1

Republic of the Philippines

BOHOL ISLAND ST ATE UNIVERSITY
Main Campus

College of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Civil Engineering

Vision: A premiere Science & Technology university for the fonnation of world class and virtuous human resource for sustainable development
in Bohol and the count1y.
Mission: BISU 1s committed to provide quality higher education in the arts and sciences, as well as in the professional and technological fields;
undertake resea1ch and development, and extension se1vices for the sustainable development of Bohol and the country.

STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN- CE12d

Week No.: Time Limit:

- 1- - - - - - - - -
Lesson No.:
-1 -- - - - - - - -
Topic:
-Introduction
- - - -- - - - -

INTRODUCTION

Structural design may be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the experienced
engineer's intuitive feeling for the behavior of a structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics,
dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe, economic structure that will
serve its intended purpose.

Until about 1850, structural design was largely an art relying on intuition to determine the size and
arrangement of the structural elements. Early man-made structures essentially conformed to those which
could also be observed in nature, such as beams and arches.

Structural design is grossly abbreviated name of an operation, which for major projects may involve
the knowledge of hundreds of experts from a variety of disciplines. A code of practice may therefore be
regarded as a consensus of what is considered acceptable at the time it was written, containing a balance
between accepted practice and recent research presented in such a way that the information should be of
immediate use to the design engineer. As such, it is regarded more as an aid to design, which includes
allowable stress levels, member capacities, design formulae and recommendations for good practice, rather
than a manual or textbook on design.

When it comes to implement good steel structures design, all engineers and industrial practitioners
must have proper knowledge how to construct structural material with correct materials based on their
properties, chemical composition and behaviors. The building consultants and structural engineers also need
to know to implement the best ways on how to design profile or shape with good strength .

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Computations involving scientific principles should serve as a guide to decision making and. n.ot to
be followed blindly. The art or intuitive ability of the experienced engineer is utilized to make the dec1s1ons,
guided by the computational results.

DESIGN PROCEDURE

The design procedure may be considered to be composed of two parts-functional design and
structural framework design. Functional design ensures that intended results are achieved, such as (a)
adequate worki ng areas and clearances; (b) proper ventilation and/ or air conditioning; (c) adequate
transportation facilities, such as elevators, stairways, and cranes or materials handling equipment (d)
adequate lighting; and (e) aesthetics.

The structural framework design is the selection of the arrangement and sizes of structural elements
so that service loads may be safely carried, and displacements are within acceptable limits.
The iterative design procedure may be outlined as follows:

1. Planning. Establishment of the functions for which the structure must serve.
Set criteria against which to measure the resulting design for being an optimum.
2. Preliminary Structural Configuration. Arrangement of the elements to serve the functions in step
1.
3. Establishment of the loads to be carried.
4. Preliminary member selection. Based on the decisions of steps 1, 2, 3 selections of the member
sizes to satisfy an objective criterion, such as least weight or cost.
5. Analysis. Structural analysis involving modeling the loads and the structural framework to obtain
internal forces and any desired deflections.
6. Evaluation. Are all strength and serviceability requirements satisfied and is the result optimum?
Compare the result with predetermined criteria.
7. Redesign. Repetition of any part of the sequence 1 through 6 found necessary or desirable as a
result of evaluation. Steps 1 through 6 represent an iterative process. Usually in this text only steps
3 through 6 will be subject to this iteration since the structural configuration and external loading will
be prescribed.
8. Final decision. The determination of whether or not an optimum design ha·s been achieved .

Steel - is an alloy of iron and carbon and other elements. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost,
it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools , ships, automobiles, machines, appliances.
and weapons.
Structural Design

', Mixture of art and science.

)" Sound knowledge of statics, dynamics, materials, structural analysis
,. Produce a safe, serviceable, and economical design
Y Follows governing codes

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Table 1-1 - Typical Properties of A36 Steel

[ ~1odulus of Elasticity, E - - 11 )(J Ji.'1 1

- -- -t
Yield strength. Fy .11 '
I Tensile strength, Fu )l I ' JI J

j Endurance strength ) 1 i ,11 I

1 Density, p ',( • I 1/11

---
Poisson's ratio. µ I I

hShear modulus, G I I ;(10 Mpc1

Coefficient of thermal expansion, a 11 Ix /1() l>hl

Structural Steel Design -an area of knowledge of engineering used to design steel structures
Criteria for Optimum Design
, minimum material cost
-,,, minimum weight
, minimum construction time
-,.. minimum labor cost
, minimum cost of manufacture of owner's product
-,.. maximum efficiency of operation to owner
Design Procedure
A. Functional Design
1. adequate working areas and clearances
2. proper ventilation and/or air conditioning
3. transportation facilities (stairs, elevators, cranes)
4. adequate lighting
5. aesthetics
B. Structural Framework Design: Iterative Procedure
1. planning - setting the criteria for optimum design
2. preliminary structural configuration - efficient load transfer, redundancy
3. establishment of the loads to be carried
4. preliminary member selection
5. structural analysis - load combinations, internal forces , displacements
6. evaluation - check against strength and serviceability requirements
7. redesign - repetition of steps 1-6 or 3-6
8. final decision - optimum design has been achieved
Loads - the force that act on a structure

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-estimate magnitude and distribution with certain assumptions and approximations

,- Dead load - fixed position gravity loads; those that are permanent, including the weight of thE:
structure itself, which is sometimes called the self-weight.
example: weight of structure, attachments, floor coverings, partitions and suspended
ceilings
,- Live load - those that are not as permanent as dead load, may or may not be acting on a
structure at any given time, and the location may not be fixed.
example: people/occupants of building, machinery and equipment, furniture, appliances
>- Highway live load - axle loads, lane loading
,. Impact load - dynamic effect of suddenly applied live loads
, Snow load - live loading for roofs
,, Wind load - usually not as important for low buildings, but uplift on light roof systems may be
critical
- for more than three stories t1igh, light structures , long bridges
:.- Seismic load - need to be considered only in those geographic locations where there is a
reasonable probability of occurrence.
Steel as a Structural Material
Advantages:
:.-
High strength - load carrying capncity
,
Uniformity - properties do not change appreciably over time
,-
Elasticity - follows Hooke's law up to fairly high stresses
,-
Permanence - will last indefinitely
,
Ductility - ability to deform significantly without ~allure
:.-
Toughness - strength and ductility
,-
Geometric flexibility - addition to existing structures
,
Miscellaneous
• can be fastened together by simple connections
• adaptation to prefabrication
• speed up construction
• can be rolled into various sizes and shapes
Disadvantages:
, maintenance cost
, fireproofing costs
, susceptibility to buckling
-, fatigue
:.- brittle failure
Steel Structures:

, Framed Structures - multi-storey buildings, industrial buildings, churches, arenas , bridges.Roof

system may be a series of plane trusses, a space truss, a dome, flat or gabled rigid frames

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,Shell-Type Structures - containment vessel to store liquids, storage bins, tanks, hulls of ships,
aircraft body. It is designed by specialists.
, Suspension- Type Structures - tension cables are the major supporting elements as in
suspension bridges
Structural Steel:
,Plain Carbon Steel (ASTM A36) - commonly known as mild steel, with 1%carbon, mostly consists
of iron and carbon. More carbon content makes steel more brittle or less ductile.
, Low-Alloy Steel (ASTM A572 Grade 50) - composed of iron and 5% carbon, plus other
components that primarily increase the strength but at the expense of reduction in
ductility.
, High-Alloy Steel (ASTM A992) - similar components as of low-alloy steel, but of higher number
of other components. They are higher in strength than plain carbon and corrosive resistant.
Standard Cross-Sectional Shapes:
:,. Hot-rolled - Molten steel is taken from the furnace and poured into a continuous casting system.
Hot-rolling allows the material to deform without loss in ductility.
:... Cold-formed - created by bending thin material such as sheet steel or plate into desired shape
without heating.
Works of the Structural Engineer:
, Arranges and proportions structures and their parts.
, Studies possible structural forms that can be used.
, Determine loading conditions
, Analyzes stresses and deflection.
,, Design of structural members.
► Prepares the design drawings and specificatioris.

Responsibilities of the Structural Engineer:

,Safety - Support loads without excessive deflection or vibration.
,Cost - Lower cost without sacrificing strength.
► Practicality - Structure can be built without great problem.
Economical Design of Steel Members:
, material cost vs. labor cost
, open communications between designers, fabricators, erectors, etc.
, select steel sections which are easily rolled
:...
consider uniformity of sizes
, consider overall building height in selection depth of members
► select beam spacing to reduce number of members to be fabricated
,. paint should be applied only if required
, repeating section to reduce detailing, fabrication, and erection costs
,. consider transportation cost and related problems for large sections
, easy maintenance or accessibility

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, consider aesthetic appearance of structure

Failures of Structures:

, insufficient attention to details (connections, splicing, cut-off locations embedme,1t etc )

, omit to estimate deflections
>- installation problems
, foundation settlement
, improper use
, failure to consider forces such as twisting in connections, bending in truss members
, insufficient bearing or anchorage
, inadequate provision for drainage on roof
, fatigue of members
, inadequate bracing system
Calculation Accuracy
, Structural design is not an exact science
-,, Fictitious sense of precision
Use of Computers in Structural Steel Design:
, increase computational efficiency
, reduce the engineer's "feel" for the structure

Specifications, Loads, and Methods of Design

, Building Codes

- a legal document containing requirements related to such things as structural safety fire safety
plumbing, ventilation, and accessibility to the physically disabled
- has a force of law and is administered by a governmental entity
- contains requirements related to structural safety, fire safety, plumbing, ventilation and accessibility
- do not specify design procedures but specify design requirements and constraints
Uniform Building Code (USC), 1997 - formed by the international conference of building officials The
only one used in the western part of United States

Standard Building Code (SBC), 1999 - has been used m the south-eastern United States

Boca National Building Code (BOCA), 1999 - Building officials and code adm1n1strators has been
used in the north-eastern United States.

National Structural Code of the Pl11l1ppines (NSCP) - used in the Ph1hpp1nes

, Design Specifications

- present more specific guidelines and criteria in the design of structur,1I rwn1ber-.; ,1 ,J tht':r
connections to achieve the objectives 111c1ndated by a build111g codt>
- based on tl1e lc1test research tllld are periodically revised or upd,1ted throu~h trit• s~u,mce ot
supplements or completely 11ew ed1t1011s
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Governing 80010s:

• Ame11can Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)

• American Association of State Highway anct Trlrnsportc1t1011 Officials (AASHTO)
• A111eric.1n R.:11lway E11~11neenng nnd Maintenance-of way Association (AREMA)
• American Iron ,md Stt~el lnstitule (AISI)
• American Weldl!l~J Society (AWS)
• Association of Structur, 1I r nqi1wurs ol 11111 I111111ppines (ASEP)

-,, Design Philosophies:

• Plastic Design - llJsed on the co11side ral1011 of failure conditions rather than working load
conditions A member is selected based on the criterion that the structure fails at a load much
larger than the working or service load.

• Allowable Stress Design (ASO) - A section is selected based on either area or moment of inertia
large enough to prevent the maximum stress from exceeding the allowable stress.

The relationship between load and strength can be expressed as Ra $ R;

where
Ra = required strength
R11 = nominal strength
n = safety factor (due to yield = 1.67. due to fracture= 2.0)
Rn = allowable strength
n

The combination of loads for ASD are:

1. D+ F
2. D+ H+ F+ L+ T
3. D + H + F + (LR ors or R)
4. 0 + H + F + 0.75(L + T) + 0.75(LR or S or R)
5. D + H + F + (W or 0.?E)
6. D + H + F + 0.75 (W or 0.?E) + 0.?L + 0.75(LR or Sor R)
7. 0.6D + W + H
8. 0.6D + 0.?E + H

• Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) - similar to plastic design, where factored loads are
applied. A member is selected using the factored loads, but factored strength is reduced to usable
strength by applying a resistance factor.

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The value of tl1e load factor for a particular load effect will depend on the combination of loads under
consideration.

where
Ru = required strength = sum of factored load effects (forces or moments)
0 = resistance factor (due to yield=0.90, due to fracture=0.75)
R11 = nominal strengtl1
0 R11 = design strength

The combination of loads for LRFD are:

• 1.4 (D + F)
• 1.2 (D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.S(LRor Sor R)
• 1.20 + 1.6(LR or S or R) + [(0.5 or 1.0)L or 0.8W]
• 1.20 + 1.6W + (0.5 or 1.0)L + 0.5(LR or Sor R)
• 1.20 + E + (0.5 or 1.0)L + 0.2S
• 0.90+1 .6W+1 .6H
• 0.90 + E + 1.6H
where:
D = dead load
E = earthquake load
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and max. heights
H = load due to lateral earth pressure, groundwater pressure, or pressure of bulk
materials
L = live load
LR = roof live load
R = rain load
S = snow load
T = self-straining force
W = wind load

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS

Structural steels are available in many shapes. The dimension and weight must be added to the
designation to uniquely identify the shape. For example, W 40 x 436 refers to W-shape with overall depth of
approximately 40 inches (1000mm) that weighs 436 lb/ft (640 kg/m).

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Table 1-2 - Structural Shape Designation

- - - - - Shape 0e~ignation
Wide .!l9nge beam _ -
w
American standard beam s
B~ rin_g_pJles_ HP-
-- - -
Miscellaneous (those that cannot be classified M
as W, S, or HP)
-
Channel C
- - - - -
Angle L
-
Structural tee (cut from W or S or M)
- -
Structural tubinq
- - WTTS or ST
- -
_P~ pipe
Plate PL
-
Bar bar

Common Cross Sections

L :

(.__] . _j
TAPERED I-BEAM UNEVEN I-BEAM GENERAL SHAPE

[
SQUARE CHANNEL
[
TAPERED C~ANNEL EQUAL LEG L BEAM
. ' l~
RECTANGULAR L BEAM

c.,- .=i
I
I I
I I 11
SEMI-TAPERED T- u
T-BEAM BEAM TAPERED T-BEAM RECTANGULAR CROSS

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STEEL STANDARD FORMS

I , '

ti

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._ STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION (assignment-provide the illustrations of the marked

topics)

a, STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES (assignment-provide the illustrations)

The most common shapes of structural steel useci in buildings are the American Standard Steel Shapes such
as:
Square Bars
Round Bars
Plate Bars
Angle Bars
Channels - The standard channel has the shape of unsymmetrical balance consisting of two flanges on one
side. It requires lateral support to prevent its tendency to buckle. Channels are generally used as parts of
built-up sections for columns and are also suitable for framing around floor openings, spandrels and lintels
attributed to the absence of flanges on the other side, The channel section is identified as C 15 x 20 which
means that the channel has a depth of 20 cm and weights 15 kg per meter length.
I-Beams - The use of a standard I-beam as a column is uneconomical because the whirl or revolving action
of the member about an axis through the centroid of the web is comparatively small.

Tee Beams
H-Columns
Wide Flanges - Wide Flange sections are designated as W 12 x 24 which mean that the flange has a depth
of 24 cm and weighs 12 kg per meter length, All wide flange sections are generally with parallel face flange

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The framing system can be stiffened against horizontal forces in the following three (3) methods·

Th~ str_ucture is composed of rigid frames which may comprise some hinged joints but there must be suffici8nt
rigid Jomts to ensure Illa! none of the nodes of the frame is free to move sideways. The members may be
straight or c1irved and a variety of shapes may be chosen for such framed structure.

A bracing system which consists of a triangulated framewor~ of rolled sJctions will hold th8 joints together
and further strengthen the framework against lateml loads. ThP center lines ot members converging at a Joint
should intersect at one point. The ;Jints themselves are conventionally assumed to be hinged, so that the
members are either ties or struts, loaded purely in tension or cornµression, respectively. However, the overall
bracing effect of a lattice system can be enhances hy constn,ctin~ it with tiff members and rigid jo111ts

Finally, shear walls in the form of 111orc or lc~ss solid dir1pl1rr1qms, usur1lly of reinforced concretP., transmit the
wind and earthquake forces by shear c1nd bendinq.

The Ultimate Structures for Skyscrapers -

i. THE TUBULAR FRAME

The high-rise building conceived as a rigid tube ---

If a high-rise building is of suitably compact shape on plan (circular, square, not too narrow a rectangle). the
external columns can be structurally merged with the external lattice bracing or with spandrel girders so as
to form a vast rigid tube. This stiffening system is particularly effective and economical. This is due not only
to the optimum distribution of the bracing, but also more particularly to the co-operation of all the columns
and bracing or spandrel girders in the external walls.

j. JOINING OF STEEL MEMBERS

Steel shapes can be joined in the building frame using any of the following fastening methods:

• RIVETING

A rivet is a short pin, of malleable metal such as iron, steel, or copper, with a head at one end; used to unite
two metal plates by passing it through a hole in both plates and then hammering d.own the point to for a
second head.

In structural riveting, a hot steel rivet with a formed head is inserted in holes through two members to be
joined; its head is then held with a hand hammer with a cup shaped depression, whil_e a pne_umatic ham1~e1·
drives a rivet set repeatedly against the other end to form a second head. The nvet shrinks as 1t cools, drawing
members tightly together.

• BOLTING

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 l he bolts commonly used in steel frame construction falls into t,.,o 9€:ne'cJ, Cdler,0ri ;'.

Carbon-steel bolts - or common bolts; are similar to the ord,;iary machine bolts Cart cri W: ~
steel having no specified minimum content of alloying elements rrI111mum cooper cr,r;tP,'"1! ~r '
exceeding 0.40%.

High-strength bolts - are bolts made of either high-strength Cdrbon steel or qu2nched ar11JteJ11pered
alloy steel; tempered meaning, heat treated during manufacture to develop the necessarv strengt/1
It is usually tightened using pneumatic or electric impact wrench

A major problem i:1 high strength bolting or friction type connections is how to verify the necessar; tens " r
has been achieved in all the bolts in a connection.
There are several ways to achieve proper tightening:

Turn-of-nut method
Load indicator washer
Tens ion control bolts

• WELDING

Welding has become fully accepted as a means of joining steel structural members Ir, buildings bec.1us8 t
has the inherent advantage of fusing the metals to be joined, thereby simplifying connections and fabrrrat1·1q
operations.

DEFINITION OF FUSION WELDING (ELECTRIC ARC WELDING)

The fusion welding process employs an electric arc, wherein energy In the tomi of heat Is supplied by
establishing an arc between the base or parent metal (the parts to be joined) anrl a metal electrode As tht'
arc is formed, tremendous heat is concentrated at the point of welding. Instantly the materials Jre at melt111q
point temperature
The parent metal melts in a small pool and additional rr,etal supplied by the electrode Is transferred throuqh
the arc an deposited in the pool As the electrode continues along the Joint, the molten metal left behind
solidifies to form the weld

COATED ELECTRODES

Most welding Is done with coated electrodes The function ot the coating Is to form a gaseous stwliJ \\ h t'
protects the arc and molten metal from contact with the air Oxides and 111tr1des resulting trom Cl)nt.1 r .,.., ,1,,
thr, air tend to produce brittle welds The coating also fomis a slag-fuse shield which floats atx.ivt• 1t1, P i't•'
metc1!, protecting it from the atmosphere The slag Is easily removecl aHPr the ""e'd ha" l ooled
 1he size and strer.gth 0 f 1 1:i determined by the /enJtn e,f ,:s /~'.:i
· wed

For an E60 electrode AJ

on 6 steel the allowab e stress ma; t,e cc:-r;;..,+. :Jr t,,., ::,c.~.,' , 1
~
linear inch per 1/16 inch of leg size.

For A36 steel or higher-strength steels up to Fy = 6C ks, ari E70 e.ec'rorii:: s'"l()J J b2 L:;r ~ 1 -; '
allowable stress may be computed on the basis of 930 pounds per linear I'lc" PE:~ ~ •6 nc'. c..' er; ~ ·

TYPES OF WELD

FILLE f WELD - is of approximately triangular section J0111Ing two s:.irfaces apprcximate:y ar ' :ti'. r ·P r
each other. The fillet weld is the most common type of weld used in structural v.or,.

GROOVE WELD - is mad8 by depositing filler material in a riroove between t\',,O members 1~ :e ··t !
standard types of grooves are square, V, Bevel-U. and J With the exception of t~e SQJ3':? G'C ' 1 ·~

grooves may be either single or double.

PLUG or SLOT WELD - is made of a circular hole (plug) or an elongateJ hole (slot) 1r' orw ' 1,'n'''• r rt ; ll
joint, joining that member to the portion of the surface of the other member that Is E''<posed t:""'l ;r1 ·t'
hole

WEI D POSITIONS

There are four positions in welding. In order of economy they are the flat horizontal vcrt1c<1I .in, I nv, rr, 1,'
positions Overhead welds, which Is the most difficult, should be avo,dec1 whPnevN ross1blt)

WHO JOINTS

The three most common Joints used in structural work are the butt T and lap Joints Ot11er typt,:, «11•1 tht: cd'JP
and r:omer joints Fillet welds are apphcable to T lap and corner Joints groove welds .ir11 appllc;1blf• tu
all joints with the exception of lap joints

Note
(assignm~nr)
Study the 1/lustrat,ons and ,lOtat,ons of the STANDARD WELDING SYMBOLS

Be ready for a qwz 1

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