50


2 TiAl4Mn1.5
Fig. 4.17. TiAl4Mn1.5. Flow stress in hot and cold deformation.

TiAl4Mn1.5 3
Fig. 4.18. TiAl4Mn1.5. Hot plasticity as a function

of temperature.
Bibliography
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.

4 TiAl4Mn1.5
Stahleisen, 1951.

Ti24Al11Nb 1
Ti24Al11Nb

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: Ti24Al11Nb DIN number:
Composition / impurities [Atom-%]
Al Nb Mo Zr Sn Si O2 Fe C Ti
~ 24 ~ 11 Bal.
Flow curves

cast state deformed state
σF0 [MPa] 418.1
A 612191.242
m1 –0.00763
m2 –0.20262
m4 –0.03691
m5 –0.00375
m7 2.45987
m3
m8 0.000154
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 900…1100
φ <0.50
’_ [1/s] 0.001…100
Hot deformation:
F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8#

2 Ti24Al11Nb
Fig. 4.19. Ti–24Al–11Nb. Flow stress in hot forming.
Bibliography
Sagar, P.K., Banerjee, D., Muraleedharan, K., Prasad, Y.V.R.K.: Metall. Trans. A 27(1992) 2593.
Lee,W.-S., Lin, M-T.: J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 71 (1997) 235–246.

Ti24Al11Nb 3
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.
Stahleisen, 1951.

Ti48Al2.5CrNb 1
Ti48Al2.5CrNb

behaviour
Designation
Chem. symbol: Ti48Al2.5CrNb DIN number:
Composition / impurities [Atom-%]
Al Cr Nb Ta Sn Si O2 Fe C Ti
∼ 48 ∼ 2.5 0,5 0,1 Bal.
Flow curves
Hot deformation
State of material cast state deformed state
σF0 [MPa] 886.02
A 4098.31
m1 0.000574
m2 0.42345
m4 0.000185
m5 0.007798
m7 3.84953
m3
m8 5.941E-05
Range of validity
ϑ [°C] 750…1200
’ <0.50
’_ [1/s] 0.001…10
Hot deformation:
F ¼ A em1# ’m2 em4=’ ð1 þ ’Þm5# em7’ ’_ m8#


2 Ti48Al2.5CrNb
Fig. 4.20. Ti48Al2.5CrNb. Flow stress in hot forming.

Ti48Al2.5CrNb 3
Plasticity
Fig. 4.21. Ti48Al2.5CrNb. Hot plasticity as a function of temperature and deformation rate. (a) and
(b) Plasticity in tensile test. (c) and (d) Plasticity in upsetting test. (e) Plasticity as a function of mean
stress.

4 Ti48Al2.5CrNb
Bibliography
Mater. Sci. A 39 (2008) 1435–1448.
1461–1466.
Stahleisen, 1951.


Part 2 - Non-Ferrous Alloys - Light Metals

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Landolt-Börnstein

Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology

Group VIII: Advanced Materials and Technologies

Authors: M. Spittel and T. Spittel

ISBN 978-3-642-13863-8 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media

Cover layout: Erich Kirchner, Heidelberg

SPIN: 1159 7544 63/3020 - 5 4 3 2 1 0 – Printed on acid-free paper

Freiberg, September 2007 Prof. Dr.-Ing. Prof. E.h. R. Kawalla

Part 2: Non-Ferrous Alloys

Overview of Light Metal Alloys with page number references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3.2. Cold plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4. Mechanical and physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5. Data bank of deformation parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.4.3. Aluminium-Manganese, Aluminium-Magnesium-Manganese and Aluminium-Silicon

Index of light metal alloys

Deformation behaviour of light metal alloys

Overview of Light Metal Alloys

Material number Symbol Page

5.3 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

Material number Symbol Page

5.4 Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys

5.4.1 Unalloyed wrought Aluminium

AA Material number Symbol (DIN EN 573-3) Page

Landolt-Börnstein DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_1

5.4.2 Aluminium-Copper and Aluminium-Copper-Magnesium Wrought Alloys

AA Material number Symbol (DIN EN 573-3) Page

5.4.3 Aluminium-Manganese, Aluminium-Magnesium-Manganese and Aluminium-Silicon Wrought

AA Material number Symbol (DIN EN 573-3) Page

5.4.4 Aluminium– Magnesium and Aluminium–Magnesium– Manganese Wrought Alloys

AA Material number Symbol (DIN EN 573-3) Page

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_1 Landolt-Börnstein

5.4.5 Aluminium–Silicon–Magnesium, Aluminium–Magnesium-Silicon, Aluminium–Zinc–

AA Material number Symbol (DIN EN 573-3) Page

5.4.6 Wrought Aluminium Alloys with other main constituents

AA Material number Symbol (DIN EN 573-3) Page

5.5 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Material number Symbol Page

Landolt-Börnstein DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_1

Deformation behaviour of light metal alloys

Introduction and Definitions

1 Definitions and Test Methods

1.1 Flow stress

Fig. 1.1. (a) Normal stresses σ and shear stresses τ in any

Landolt-Börnstein DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_2

which includes the inﬂuence of the mean principal normal stress 2 by

1.3 Deformation behaviour

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_2 Landolt-Börnstein

Fig. 1.3. Parameters that inﬂuence the deformation behaviour

Landolt-Börnstein DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_2

1.4 Methods to determine the deformation behaviour

1.4.1 Overview and specifications

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_2 Landolt-Börnstein

Fig. 1.4. Test methods for the deformation behaviour

Landolt-Börnstein DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_2

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_2 Landolt-Börnstein

1.4.2 Test methods for simulation

Table 1.2. Working ranges of simulation processes

Landolt-Börnstein DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_2

Table 1.4. Technical parameters of torsion plastometer [1.12]

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-13864-5_2 Landolt-Börnstein

Technical speciﬁcation Torsion plastometer TPM 38