ELECTRICAL Presentation1 PDF

PART 1: RELATIONSHIP WITH ELECTRICITY
A. LESSONS, AWARENESS & SAFETY

B. Ib, In, Iz
C. FAULTY RELATIONSHIPS
PART 2: PROTECTION AGAINST FAULTY RELATIONSHIP

A. INSULATION PROTECTION
B. CIRUIT PROTECTION
C. INDIRECT & DIRECT PROTECTION
D. EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
E. DE-RATING FACTOR
PART 3: WHY FORMULA FOR STRONG RELATIONSHIP

A. WHY SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATION?
B. WHY VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATION?
C. WHY GROUNDING SYSTEM?
D. WHY SERVICE ENTRANCE?
PART 4: HOW WE TEST OUR RELATIONSHIP WITH ELECTRICITY?

A. DEAD or ALIVE?
B. Q & A
PART 1: RELATIONSHIP WITH
ELECTRICITY
LESSONS, AWARENESS & SAFETY
Lessons in Relationship
• “Healthy relationships are a vital component
of health and wellbeing. There is compelling
evidence that strong relationships contribute
to a long, healthy, and happy life.”
 In order for us to have healthy relationship
we should take good care of it.
 This is true with our relationship with
electricity.
 Our relationship with electricity is mostly
taken for granted, even to the point that we
don’t really know if we have a relationship at
all…
• Until something really bad had happened
In Conclusion, our relationship with electricity is:
 Very poor
 Very weak
 Unhealthy and getting out of control
• Reasons for our unhealthy relationship with electricity are:
 Ignorance
 Lack of understanding of basic principles
 Lack of awareness
 Resistance to change
 Insensitive
 Irresponsible
 No willingness
Basically, the problem is not only technical it’s getting more
personal.
How to have healthy relationship with Electricity?
 Do not ignore electricity.
 Seek and learn basic electricity principles
 Be always aware
 Acceptance to change
 Be sensible & Responsible
 Wiliness to take good care of the relationship
• In Electrical Perspective, Only with healthy

relationship with electricity, we can attain safe,
long, healthy, and happy life.
Awareness with Electricity
Let us first define who are in the relationship
 Yourself as the End user
 Yourself as the Electrical Designer
 Yourself as the Electrical Practitioner /
Inspectors
 Yourself as the Electrical power provider
 Your Electrical System
• Let us define each of their roles & responsibility in the relationship
• Yourself as the end user – Should be aware of the electrical
system not of the deeper level but on the basic level, like the
following:
 Knowing basic electrical safety
 Knowing the location of Panel Boards, Switches, power outlets
 Knowing to isolate the main switches in case of emergency
 Knowing how to use properly portable power equipment
 Knowing the load limits and not overloading power outlets and
extension cords
 Know when to report any faulty or not working power outlets &
switches.
• Yourself as the Electrical Designer – Should be
aware of the electrical system not just on the basic
level but on design level, like the following:
 Knowing electrical design safety guidelines &
regulations
 Advance Design Calculations
 Compliance to PEC code.
• Yourself as the Electrical Practitioner / Inspectors–
Should be aware of the electrical system not just on the
basic level but on installation, operation and
maintenance level:
 Knowing electrical safety guidelines & regulations for
o Installation – Electrical Contractors & Inspectors
o Operation & Maintenance – Electrical Maintenance Personnel
 Basic Calculations, such as
o Cable sizing
o Load Calculation
o Circuit Protection rating
 Compliance to PEC code.
• Yourself as the Power Provider – Should be
aware of the electrical system not just on the basic
level but on installation, operation and maintenance
level:
 Knowing electrical safety guidelines & regulations
 Service Entrance design, installation, operation
and maintenance
 Compliance to Distribution code.
• Your Electrical System – Total awareness of

your electrical system start within yourself as the
end user, and extends to the Electrical Designer,
Electrical Practitioner / Inspectors and Electrical
power provider.
“Only with complete awareness of our
relationship with electricity we can
guarantee our electrical safety”
“Our technological powers increase, but the

side effects and potential hazards also
escalate.”
Alvin Toffler
SAFETY with Electricity
• What is Electrical Safety?
• Electrical Safety is the complete awareness of our
relationship with electricity, in which we are in a
certain degree of knowing by awareness the
potential safety risk, hazards, and effects involving
electricity.
• Knowing your part in the relationship with electricity
will define the hazards you are involve with.
The table shows the hazard matrix involve in your relationship with Electricity:
SN Identity Area Potential Risk & Hazards
1 End User Home / Office / Work place 1. Outdated or Poor Wiring
2. Leaving Appliances Plugged-in Near
Water Sources
3. Wrong Wattage Light Bulbs
4. Overloaded power strips and Outlets
5. Unprotected Electrical Outlets
6. Improper Use of Extension Cords
7. Operating an Unsafe Appliance
2 Electrical Design 1. Design Calculations errors
Designer
3 Electrical Construction Site, Electrical 1. Improper Grounding
Practitioner / Rooms, Substations, 2. Exposed Electrical Parts
Inspectors Transmission, Distribution, Power 3. Inadequate Wiring
plants 5. Damaged Insulation
6. Overloaded Circuits
7. Damaged Tools & Equipment
8. Wet Conditions
9. Overhead Power Lines
4 Power Provider do do
What happens if we don’t mitigate
the potential risk and hazards of
electricity?
•Damaged to Property – due to
overheating and fires
•Injury or Loss of Life – due to
electrocution
Home Electrical Safety Video
Safety at Job Site Video
Step & Touch Potential Video
Powerline Electrical Safety Video
Do Volts or Amps Kill You? Voltage, Current and Resistance Video
Ib, In, Iz Relationship
Aside from physical awareness as discussed in the
previous topic, any relationship needs a secret
ingredient to keep it healthy. Ib, In, and Iz are the
electricity secret ingredient. However, correct
ingredient mixture is needed and very important.
So what is Ib, In, & Iz?
• Ib is the term refers to circuit load in Amps.
• In is the term refers to circuit protection rating.
• Iz is the term refers to conductor Amps rating.
The right mixture shall be always:
Ib x1.2 < In x 1.2 < Iz

For example:
Power = 2000W
Vac = 220V, 60Hz, 1Phase
Compute for Ib, In, & Iz
From basic formula of Power,

Power = Ib x Vac
Then, Ib = Power / Vac
Ib = 2000W / 220V = 9.09 Amps
Following the right mixture, that Ib x 1.2 shall

be < In,
In = Ib x 1.2 = 9.09 x 1.2 = 10.09A , therefore
select the next standard rating of 15Amps.
Following the right mixture, that In x 1.2 shall be < Iz,
• Iz = In x 1.2 = 15 x 1.2 = 18A , therefore select the
wire size with higher than 18A ampacity.
• As standard we use min of 2.0mm2 with ampacity
of 25A.
• The given mixture, however, may be adjusted to
comply with short circuit, voltage drop calculations
and de-rating factors
FAULTY RELATIONSHIPS
In this topic, we will discuss about
our 12 faulty relationships with
electricity.
What are they? Actually the term
1. Opens
2. Shorts
3. Overloads
4. Overheating
“Faulty Electrical
5. Arc Flash wiring”
6. Ground Leakage
7. Insulation failure
8. Circuit protection failure Is very controversial does not really
9. Overvoltage give us the specific fault, it’s a
10.Under voltage
11.Harmonics general term.
12.Transients
1. Opens – failure of a conductor or wires, loosed

connection, or cut wires.
2. Shorts –an electrical fault that allows a current to
travel along an unintended path with no or a very
low electrical impedance. This results in an excessive
amount of current flowing into the circuit.
3. Overloads - An overload occurs when you draw
more electricity than a circuit can safely handle.
4. Overheating - Overheating is a phenomenon of rising
of temperature in an electric circuit (or portion of a circuit).
Overheating causes potential damage to the circuit
components, and can cause fire, explosion, or injury. Damage
caused by overheating are commonly irreversible; i.e. the only
way to repair is to replace some components.
5. Arc Flash - An arc flash (also called a flashover), is the

light and heat produced as part of an arc fault, a type
of electrical explosion or discharge that results from a low-
impedance connection through air to ground or another voltage
phase in an electrical system.
6. Ground Leakage - is the flow of current from a live conductor
to the earth through the insulation.
7. Insulation failure - when current flows through an electrical insulator when the
voltage applied across it exceeds the breakdown voltage. This results in the insulator
becoming electrically conductive. Electrical breakdown may be a momentary event (as in
an electrostatic discharge), or may lead to a continuous arc if protective devices fail to
interrupt the current in a power circuit.
8. Circuit protection failure – failure of circuit protection
device to clear overload and short circuit faults.
9. Overvoltage - voltage in excess of the normal operating voltage
of a device or circuit
10. Under voltage - Undervoltage is defined as a condition where
the applied voltage drops to 90% of rated voltage, or less, for at
least 1 minute. Low-voltage conditions occur when a facility asks
for more power than the line can deliver.
11. Harmonics - Harmonic is multiple of the fundamental
frequency and it can be voltage and current in an electric
power system are a result of non-linear electric loads.
Harmonic frequencies in the power grid are a frequent cause
of power quality problems. Harmonics in power systems result
in increased heating in the equipment and conductors,
misfiring in variable speed drives, and torque pulsations in
motors. Reduction of harmonics is considered desirable.
12. Transients - spikes are fast, short duration
electrical transients in voltage (voltage spikes), current
(current spikes), or transferred energy (energy spikes) in an
electrical circuit.
Overload and Overheating Video
Shorts and Arcing Video
Loose Wiring
PART 2: PROTECTION
AGAINST FAULTY
RELATIONSHIP
INSULATION PROTECTION
• INSULATION PROTECTION – Insulators are used in electrical
equipment to support and separate electrical conductors without
allowing current through themselves. An insulating material used
in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is
called insulation. The term insulator is also used more specifically
to refer to insulating supports used to attach electric power
distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and transmission
towers. They support the weight of the suspended wires without
allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground.
Characteristics of wire insulations - IEC 60502-1
• Voltage levels
• Temperature
• Insulation material type
INSULATION TYPES
XHHW stands for "XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) High Heat-
resistant Water-resistant." XHHW is a designation for a specific insulation
material, temperature rating, and condition of use (suitable for wet
locations) for electrical wire and cable.
Voltage : 110-600 volts AC
• Temperature: According to Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Standard
44,[16] XHHW insulation is suitable for use in dry locations up to 90°C
(194°F), or wet locations up to 75°C (167°F).
• XHHW-2 insulation, which is similar to XHHW, is suitable for use in dry
or wet locations up to 90°C (194°F).
• THWN stands for "Thermoplastic Heat and Water-
resistant Nylon-coated."[17] THWN is a designation for
a specific insulation material, temperature rating, and
condition of use (wet locations) for electrical wire and
cable.
• THHN stands for "Thermoplastic High Heat-resistant
Nylon-coated."[18] THHN is a designation for a specific
insulation material, temperature rating, and condition
of use (suitable for dry and damp locations) for
electrical wire and cable.
• Wire with THWN or THHN insulation is commonly
used in the AC electrical distribution systems
throughout North America, usually at voltage levels
from 110 to 600 volts. This type of insulation is used
for both copper and aluminum conductors [15] which
are either solid or stranded, depending on size. Many
wires are rated both THWN and THHN, and are
suitable for use in dry locations up to 90°C (194°F), or
wet locations up to 75°C (167°F).
Fire rated cables – IEC 60331 & BS 6387
• CWZ - 950C for 3 hours, water spray and mechanical
shock at 950C
• CY - 950C for 3 hours, and mechanical shock at 750C
• ASWX - 650C for 3 hrs, 950C for 20min, water spray and
mechanical shock at 650C
ENCLOSURE PROTECTION
Protection by barriers or enclosures – select

equipment with suitable degree of protection (IP) to
withstand the ingress of solid objects and liquid
enclosure NEMA definition enclosure
type no. class
General-purpose. Protects against dust, light, and indirect
splashing but is not dust-tight; primarily prevents contact
1 IP10
with live parts; used indoors and under normal atmospheric
conditions.
Drip-tight. Similar to Type 1 but with addition of drip
2 shields; used where condensation may be severe (as in IP11
cooling rooms and laundries).
Weather-resistant. Protects against weather hazards such
3 and 3S as rain and sleet; used outdoors on ship docks, in IP54
construction work, and in tunnels and subways.
Intended for outdoor use. Provides a degree of protection
3R against falling rain and ice formation. Meets rod entry, rain, IP14
external icing, and rust-resistance design tests.
Watertight (weatherproof). Must exclude at least 65 GPM of
water from 1-in. nozzle delivered from a distance not less
4 and 4X IP56
than 10 ft for 5 min. Used outdoors on ship docks, in
dairies, and in breweries.
Dust-tight. Provided with gaskets or equivalent to exclude
5 IP52
dust; used in steel mills and cement plants.
Submersible. Design depends on specified conditions of
6 and 6P pressure and time; submersible in water; used in quarries, IP67
mines, and manholes.
Hazardous. For indoor use in Class I, Groups A, B, C, and D
7 —
environments as defined in the NEC.
Hazardous. For indoor and outdoor use in locations classified
8 —
as Class I, Groups A, B, C, and D as defined in the NEC.
Hazardous. For indoor and outdoor use in locations classified
9 —
as Class II, Groups E, F, or G as defined in the NEC.
MSHA. Meets the requirements of the Mine Safety and
10 —
Health Administration, 30 CFR Part 18 (1978).
General-purpose. Protects against the corrosive effects of
11 —
liquids and gases. Meets drip and corrosion-resistance tests.
General-purpose. Intended for indoor use, provides some
12 and protection against dust, falling dirt, and dripping
IP52
12K noncorrosive liquids. Meets drip, dust, and rust resistance
tests.
General-purpose. Primarily used to provide protection
against dust, spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive
13 IP54
coolants. Meets oil exclusion and rust resistance design
tests.
CIRUIT PROTECTION
CIRUIT PROTECTION - an automatically operated electrical switch designed

to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an
overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault
is detected.
CIRUIT PROTECTION
CIRUIT PROTECTION
Characteristics of circuit protection
1. Its rated voltage Ue
2. Its rated current In
3. Its tripping current level adjustment ranges for overload
protection (Ir or Irth) and for short circuit protection (Im),
Current-level setting values which refer to the current
operated thermal and “instantaneous” magnetic tripping
devices for over-load and short circuit protection.
4. Its short circuit current breaking rating (Icu for industrial
CBs; Icn for domestic type CBs).
CIRUIT PROTECTION
Low Voltage circuit Protection - IEC 60898-1 & IEC 60947-2
INDIRECT & DIRECT PROTECTION
IEC 60364, IEC 60479 series, IEC 61008, IEC 61009 and IEC 60947-2.
Direct contact - A direct contact

refers to a person coming into
contact with a conductor which is
live in normal circumstances (see Fig.
F2). IEC 61140 standard has renamed
“protection against direct contact”
with the term “basic protection”. The
former name is at least kept for
information.
Indirect contact - An indirect contact refers to a
person coming into contact with an exposed
conductive-part which is not normally alive, but
has become alive accidentally (due to insulation
failure or some other cause). The fault current
raise the exposed-conductive-part to a voltage
liable to be hazardous which could be at the origin
of a touch current through a person coming into
contact with this exposed-conductive-part (see Fig.
F3). IEC 61140 standard has renamed “protection
against indirect contact” with the term “fault
protection”. The former name is at least kept for
information.
Indirect Contact protection methods

1. Protection by the insulation of live parts
2. Protection by means of barriers or enclosures
3. Partial measures of protection
4. An additional measure of protection against the
hazards of direct contact is provided by the use of
residual current operating device, which operate at
30 mA or less, and are referred to as RCDs of high
sensitivity
What are RCDs?

These devices operate on the principle of
differential current measurement, in which
any difference between the current
entering a circuit and that leaving it (on a
system supplied from an earthed source)
be flowing to earth, either through faulty
insulation or through contact of an earthed
part, such as a person, with a live
conductor
Direct Contact protection 1. The earthing of all exposed-conductive-
methods parts of electrical equipment in the
Protection against indirect contact installation and the constitution of an
hazards can be achieved by equipotential bonding network.
automatic disconnection of the 2. Automatic disconnection of the supply of
supply if the exposed-conductive- the section of the installation concerned, in
parts of equipment are properly such a way that the touch-voltage/time
earthed. safety requirements are respected for any
level of touch voltage Uc(1) (see Fig. F7).
Direct Contact protection methods

Protection against indirect contact hazards can be
achieved by automatic disconnection of the supply if
the exposed-conductive-parts of equipment are
properly earthed.
1. The earthing of all exposed-conductive-

parts of electrical equipment in the
installation and the constitution of an
equipotential bonding network.
2. Automatic disconnection of the supply of
the section of the installation concerned, in
such a way that the touch-voltage/time
safety requirements are respected for any
level of touch voltage Uc(1) (see Fig. F7).
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
• Purpose of Protection equipment is to
• Minimize damage
• Leave unaffected equipment in-service
• Maintain equipment operating limits
• Maintain electrical system stability
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
• Methods
• Protection by means of circuit-breaker & Fuses –
Shorts, Thermal Overload
• Protection by means of Under and over voltage device
• Protection by means of Residual Current Devices
• Protection by means of SPDs
DE-RATING FACTOR
• De-rating factor depends on mostly on ambient

temperature and how are the electrical system are
installed.
• De-rating factor will affect the values of In and Iz.
DE-RATING FACTOR
• For Iz:
DE-RATING FACTOR
• For In:
PART 3: WHY FORMULA FOR
STRONG RELATIONSHIP
WHY SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATION?
• A Short Circuit analysis is used to determine the
magnitude of short circuit current the system is
capable of producing and compares that magnitude
with the interrupting rating of the overcurrent
protective devices (OCPD).
• Calculating the short circuit fault at a particular
level defines the short Circuit withstand capacity of
the protective devices.
• If the short circuit rating of the protection device is

less than the calculated and actual SC fault, then
the protection device cannot withstand the short
circuit fault and will explode.
WHY VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATION?
• A voltage analysis is used to determine the
magnitude of voltage drop in a circuit which is
important to know due to the following
reasons:
• Low voltage increases current
• Increase in current reduces equipment life.
• Increase in current cause overheating and
possible fire.
• Able to adjust the conductor size if voltage
drop is greater than 5%.
WHY GROUNDING SYSTEM?
Grounding is the process of creating an alternative path for the
flow of fault/excessive currents safely into the ground in the
presence of minimal resistance or impedance.
Primary purpose
• Reduce the risk of serious electric shock from current leaking
into uninsulated metal parts of an appliance, power tool, or
other electrical devices
• In a properly earthed system, such leaking/fault current is
carried away harmlessly while tripping the fuse
• Grounding also provides protection from large electrical
disturbances like lightning strikes and power surges
• Aids in the dissipation of hazardous static electrical charges
• Prevents electrocution
Although most electrical systems have fuses or circuit breakers

for protection against a fault current, the human body may be
fatally electrocuted by a current of less than one ampere which
is well below the point at which a fuse . Grounding helps
minimize such hazards from occurring. Hence, good and
permanent efficient Grounding is an integral part of any
electrical system as it is directly related to the safety of human
life as well as the equipment.
Protective earthing
An earth ground connection of the exposed
conductive parts of electrical equipment helps
protect from electric shock by keeping the exposed
conductive surface of connected devices close to
earth potential, when a failure of electrical
insulation occurs.
When a fault occurs, current flows from the power
system to earth. The current may be high enough
to operate the over current protection fuse or
circuit breaker, which will then interrupt the circuit.
Protective earthing
To ensure the voltage on exposed surfaces is not too high,
the impedance (resistance) of the connection to earth
must be kept low relative to the normal circuit
impedance.
An alternative to protective earthing of exposed surfaces
is a design with "double insulation" or other precautions,
such that a single failure or highly probable combination
of failures cannot result in contact between live circuits
and the surface.
Protective earthing
For example, a hand-held power tool might have an
extra system of electrical insulation between internal
components and the case of the tool, so that even if
the insulation for the motor or switch fails, the tool
case is not energized.
Functional earthing
• A functional earth connection serves a purpose other
than electrical safety, and may carry current as part of
normal operation.
• For example, in a single-wire earth return power
distribution system, the earth forms one conductor of
the circuit and carries all the load current. Other
examples of devices that use functional earth
connections include surge suppressors and
electromagnetic interference filters.
Low-voltage systems Grounding
• In low-voltage networks, which distribute the electric power
to the widest class of end users, the main concern for design
of earthing systems is safety of consumers who use the
electric appliances and their protection against electric
shocks.
• The earthing system, in combination with protective devices
such as fuses and residual current devices, must ultimately
ensure that a person must not come into touch with a
metallic object whose potential relative to the person's
potential exceeds a "safe" threshold, typically set at about
50 V.
IEC terminology
• International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of
earthing arrangements, using the two-letter codes TN, TT, and IT.
• The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the
power-supply equipment (generator or transformer):
• "T" — Direct connection of a point with earth (Latin: Terra)
• "I" — No point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps
via a high impedance.
• The second letter indicates the connection between earth or
network and the electrical device being supplied:
• "T" — Earth connection is by a local direct connection to earth
(Latin: terra), usually via a ground rod.
• "N" — Earth connection is supplied by the electricity supply
Network, either as a separate protective earth (PE) conductor or
combined with the neutral conductor.
• Types of TN networks
• In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator
or transformer is connected with earth, usually the star
point in a three-phase system. The body of the electrical
device is connected with earth via this earth connection at
the transformer. This arrangement is a current standard for
residential and industrial electric systems particularly in
Europe.
• The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of
the consumer's electrical installation is called protective
earth (PE; see also: Ground). The conductor that connects
to the star point in a three-phase system, or that carries
the return current in a single-phase system, is called
neutral (N). Three variants of TN systems are distinguished:
• TN−S
• PE and N are
separate
conductors that
are connected
together only
near the power
source
• TN−C
• A combined PEN
conductor fulfils
the functions of
both a PE and an N
conductor. (on
230/400v systems
normally only used
for distribution
networks)
• TN−C−S
• Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at
some point split up into separate PE and N lines.
• The combined PEN conductor typically occurs between the
substation and the entry point into the building, and earth
and neutral are separated in the service head.
• In the UK, this system is also known as protective multiple
earthing (PME), because of the practice of connecting the
combined neutral-and-earth conductor via the shortest
practicable route to a local Earth-Rod at the source and at
each premises, to provide both System Earthing and
Equipment Earthing at each of these locations
• TN−C−S
• TT network
• In a TT (Terra-Terra) earthing system, the protective earth
connection for the consumer is provided by a local earth
electrode, (sometimes referred to as the Terra-Firma
connection) and there is another independently installed
at the generator. There is no 'earth wire' between the
two. The fault loop impedance is higher, and unless the
electrode impedance is very low indeed, a TT installation
should always have an RCD (GFCI) as its first isolator.
• The big advantage of the TT earthing system is the
reduced conducted interference from other users'
connected equipment. TT has always been preferable for
special applications like telecommunication sites.
• TT network
IT network
• In an IT network, the
electrical distribution
system has no connection
to earth at all, or it has
only a high impedance
connection.
• Comparison
• GROUNDING TYPE VIDEO
WHY SERVICE ENTRANCE?
• Service entrance is very important component the
electrical system and the least understood part.
• Most-Common-Errors-in-Service-Entrance-Installations-
Residential-and-Small-Medium-Commercial-Buildings-
Secondary-Voltage

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PART 1: RELATIONSHIP WITH ELECTRICITY

A. LESSONS, AWARENESS & SAFETY

PART 2: PROTECTION AGAINST FAULTY RELATIONSHIP

PART 3: WHY FORMULA FOR STRONG RELATIONSHIP

PART 4: HOW WE TEST OUR RELATIONSHIP WITH ELECTRICITY?

• In Electrical Perspective, Only with healthy

• Your Electrical System – Total awareness of

“Our technological powers increase, but the

The right mixture shall be always:

Ib x1.2 < In x 1.2 < Iz

From basic formula of Power,

Following the right mixture, that Ib x 1.2 shall

1. Opens – failure of a conductor or wires, loosed

5. Arc Flash - An arc flash (also called a flashover), is the

Protection by barriers or enclosures – select

CIRUIT PROTECTION - an automatically operated electrical switch designed

Direct contact - A direct contact

Indirect Contact protection methods

What are RCDs?

Direct Contact protection methods

1. The earthing of all exposed-conductive-

• De-rating factor depends on mostly on ambient

• If the short circuit rating of the protection device is

Although most electrical systems have fuses or circuit breakers

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