Engineering 1A: General Chemistry

For Engineers

Fall Quarter 2019

University of California, Irvine
 Suggested Problems

• Chapter 1, Problems: 5-9, 11, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 23,
25, 27, 30 in Atkins
 The Early Periodic Table
• Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the
elements in a table according to atomic
weight
• The table showed that elements exhibit
an apparent periodicity of properties
and can be group according to their
distinctive properties
• Henry Moseley later rearranged the
table according to atomic number
+
 The Periodic Table
• The periodic table is a chart in
which elements having similar
chemical and physical
properties are grouped
together. The elements are
arranged by increasing atomic
number (Z).
• Periods: Horizontal rows of the
table
• Groups or Families: Elements
with similar chemical and
physical properties, aligned
vertically on the periodic table
– 1A-8A are known as main
group elements
– 1B-8B are known as
transition elements
 The Periodic Table

• Metals: Solids (except Hg),

which conduct electricity,
ductile and malleable

• Nonmetals: Solids, gases, and

one liquid (Br). Except for
graphitic carbon, they all do not
conduct electricity.

• Metalloids: Sometimes called

semimetals because these
elements have some properties
that resemble metals and some
properties that resemble
nonmetals.
 The Periodic Table

• Group 1A: Known as the Alkali

Metals
– All solids
– All very reactive
 The Periodic Table

• Group 2A: Known as the Alkaline Earth

Metals
– Mg and Ca are the 7th and 5th most
abundant elements in the earths crust
– React with water to form alkaline
solutions
 The Periodic Table

• Group 3A: Contains the first metalloid

Boron, as well as Al, which is the most
abundant element in the earths crust
 The Periodic Table

• Group 4A: First group containing

nonmetals
– Often form allotropes (elements that
exist in different and distinct forms)
– Carbon’s allotropes include graphite
and diamond
 The Periodic Table

• Group 5A: Contains nitrogen, which

makes up about three fourths of the
Earth’s atmosphere
 The Periodic Table

• Group 6A: Commonly known as the

Chalcogens
– Most of their compounds are foul
smelling and poisonous
– Sulfur and selenium are essential in
the human diet
 The Periodic Table

• Group 7A: Known as the Halogens

– Nonmetals that exist as diatomic
molecules
– F2 and Cl2 are gases, Br2 is a liquid,
and I2 is a solid
 The Periodic Table

• Group 8A: Known as the Noble Gases

– The least reactive elements
– All gases
 The Periodic Table
• Group 1B-8B: Known as the Transition
Elements
– All metals
– 13 of them are in the top 30 most
abundant elements in the earth’s crust
– Some are unreactive enough to exists
in nature in their pure form
 The Periodic Table
• Two Rows at the Bottom of the Table:
Known as the Lanthanides and Actinides
– Many frequently unstable radioactive
compounds of high atomic number
– Applications in nuclear energy
 Waves

– One of the most useful techniques for analyzing and

understanding elements, compounds, and materials in
general is known as spectroscopy
– Spectroscopy operates primarily by studying the interaction
between matter and radiated energy, most commonly in
the form of electromagnetic waves
– Understanding the properties and science of waves is
therefore crucial to a deeper chemical understanding
 Properties of Waves

– Wavelength: lambda, , the distance between successive

crest or high points of a wave (usually measured in m or
nm)
– Frequency: nu, , the number of waves that pass a given
point in some unit of time (usually per second). The unit of
frequency, written as s-1 or 1/s is called Hertz.
– Amplitude: A, height of the wave, units depend on type of
wave

A
c

 = 400 nm  = 700 nm
 Electromagnetic Radiation
• Electromagnetic Radiation is the transmission and emission
of energy as waves; examples include light, microwaves,
radio signals, and x-rays
• Electromagnetic waves have both electric components and
magnetic components, which are mutually perpendicular
 Electromagnetic Radiation

• Wavelength, frequency, and the speed at which a wave

moves are related

c (m/s) =  (m) x  (1/s) clight = 2.99792458 x 108 m/s

The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Quantization: Planck, Einstein, Energy, and Photons
At the end of the 19th century, scientists were not able to explain the
relationship between the intensity and the wavelength for the radiation
given off by a heated object, which is often called blackbody radiation.
 Planck’s Equation and Qunatization

•Planck: Assumed that the radiation emitted was caused by

vibrating atoms called oscillators. If each oscillator had some
frequency, the following equation was found to describe the
energy of the emitted radiation:

E = nh = hc /  where n is an integer

•Planck proposed that energy is quantized, meaning that

only certain energies are allowed.

•Planck’s Constant: h = 6.6260693 x 10-34 J*s

 Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect
•Photoelectric Effect: electrons are ejected when light strikes
the surface of a metal, but only if the frequency is high
enough (above a specific threshold for each metal).
•Rate at which electrons are ejected is proportional to the
intensity of the incident light
•Energy of the ejected electrons is not proportional to the
light intensity
•Effect could not be explained by treating light as a wave
 Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect
•Einstein proposed that light was also quantized and can be
viewed as particles called photons
•This means that electromagnetic radiation, which was
previously thought to be wave-like, also has some of the
properties of particles
•Photons of higher frequency radiation have higher energies
and photons of lower frequency radiation have lower
energies
 Atomic Line Spectra
• The light falling to earth from the sun, or the light emitted by a very hot
object consists of a continuous spectrum of wavelengths, but light from
excited atoms consists of only a few different wavelengths of light.

• Line Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen: the spectrum obtained from

passing a beam of light from the excited sample through a prism, which
becomes separated into its individual wavelengths, producing a
characteristic spectrum.
 Balmer and Rydberg
• In the 19th century, scientists wanted to solve a puzzling observation: why
do excited gaseous atoms only emit light of certain frequencies?
 Balmer and Rydberg
• Balmer, Rydberg, and others found a mathematical relationship between
the observed frequencies.

• The 4 visible lines in the spectrum of hydrogen are now known as the
Balmer series.
– If n = 3 the wavelength of the red line in the Hydrogen spectrum is
obtained.
– If n = 4 the wavelength of the green line in the Hydrogen spectrum is
obtained.
– If n = 5 and 6 the wavelength of the blue lines in the Hydrogen
spectrum are obtained.

Balmer Equation
1/  = R (1/22 - 1/n2), where n is an integer and > 2
Rydberg Constant = R = 1.0974 x 107 m-1
 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
• To explain the emission spectra of excited atoms, Bohr derived an
equation for the energy possessed by the single electron in the nth orbit of
the H atom. He postulated that electrons would orbit the nucleus only in
certain paths, corresponding to quantized energy levels.
 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

Consequences of the Bohr Model/Equation

•n defines the energies of the allowed orbits in the H atom

•The energy of an electron in an orbit has a negative value (the negative

electron is attracted to the positive nucleus).

•An atom with its electrons in the lowest possible energy levels is said to be in
its ground state. For H, this is the level defined by the quantum number n = 1.
States where n > 1 are called excited states.

•As the value of n increases, the distance of the electron from the nucleus
increases.
–An electron in the n = 1 orbit is closest to the nucleus and has the lowest
(most negative) energy
–For higher integers, the electron is further from the nucleus and has a
higher (less negative) energy.
 The Bohr Theory and Spectra of Excited Atoms

n=5 n=5 n=5

n=2 n=2 n=2

n=1 n=1 n=1

Ground state Excited state Ground state

E = Efinal state - Einitial state

• Understanding that a specific amount of energy is required to

go from the ground state to an excited state can explain why
only certain lines are seen in the emission spectra.
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom