Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Applications
David Firth
edited by
Peter Elkington
Foreword
Thousands of boreholes are drilled every year in the search for fossil fuels and mineral
resources. They vary in depth from a few metres to several thousand metres, and vary
in diameter from a few tens of millimetres to several hundred millimetres. They also
vary in orientation from vertically down to vertically up, some being horizontal and
some having complex trajectories. Some are smooth with circular cross sections,
others are rugose with non-circular or irregular sections. And some contain air or gas,
whilst others are filled with liquids ranging from clear, fresh water to heavy, saline
drilling muds.
In every case the same questions are asked: where are the zones of economic interest,
how thick are they, what is the distribution of material in each zone, what is its
quality, and are the rock properties conducive to economic extraction ?
The answers come in large measure from wireline logs (also known as well logs,
borehole logs and electric logs). The first such log was run in an oil well in 1928, and
it was the oil industry that drove developments for the following forty years. Most
texts dealing with log analysis continue to be written from an oil company
perspective.
Slimline logging, the subject of this book, is associated with the lower cost
environment of the coal and non-hydrocarbon minerals industries. The slimline name
was coined by the BPB company which, more than any other has promoted the use of
logs within these industries. Crucially it was the realisation in the 1960s that coal can
be delineated accurately by high-resolution density, neutron and gamma ray logs that
opened up this new market, and BPB Instruments was established in 1970 to exploit
these ideas commercially.
Today the company operates as Reeves Wireline Services, and has itself expanded into
oilfield logging, giving it a unique perspective that comes from the cross-flow of ideas
between scientists working in diverse disciplines.
This book is nevertheless written for the minerals log analyst. Its content reflects the
importance of coal in the development of logging for mining applications, but the
principles are equally applicable to other mining activities.
i
Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1
1.3 Applications 3
2. The Measurements 13
2.5 Calibration 20
4. Borehole Environment 35
4.5 Summary 47
5. Identification of Lithology 49
5.5 Resistivity 55
5.7 Cross-Plots 58
6.4 Caliper 73
6.7 Summary 77
7. Inter-Borehole Correlation 79
1 Introduction
Figure 1.1 A typical log example combining raw data and computed volumetrics
2 Introduction
In Slimline logging, the tool is usually referred to as a sonde, and the log is normally
made with the sonde moving out of the borehole (which allows for greater control
over the logging speed). The weight of the sonde is carried by an armoured steel cable
or wireline, and the electrical signals brought to the surface through one or more
conducting wires within the wireline.
A winch mounted in the surface logging unit controls movement of the sonde into
and out of the borehole. The logging unit also supplies power to the sonde, takes the
electrical signals from the wireline, processes them, then displays and records the
results as a log. Modern logging units are also capable of analysing the data, and
presenting evaluated results or answer products.
Early tools were used primarily to determine depth to coal seams and seam thickness.
As tools became more sophisticated, more quantitative analysis became possible. Coal
ash content, roof and floor rock strength, and sedimentary dip were all routinely
evaluated from logs.
The dramatic growth in the availability and sophistication of Slimline tools meant
that they became increasingly common in non-coal applications - base and precious
metal deposit evaluation, iron ore, evaporite evaluation, geotechnical and civil
engineering work, environmental and hydrogeological logging, tar sands and oil
shale evaluation accounting for much of these.
In all these applications, the ability of the technique to produce a continuous and
objective record of subsurface formations is its greatest asset. It removes many of the
uncertainties associated with the interpretation of chipping records and incomplete
core.
By the 1980s the specialised nature of minerals logging meant that Slimline
equipment was in many important respects different to its larger or "conventional"
oilfield counterpart. However, in the 1990s as oil companies all over the world
struggled to reduce their costs, small diameter oil wells became increasingly
common.
1.3 Applications
The reasons given for running logs invariably include one or more of the following:
♦ lithology identification
♦ minerals grade/quality
♦ inter-borehole correlation
♦ structure mapping
♦ dip determination
♦ rock strength
♦ fracture frequency
♦ porosity
♦ fluid salinity
Land units require some level of off-road capability. Their size is governed by the
deepest borehole likely to be logged, since this dictates the size of winch, and
indirectly the number of tools it is likely to carry.
The winch itself comprises a cable drum, motor and gearbox. The motor is typically
electric, and together with the gearbox must be capable of running a tool into and
out of a borehole quickly, and of winding the cable slowly and smoothly during
data acquisition.
Cable diameters between 0.1 and 0.25 inches are used; selection is controlled by
cable length and the load it needs to carry. Most cables are monocore, that is they
contain a single electrical conductor. Signals are taken from the cable by slip rings
on the drum spindle.
4 Introduction
The length of cable wound to or from a drum is measured with a depth wheel over
which the cable passes; as the wheel rotates it interrupts a magnetic field or light beam
producing a series of electronic pulses. These are interpreted by the depth control
system, and converted to linear depth. Setting the tool depth to zero at a surface
datum point allows borehole depth to be read continuously as cable is spooled in and
out - Figure 1.2.
POWER LOGGING
SUPPLY SKID UNIT
WINCH, SLIP
RINGS & COMPUTER KEYBOARD
CABLE
DRUM
WIRELINE
PRINTER/ DATA
CABLE &
PLOTTER STORAGE
CABLE
HEAD
LOGGING
TOOL
(SONDE)
Figure 1.3 shows the arrangement for logging boreholes over which the drill rig still
stands; boreholes over which there is no rig are logged with the arrangement shown
in Figure 1.4.
TRAVELLING
BLOCK
BOTTOM
PULLEY
DRILL
FLOOR
GAMMA RAY
DETECTOR
BOREHOLE
CALIPER
DOWN-HOLE
DETECTOR LOGGING TOOL
DENSITY OR SONDE
DETECTOR
RADIOACTIVE
SOURCE
Figure 1.3 Typical wireline logging setup in a deep mine environment using a
gamma ray, density and caliper tool
6 Introduction
WINCH DRUM
BOOM AND MOTOR SURFACE
ELECTRONICS
BOREHOLE
WALL
WIRELINE CABLE
AND CABLE HEAD
GAMMA RAY
DETECTOR
BOREHOLE
CALIPER DOWN-HOLE
DETECTOR
LOGGING TOOL
DENSITY OR SONDE
DETECTOR
RADIOACTIVE
SOURCE
Normalisation ensures that different tools of the same type give the same processed
output when logged over the same formation, and in the same borehole
environment. The logging industry has historically called this process calibration,
and the calibration record is printed as a calibration table or "tail". Strictly speaking,
however, calibration encompasses a broader range of procedures, and these are
discussed in Chapter 2.
The acquisition computer also generates the hard copy plots that are essential for
quality control and quick-look style analysis. The plotting device is typically a high
speed thermal plotter; these have the advantage of not requiring ink (they use heat-
sensitive paper or film), and have a minimum of moving parts (which contributes to
their reliability).
Introduction 7
Data and plots generated in this way constitute field data; in the case of simple
logging jobs, this may be the final product. Frequently, however, further processing
may be needed, for example, to merge data from different logging runs, or to
generate interpreted results. This is often done at a base location, and the result is
the final log.
LIS is preferred by the oil business. It handles large volumes of data efficiently, but
requires relatively complex software. It is the prime digital format for image and
waveform data.
LAS is a much simpler digital format accessible to any text editing software or
spreadsheet application. Data are recorded in columns, the first being depth, usually
incremented at the same frequency as the original data, with subsequent columns
containing the other log data. A simple header contains basic identification
information.
Figure 1.5 shows a typical LAS format file listing of 10 cm incremented data
acquired from a gamma ray, caliper, density, sonic and neutron porosity suite of
logs. The data from three logging tools has been merged together prior to the
production of the LAS file. The LAS file in Figure 1.6 is from interactively produced
formation dip tadpoles on a Slim Acoustic Scanner log. Alongside the irregularly
incremented depths are formation dip magnitude, formation dip azimuth and
correlation value (in this case, correlation values reflect only any user inputted
tadpole classifications).
8 Introduction
~Version Information
VERS. 2.00: CWLS log ASCII Standard VERSION 2.00
WRAP. NO: One line per depth step
#
#
~Well Information Block
#MNEM.UNIT Data Type Description
#
STRT.M 740.000 :START DEPTH
STOP.M 737.000 :STOP DEPTH
STEP.M 0.100 :STEP
NULL. 999.250 :NULL VALUE
COMP. :COMPANY
WELL. :WELL
FLD . :FIELD
LOC . :LOCATION
PROV. :PROVINCE
SRVC. Reeves Wireline :SERVICE COMPANY
DATE. 5FEB1999 :LOG DATE
UWI . :UNIQUE WELL ID
#
#
~Curve Information Block
#MNEM.UNIT API Codes Curve Description
#
DEPT.M 00 001 00 01: DEPTH
GRDE.GAPI 00 000 00 00: GAMMA FROM DENSITY TOOL
CADE.IN 00 000 00 00: CALIPER FROM DENSITY
DENB.G/C3 00 000 00 00: DENSITY SHORT SPACED
MC2F.MS/M 00 000 00 00: 20 CM TRANSIT TIME
RPOR.PERC 00 000 00 00: SANDST NEUTRON POROSITY
#
#
~A Depth GRDE CADE DENB MC2F RPOR
740.000 53.238 3.868 2.869 216.864 27.595
739.900 48.119 3.867 2.909 215.551 23.691
739.800 47.957 3.867 2.983 210.521 22.778
739.700 45.748 3.869 3.027 205.381 25.485
739.600 52.107 3.870 3.019 201.006 29.152
739.500 48.011 3.872 3.035 199.366 29.897
739.400 49.089 3.870 3.064 201.662 28.789
739.300 52.322 3.870 3.088 213.692 26.901
739.200 64.985 3.867 3.102 227.373 25.622
739.100 89.287 3.864 3.270 240.934 23.463
739.000 101.195 3.866 3.819 255.698 22.556
738.900 95.591 3.864 4.743 266.951 24.073
738.800 76.139 3.869 5.282 268.701 24.010
738.700 70.912 3.867 5.046 256.780 23.838
738.600 84.707 3.869 4.057 241.032 23.005
738.500 93.544 3.867 3.218 231.190 23.679
738.400 88.209 3.867 2.824 225.066 24.226
738.300 82.066 3.864 2.788 221.457 22.566
738.200 78.241 3.858 2.830 216.426 24.810
738.100 69.942 3.862 2.870 210.630 25.935
738.000 61.752 3.863 2.913 207.240 25.666
737.900 54.316 3.874 2.882 207.896 25.313
737.800 56.202 3.881 2.880 212.380 24.805
737.700 67.733 3.890 2.862 216.864 25.703
737.600 71.451 3.892 2.926 221.271 24.289
737.500 80.180 3.887 2.919 226.061 24.361
737.400 86.539 3.888 2.886 233.716 22.985
737.300 93.921 3.889 2.833 238.714 22.536
737.200 108.470 3.892 2.780 240.048 24.780
737.100 101.195 3.889 2.799 235.783 25.989
737.000 95.107 3.889 2.820 231.201 28.623
~Version Information
VERS. 2.00: CWLS log ASCII Standard VERSION 2.00
WRAP. NO: One line per depth step
#
#
~Well Information Block
#MNEM.UNIT Data Description
#
STRT.M 86.975: :START DEPTH
STOP.M 74.975: :STOP DEPTH
STEP.M 0.000: :STEP
NULL. 999.250: :NULL VALUE
COMP. :COMPANY
WELL. :WELL
FLD . :FIELD
LOC . :LOCATION
PROV. :PROVINCE
SRVC. Reeves Wireline :SERVICE COMPANY
DATE. 05FEB1999 :LOG DATE
UWI . :UNIQUE WELL ID
#
#
~Curve Information Block
#MNEM.UNIT Curve Description
#
DEPT.M : DEPTH
DIPA. : DIP ANGLE
AZIA. : DIP AZIMUTH
CORA. : DIP CORRELATION
#
#
~A Depth DIPA AZIA CORA
86.975 59.455 316.257 7.008
86.920 69.515 306.027 15.992
86.760 54.682 343.519 7.008
86.750 58.593 340.587 15.992
86.725 81.826 301.895 7.008
86.585 82.595 318.608 7.008
86.445 83.362 318.562 7.008
86.370 83.421 316.127 7.008
86.325 44.851 322.441 7.008
86.285 83.293 322.484 7.008
85.410 82.669 355.579 17.992
81.155 86.916 86.378 9.008
81.130 86.889 102.965 15.992
80.800 87.588 286.332 15.992
74.975 85.542 223.582 18.992
Figure 1.6 LAS file listing showing irregularly incremented dip tadpoles
(dip magnitude, azimuth and classification) from an interactive analysis of
Slim Acoustic Scanner data.
The tools vary in length from about 1m to 6m (about 3ft to 20ft), the longer tools
being divided into sections or subs for ease of handling and transportation.
Figure 1.7 summarises the range of slimline logging tools and their associated
measurements.
Introduction 11
1
DD2 1 /2” Gamma Ray, Long Spaced Density
& Bed Resolution Density (or High
Resolution Density) wqqq
7
DD3 1 /8” Gamma Ray, Long & Short Spaced
Densities & Caliper qqqq
MSU 1 /16”
11
Magnetic Susceptibility qq
2 The Measurements
Most Gamma Ray tools measure total abundance, and are calibrated to read in API
units. One API unit is defined as 1/200th of the difference between the low and high
activity zones in the American Petroleum Institute gamma pit at Houston.
As with total spectrum gamma logs, the response over a particular sand/shale sequence
may produce a characteristic signature that can help correlate the sequence between
boreholes. The Spectral Gamma Ray can, with other log data, help identify clay
mineral types. It can also help differentiate uranium enriched permeable sandstones
from potassium rich shales.
1. pair production occurs when incident gamma rays create electron-positron pairs.
The minimum incident gamma ray energy for this interaction is 1.02 MeV, well above
the 662 keV energy of gamma rays from Cs-137 used in most density tools. Pair
production can therefore be ignored except where high-energy sources are used.
2. photoelectric effect is the absorption of low energy gamma rays by atomic electrons
coupled to spontaneous photon emission. The photoelectric cross section index, Pe,
in barns per electron, computed from the ratio of low to high energy gamma rays, is a
measure of the probability of this interaction occurring. and is strongly dependent on
the atomic number Z of the nucleus of the target atoms. This makes Pe sensitive to
rock chemistry. However, the pressure casings used in most small diameter density
tools filter out these low energy gamma rays, so Pe is available only from
PhotoDensity type tools.
14 The Measurements
It will be apparent that density logs respond to electron density, not bulk density.
Fortunately, the two are connected by a simple equation:
re=2 Z rb
A
rb being bulk density, and Z/A the ratio of atomic number to atomic mass, which is
typically 0.5 in common rocks and minerals.
In most cases, the difference between electron and bulk densities can be ignored. An
important exception is water, whose Z/A is 0.555, and whose electron density is
therefore 1.11 gm/cm3. This means that in porous rocks, a small correction must be
made to the electron density to arrive at a correct bulk density. All Reeves density logs
in soft rock environments are processed with this correction applied.
The correction assumes that rocks heavier than 2.71 gcm-3 have no porosity, so that
rb = re = 2.71 gcm-3
rb = re - 1.11
rb = 1.0688 re - 0.1863
which permits correct porosity to be derived from log density and the bulk density of
the pore fluid.
For coals, this correction is somewhat too large, so for electron densities less than
1.752 gcm-3 (which is below the density of most porous rocks), it is fixed at a value of
0.065 gcm-3. No Z/A correction is applied to densities greater than 2.71 gcm-3.
Another important departure from the Z/A = 0.5 assumption occurs in hard-rock
applications such as iron ore and base metals. For example, Z/A values for magnetite
and galena are, respectively, 0.475 and 0.410. Interpretations in these environments
are made simpler if electron densities are used throughout.
The response of each tool is determined in two parts: the single detector response,
and the compensated response using two detectors.
In its simplest (isotropic) form, the response of a single detector is given by:
The Measurements 15
-mrd
I = A re
r = density
d = source-detector spacing
A = a constant
For slim tools this equation must be modified to take account of counts coming from
the borehole, not all of which can be eliminated by the limited amount of shielding
that is available. For any particular tool type, the small number of constants in the
modified equation is determined by taking measurements in rock blocks of known
density.
Dual detectors allow a correction to be made for standoff (mudcake) based on the fact
that the detectors have different depths of penetration. We are interested in the two-
part case of mudcake and formation, and write:
ra = G rmc + (1 - G) r
r
mc
mudcake density
r= formation density
G = geometric factor
G = k'r
and:
ra = k'r r + (1-k'r)r
mc
kL’ kS’
16 The Measurements
where subscripts S and L refer to short and long spacings. Note that the penetration
constants KS' and KL' appear only as a ratio: it does not matter if they vary individually
with density, so long as their ratio is constant (a reasonable assumption to first order).
For a typical penetration ratio of 4 we therefore have:
r = 4 raL - 1 ra S
3 3
or:
r = rL + D
For typical standoffs these equations perform well. A more general form of the
-kr
geometric factor G = 1-e , obeys the boundary conditions r = rmc for large
standoffs. The approach can also be extended to include the effects of heavy muds.
Measurements made with one detector of thermal neutrons are, then, sensitive to
both LS and LD. In fact, count rates in such a system are related to the Migration
length M, where M2= LS2+ LD2
The ideal neutron porosity log should be sensitive to LS only. Chlorine and the other
high capture cross section poisons are responsible for large environmental effects in
single detector systems; in particular, salty muds cause large borehole effects.
The justification for dual thermal detection comes two group diffusion theory. This
gives the thermal flux, C, at a large distance r from the source as:
-r/L
QL d2 e s
Cr
4pD (L s2-L d2) r
The Measurements 17
where Q is the source intensity and D the diffusion coefficient for epithermal
neutrons.
Cr2 r1
Neutron tools are calibrated so that they read true porosity in clean, fresh water filled
limestones. However, hydrogen is also present in bound water associated with clay
minerals, and so the neutron log can be a sensitive shale indicator.
At each point along the borehole, energy is radiated back into the fluid as
compressional energy (fluids do not support shear modes), and some of this is
detected by receivers spaced along the tool. The first arrival corresponds to the
wavefront that travels most quickly in the rock, namely the compressional wave.
Shear energy within the rock leaks back into the borehole as compressional energy
provided the rock shear velocity is greater than the fluid's compressional velocity.
Measuring the time difference between arrivals at two receivers eliminates the
common time spent by the signal in the borehole, leaving the time spent in the rock.
This gives an interval transit time, or delta-t log. When divided by the receiver
separation, the log becomes an inverse velocity or slowness log. Units of slowness are
microseconds/m or microseconds/ft. Typical values are 200 microseconds/m (60
microseconds/ft) for a low porosity sandstone, and 425 microseconds/m (130
microseconds/ft) for bituminous coal.
The acoustic energy that arrives at each receiver is rather complex. This is because of
the finite duration of the emitted pulse, and because energy is being radiated back into
the borehole along the whole path of the energy pulse. This gives rise to a waveform
18 The Measurements
which can be recorded by some tool types and presented as a Variable Density Log
(VDL) presentation analogous to that used to display seismic sections.
Most sonic tools simply detect the earliest arrival within the waveform using a
threshold crossing technique. This gives the compressional (or P-wave) slowness.
Detection of shear (S-wave) arrivals is more difficult because (assuming they exist at all
within the borehole) they sit on top of the P-wave energy packet. Whilst a number of
sophisticated techniques are available to help extract the shear arrival, visual
inspection of waveforms displayed continuously in depth is also also extremely useful.
The MS2 records first arrivals. The Sidewall Sonic tool sends enough of the waveform
to the surface to enable the S-wave transit time to be determined.
In the simplest electrode arrangement, current flows from a small sense electrode to a
return at the surface, or on the cable armour. Long guard electrodes either side of the
sense are connected together and are at the same potential. This has the effect of
focussing the sense current into a thin sheet which penetrates the formation rather
than flowing straight up the borehole. By measuring the magnitude of the current,
and the potential of the sense electrode, a resistance is calculated, which is related into
resistivity via a known tool constant.
In the RR2 tool, two measurements are made simultaneously using short and long
guards. This focuses the current, and provides logs with two different depths of
penetration beyond the borehole wall, namely the Shallow Resistivity and Deep
Resistivity measurements.
The Measurements 19
A simple induction tool comprises a transmitter coil and single receiver. Alternating
current in the transmitter coil causes small eddy currents to flow in the surrounding
media; these in turn induce currents in the receiver coil. The magnitude of the eddy
currents is proportional to the media conductivity; a much larger signal (typically
about 106 times larger) is induced by the transmitter directly into the receiver, and is
independent of formation conductivity. A major objective in the design of any
induction tool is the elimination of this direct mutual coupling signal. The extent to
which the direct signal is eliminated, and the stability of the elimination with changes
in temperature and time, are major influences on the ultimate accuracy of induction
tools.
In a balanced tool (in which the direct signal has been eliminated), the apparent
conductivity is given by:
The Slim Array Induction (SAI) has four balanced coil pairs giving four direct
measures of conductivity. These are normally inverted and displayed on a logarithmic
resistivity scale.
The caliper log is an input to borehole size correction algorithms for other logs, and is
used in quality control of other log curves, where caving may prevent correct
identification of features. Also used to enable the cementing company to calculate the
quantity of cement required to close off the borehole. It can also be used as a crude
rock strength indicator.
20 The Measurements
Outputs are in degrees with respect to true, magnetic or grid north and degrees from
vertical. From this, X-Y and radial co-ordinates can be calculated plus True Vertical
Depth (TVD).
2.5 Calibration
Calibrations encompass a range of procedures whose objectives are to ensure that log
data represents a true record of the physical properties being measured, and in
particular that their values are traceable to those of standards whose properties are
known to a high level of accuracy. These procedures are designation, normalisation,
characterisation and combination.
Normalisation is the process that ensures all examples of the same tool type respond
in the same way to a common stimulus.
In this case the spectrum presented to the crystal during calibration changes causing a
potential count rate change; whether this will change the borehole correction, for
example, would have to be investigated, and if it did, a new tool would need to be
designated.
Once a generic tool type has been designated, its formation and environmental
response characteristics must be defined; this need only be done once for one tool,
since it is assumed that all tools of the same type share the same set up response
characteristics. However, no two tools are ever identical, so provision must be made
to equalise their outputs to a common reference standard. This is the process of
normalisation.
Differences between tools are both random and systematic. Examples of random
variation are manufacturing tolerances, and variations in the thickness of pressure
casings caused by wear. An example of a systematic variation is the decay of a
radioactive source (Cs-137, for example, decays 2.3% per year).
The process of normalisation is intended to correct for differences of this type that are
small. The raw responses from all tools of the same type (counts, volts and so forth)
are assumed to be related to each other in a simple way, usually in a linear fashion.
In the general case, the linear transformation from raw units into normalised units
uses both a gain term and an offset. In other words:
where m and c are gain and offset respectively. They are derived by subjecting the
tools to a standard input or environment. For example, some resistivity tools are
normalised using precision resistors, whilst nuclear tools are generally subjected to
standard fluxes.
In order to define both m and c it is necessary to have two reference points. In some
cases it can be determined that c is zero (or less than the normalised error) in which
case only one non-zero reference is used. This is sometimes called a one-point
normalisation.
The normalisation procedure is therefore to record raw output whilst subjecting the
tool to the two references in turn. This gives the simultaneous equations:
Reference 1 = m . Raw 1 + c
22 The Measurements
Reference 2 = m . Raw 2 + c
In the case of nuclear logs, the measurements are made over a sufficiently long period
of time to allow the uncertainty due to counting statistics to be ignored.
The reference standards used to characterise the response of a tool are unique. They
are held at a central location typically far removed from field operations, and
constitute the primary calibration set. The standards used during normalisation are
also commonly referred to as calibrators. These, however, are replicated at each
operating base and their values referenced to the central standard. They are the
secondary or base standards.
In some cases the base standards may themselves by bulky, or it may be inconvenient
to transport and use them in the field. Consequently the check measurements may be
performed using tertiary or field standards which are themselves calibrated against a
base standard.
The ideal log would faithfully reproduce all the variations in the formation parameter
of interest. In reality, however, these variations are always averaged or smeared by
virtue of the tool geometry, and this governs the tool's ultimate vertical resolution.
Moreover, in most modern logging systems, continuous logs are reconstructed from
discrete depth samples. Consequently, the realisation of a tool's ultimate resolution is
contingent upon an appropriate sample rate. Other factors which have an impact on
vertical resolution and measurement precision, are the way in which individual
measurements are combined in compensated logs, and the filters traditionally used to
smooth statistical variations.
The vertical resolutions of common logs span about two decades, and this needs to be
reflected in the sample rates used. In practice, it is not always convenient to record
mixed sample rates from one tool, and the rate used tends to reflect the highest
resolution measurement in the string. This means that some curves may be
oversampled, whilst those used in combination with lower resolution logs may
actually be undersampled. It also means that a small number of sample rates can be
defined which cover all the logging measurements.
The table in Figure 2.1 shows the sample rates used by Reeves.
The Measurements 23
Header information
Scale section
Log data
Scale section
Logging/Calibration Constants
Log trailer
3. Borehole As 2 above
4. Field As 2 above
5. Province/County As 2 above
6. Country As 2 above
9. LSD/SEC/TWP/RGE Section/Township/Range
39. Time Since Circ Elapsed time from last drilling mud
circulation in the borehole to the moment
each logging tool reaches maximum depth
9 9 9 9 10
11 12
15
13
16
14 17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28 29
30 31
32
33
34
35
36 37
38
39
40
41 42
43
44
45
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
54 55 56 57 58
59
60
2. Data may be sampled in time or depth. Calibrations are time sampled, whilst
most logs are depth sampled
4. Logging date and time when logging commenced for each tool
11. Depth scale: in this case 1cm of log represents 100 cm of borehole
12. Log curve names, units, scaling across the track and lineweights linear scale)
Wireline Log Layouts 31
2 3 4
5 6
7
8
12
10
13 11 14 15
1. Linear grid: at 1:100 depth scale, depth lines are every 0.5m; at 1:200 every
1m. Linear scale grid divisions are plotted every ¼ inch, giving ten divisions
across a full 2 ½ inch track.
5. Timing marks annotated every 60 seconds: in this case the tool was logged at
2m/min
8. Back-up scale
3 2
5
1 6 3 4
8
7
5
2
5
Figure 3.4 Standard API log format showing data curves superimposed on linear,
blank and logarithmic grids
On some high intensity, shallow resource projects where log repeatability has been
established and is well understood, Repeat Sections may be dropped in favour of a
reduction in overall operating time.
LOG HEADER
INFORMATION
SCALE SECTION
MAIN LOG
DATA
SCALE SECTION
SCALE SECTION
REPEAT SECTION
DATA
SCALE SECTION
LOGGING/CALIBRATION
CONSTANTS
LOG TRAILER
4 Borehole Environment
Boreholes are rarely perfect. Drilling techniques and outcomes vary, giving variations
in borehole wall quality from smooth to rugose. Rock type and strength also heavily
influence the integrity of the borehole. Sometimes these factors dictate that casing
must be inserted, or that the drill string be left in the borehole. Moreover, some
boreholes retain drilling fluid, whilst others lose it; indeed shallow drilling often takes
place above the water table.
Tools are calibrated for specific borehole conditions. Whilst modest departures from
these standard conditions can often be tolerated and/or corrected for, best results are
always obtained when the actual conditions are as close to standard as possible. This
usually means an open-hole, fresh water-filled environment.
With this in mind, we shall now look at four commonly encountered environments:
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show DD3 and MS1 logs from a typical coal-bearing sequence in
this environment. Where borehole walls are smooth, all log responses are clear and
unambiguous. Note the detail provided by the BRD log within the coal seams due to
its high vertical resolution. This is in contrast to the LSD density log which has a
much lower resolution.
The differences in resolution become clearer where the caliper log indicates that
caving has occurred. The density tool is prevented from side-walling, introducing fluid
between the borehole wall and the density detectors, resulting in a significant decrease
in density in the caved zones. The LSD density is affected to a lesser extent than the
BRD due to its longer vertical resolution and greater depth of penetration. In extreme
caving conditions, both may be adversely affected, though this is uncommon. Under
such circumstances anomalously low densities may be mis-identified as halite or coal.
Inspection of gamma ray, LSD, BRD and caliper in combination reduces uncertainty
over identification in caved situations. It should be noted that coal seams themselves
rarely cave, rather the roofs and floors above and below: this can be a useful indicator
of the presence of coal.
36 Identification of Lithology
Gamma ray responses are unaffected by caving in most situations and absolute
magnitudes may be used to locate changes in lithology.
0-------------API-----------200 1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
34500-----------------------SBRDU------------------------14500
775 11----INS-----6
COAL
SEAM
780
GAMMA RAY-->
DENSITY
(GM/CC)-->
BED RESOLUTION
GAMMA RAY DENSITY(SBRDU)-->
RESPONSE TO
COAL SEAM
COAL CALIPER-->
SEAM
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO COAL SEAM
785
DENSITY RESPONSES
CAVED TO CAVED ZONE
ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DD3OPH20.CIB RUN ID: GR/RHO IN OPEN HOLE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 4.1 Open, fluid-filled borehole environment - gamma ray, dual density
and caliper responses
Borehole Environment 37
160----------MS/FT-----------60 140-------------------------MS/FT---------------------------40
775
COAL
SEAM
780
20 CM SONIC 60 CM SONIC
TRANSIT TIME--> TRANSIT TIME-->
785
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: MS2OPH20.CIB RUN ID: MS2 IN OPEN HOLE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Neutron porosity responses under the same conditions are illustrated in Figure 4.3.
Caving effects are noticeable due to the additional amounts of borehole fluid present.
38 Identification of Lithology
0-------------API-----------200 60----------------------------%------------------------------0
775
COAL
SEAM
780
GAMMA RAY-->
SANDSTONE
NEUTRON
POROSITY-->
NEUTRON POROSITY
RESPONSE TO COAL
SEAM
COAL
SEAM
785
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: NN1OPH20.CIB RUN ID: PHI-N IN OPEN HOLE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 4.3 Open, fluid-filled borehole environment - gamma ray and neutron
porosity responses
Caving affects the response of the MS tools, due to longer travel paths. Longer sonic
travel times may resemble coal values. Figure 4.2 shows short-spaced (0.2m) and long-
spaced (0.6m) sonic logs over a coal-bearing sequence, clearly displaying coal and
caving responses. The differences in vertical resolution and susceptibility to caving
effects are similar to those encountered with the BRD and LSD density logs.
Borehole Environment 39
In all cases where caving affects the log it is true to say that the more extensive the
cave, the larger the effects. Examination of all available logs is needed where caving is
evident before any decisions are reached.
In the absence of this data, reliance must be placed on gamma ray, density and
neutron porosity logs.
Density tools without this standard of collimation exhibit a similar character to fluid-
filled responses, though density values will be appreciably lower due to the absence of
fluid. Where caving is present, density responses are exaggerated especially from the
short-spaced BRD.
Very extensive caving produces an odd phenomenon: very high densities. This occurs
when the formation is beyond the reach of the detector (typically tens of inches) and
so only air is seen. No material is present to scatter radiation back to the detector
resulting in high densities. Due to the shallow depth of investigation this effect is more
common on the BRD than on the deeper reading LSD. Figure 4.4 shows an example
of this phenomenon, caused in this case by the borehole intersecting old mine
workings.
The gamma ray is similar in character to the fluid-filled log, though may be up to
20% greater due to larger amounts of back-scattered radiation from the density
source. This effect varies according to the density of the formations.
In materials of high density, a smaller effect is noted than in coal seams or caved areas
due to the greater amount of radiation absorption. Care is required with
interpretation, especially in larger diameter boreholes, where this phenomenon
becomes further exaggerated.
40 Identification of Lithology
0-------------API-----------200 1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
48500-----------------------SBRDU------------------------18500
775 11----INS-----6
<--BED RESOLUTION
<--GAMMA RAY COAL DENSITY (SBRDU)
SEAM
780
DENSITY-->
(GM/CC)
CALIPER-->
COAL
SEAM
GAMMA RAY
RESPONSE TO DENSITY RESPONSES
COAL SEAM 785 TO COAL SEAM
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO CAVED ZONE
CAVED
ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
LONG SPACED DENSITY(GM/CC)LOW NO CALIPER DATA DUE
GAMMA RAY RESPONSE OLD IN OLD WORKINGS BUT BED RESO- TO EXTREME SIZE OF
TO OLD COAL WORKINGS COAL LUTION DENSITY(SBRDU)VERY HIGH OLD COAL WORKINGS
WORKING
795
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DD3OPDRY.CIB RUN ID: GR/RHO IN DRY HOLE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 4.4 Open, non-fluid filled borehole environment - gamma ray, dual
density and caliper responses
Where a fluid level is encountered a discontinuity appears on the log. As the gamma
ray detector emerges from fluid to air, it immediately begins to detect back-scattered
radiation from the density source. The effect gradually increases until the density
source emerges into air, when the gamma ray increases significantly. This occurs
approximately 2m above the fluid level (the offset between gamma ray and density
source in a DD3) itself marked by an abrupt decrease in density values, as illustrated
in Figure 4.5.
Borehole Environment 41
6-------------INS------------11 3000-------------------------SDU-----------------------------0
0-------------API-----------200 2.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
10
GAMMA RAY-->
<--LONG SPACED
DENSITY (SDU)
FLUID
LEVEL DENSITY (GM/CC)-->
<--CALIPER
20
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DD3AWATR.CIB RUN ID: FLUID LEVEL EFFECTS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 4.5 Effects of emerging from fluid to air on the log responses of gamma
ray and dual density curves
The neutron porosity curve shows a very flat response in air due to the absence of
hydrogen nuclei that slow the neutrons down to thermal energy levels for detection
by the tool. Figure 4.6 shows this effect and the discontinuity when emerging into air
from the borehole fluid. Note the absence of any discontinuity on the gamma ray.
0-------------API-----------200 60%---------------------------SST---------------------------0%
10
<--GAMMA RAY
FLUID
LEVEL
<--NEUTRON POROSITY
(% SST)
20
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DSNGWATR.CIB RUN ID: FLUID LEVEL EFFECTS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 4.6 Effects of emerging from fluid to air on gamma ray and neutron
porosity logs
42 Identification of Lithology
GR/RHO IN CASING
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DD3CAH20.CIB RUN ID: GR/RHO IN CASING PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
0-------------API-----------200 1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
24500-----------------------SBRDU-------------------------6500
775 10----INS-----5
COAL <--DENSITY(GM/CC)
SEAM
<--DENSITY(GM/CC)ON
780 BACK-UP SCALE OF
3.0 TO 5.0 GM/CC
GAMMA RAY-->
BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY(SBRDU)-->
DENSITY RESPONSES
TO COAL SEAM
GAMMA RAY COAL
RESPONSE TO CALIPER-->
COAL SEAM SEAM
785
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DD3CAH20.CIB RUN ID: GR/RHO IN CASING PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
GR/RHO IN CASING
Figure 4.7 Cased, fluid-filled borehole environment - gamma ray, dual density
and caliper responses
Logging through drill rods and some types of casing produce even further muting of
responses due to their greater wall thickness. Where joints are of greater thickness
than the rods or casing then low gamma ray and high density blips will be evident, as
typified in Figure 4.8. The amplitudes of the blips will depend on the actual joint
thickness.
44 Identification of Lithology
0-------------API-----------200 1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
24500-----------------------SBRDU-------------------------3000
775 8-----INS-----3
DRILL PIPE JOINT
COAL
SEAM
780 <--DENSITY(GM/CC)ON
BACK-UP SCALE OF
3.0 TO 5.0 GM/CC
BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY(SBRDU)-->
DRILL PIPE JOINT
790
DRILL PIPE JOINT
CAVED
ZONE
795
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DD3RDH20.CIB RUN ID: GR/RHO IN DRILL PIPE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 4.8 Fluid-filled borehole environment – gamma ray, dual density and
caliper responses inside drill pipe
Neutron porosity values increase when logged through casing due to the reduced
counting rates. This is also the case when logging is undertaken through drill rods
where high porosity blips will be noted at the joints. Figure 4.9 shows a typical
example of logging through casing.
Borehole Environment 45
PHI-N IN CASING
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: NN1CAH20.CIB RUN ID: PHI-N IN CASING PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
0-------------API-----------200 60----------------------------%------------------------------0
775
COAL
SEAM
780
GAMMA RAY-->
SANDSTONE
NEUTRON
POROSITY-->
COAL
SEAM
785
CAVED
ZONE
790
CAVED
ZONE
COAL
SEAM
795
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: NN1CAH20.CIB RUN ID: PHI-N IN CASING PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
PHI-N IN CASING
Figure 4.9 Fluid-filled environment - gamma ray and neutron porosity responses
inside casing
A more common occurrence seen in logging is for surface casing to be set preventing
unconsolidated materials from blocking the borehole. Fluid-levels are generally
encountered inside this casing. There are thus changes in all log curves at this point.
Figure 4.10 typifies these changes, including a sonic log which reads 57 ms/ft (187
ms/m) when logged inside uncemented steel casing.
46 Identification of Lithology
<---------CALIPER 25
IN CASING
DENSITY AND <--60 CM SONIC
POROSITY TRANSIT TIME LOG
RESPONSES (PLOTTED ON BACK
IN CASING UP SCALE)READING
<--GAMMA RAY 57 MICRO-SECS/FT
IN CASING IN UNCEMENTED
STEEL CASING
CASING
SHOE
30
DENSITY AND
POROSITY
RESPONSES IN
OPEN HOLE
<--GAMMA RAY
IN OPEN
HOLE
<--NEUTRON
POROSITY
35
<--CALIPER IN
OPEN HOLE
<--60 CM SONIC
TRANSIT TIME
IN OPEN HOLE
<--DENSITY
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: CASEDLOG.CIB RUN ID: CASING SHOE EFFECTS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Fluid level responses of gamma ray and density detectors are similar to the open-hole,
air-filled situation though on a smaller scale inside casing. Shallow, air-drilled
boreholes can exhibit dual fluid-levels if logged before equilibrium is established. In
this situation fluid-levels can occur inside and outside the casing at different depths.
Once equilibrium has been established, the fluid levels will stabilise at one depth.
Borehole Environment 47
Excessive caving (of the order of tens of inches) leads to the density reversal noted
above.
4.5 Summary
Environment Tools not available Anomalous effects
5 Identification of lithology
Some lithology identification in an open-hole environment may be undertaken from
gamma ray and density logs alone. This is the bare minimum and further analysis is
possible with the addition of a neutron porosity log and, where a fluid-filled
environment exists, sonic and resistivity logs. The borehole caliper log should be used
as a quality control for log readings, where applicable.
Formations of lower K40 content show reduced levels of gamma ray activity.
Sandstones, limestones, dolomites and coals vary from 0 to 50 API. Limestones are
generally the lowest, followed by dolomites, coals and sandstones. Overlaps in activity
exist, especially if shale contamination occurs, so that the gamma ray alone should not
be used for lithology identification.
Gamma ray levels between shale and the lower activity formations in sedimentary
sequences typically represent mixtures such as mudstones, siltstones, argillaceous
limestones or inferior coals.
Very high Gamma activity may be indicative of a marine band. These are generally
thin, distinctive and laterally extensive, making excellent marker horizons for inter-
hole correlation (see Chapter 7). Higher gamma activity than a marine band indicates
the presence of a uraniferous shale.
Igneous and metamorphic materials are special cases where gamma ray activity may
range from very low to very high depending on their chemical composition.
0-----------------------------API---------------------------200
Coals vary from about 1.1 to 1.5 gcm-3 according to rank, bituminous coals averaging
about 1.3 gcm-3. Further information relating to coal densities, quality and rank may
be found in Chapter 11. (Coal and Coal Bed Methane).
Identification of Lithology 51
Pure silica sandstone has a log density of 2.65 gcm-3, limestone 2.71 gcm-3 and
dolomite 2.87 gcm-3. Near zero porosity sands, limes and dolomites can therefore be
differentiated from each other and from coal on the basis of density alone. In general,
porosity is not known, but these lithologies can still be differentiated if porosity can be
established from another log or log combination.
Shale densities also vary, and may depend on depth of burial. Due to their relatively
plastic nature, shales become compacted resulting in increasing densities with
increasing depths, typically falling in the range 2.2 to 2.8 gcm-3.
Evaporites are distinctive with densities of 2.03 gcm-3 (halite), 2.35 gcm-3 (gypsum)
and 2.98 gcm-3 (anhydrite).
Metamorphic and igneous rocks are generally high in density and may only be readily
distinguished from sedimentary formations in not following the identification criteria.
1.0--------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
When pure sandstone is present, neutron porosity is 0 p.u. on a sandstone scale, but a
pure limestone on the same scale would read 1.5 p.u. Similarly, pure limestone on a
limestone scale reads 0 p.u., but pure sandstone reads -1.5 p.u. At higher porosities
the separation increases from 1.5 p.u. to about 4 p.u.
Porosity values in shales are not true porosities since hydroxides in clays and micas are
detected resulting in high apparent porosities. As depth increases, the plastic nature of
shales allows water to be lost from the clay lattices leading to a decrease in porosity.
Typical values vary between 30 and 50 p.u. (porosity units).
Coal responses are similarly high due to the presence of hydrocarbons. Values
between 50 and 80 p.u. are possible depending on the quality of the coal.
Readings in igneous and metamorphic rocks do not reflect true porosities due to their
chemical constituents - hydrogen is measured not only in any pore spaces but in
hydroxides present, for example, in hornblende and the micas, biotite and muscovite.
Figure 5.3 shows some typical neutron porosity responses (on a sandstone porosity
scale) to various sedimentary formations.
54 Identification of Lithology
In common with densities, sonic values vary with coal rank. Chapter 11 (Coal and
Coal Bed Methane) discusses further the relationship between density, sonic transit
Identification of Lithology 55
time and coal rank. Coal values range from about 90 to 170 ms/ft depending on rank.
A typical bituminous coal has a slowness of 120 ms/ft.
Zero porosity sandstones, limestones and dolomites, have transit times of 55.5 ms/ft,
47.5 ms/ft and 43.5 ms/ft.
Shale slowness values range from about 70 to 110 ms/ft, with 90 ms/ft being typical of
a compacted shale.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks in general are hard due to the nature of their
formation, hence transit times are low.
5.5 Resistivity
Resistivity logs are influenced by formation porosity, formation water resistivity,
temperature, borehole diameter and borehole fluid resistivity. Figure 5.5 shows the
consequent broad ranges of values, especially in limestones and sandstones.
Of the coals, anthracites and lignites are generally low, whilst bituminous coals vary in
resistivity.
Low porosities generally give rise to higher resistivity values and vice versa.
Igneous and metamorphic materials typically have very high resistivity values
associated with them. For example, mica is a very good insulator.
140--------------------------MS/FT---------------------------40
1000
RESISTIVITY W-M
100
10
0 0
POROSITY
SST PU
40 50
SONIC
mS/FT
3.0 140
DENSITY
GM/CC
150 1.0
GAMMA RAY
API
0
NON-MARINE
ANTHRACITE
BITUMINOUS
ANHYDRITE
INFERIOR
GYPSUM
POROUS
POROUS
MARINE
LIGNITE
TIGHT
TIGHT
SALT
SANDSTONE
EVAPORITES
LIMESTONE
SILTSTONE
SHALE
COAL
1. Examine the gamma ray log for formations of low activity. If these also have
low densities, they can be pencilled in as possible coal seams. Caution:
examine the caliper log for caving.
2. Decide on an average gamma ray value through the shales and draw this on
the log. All formations at this value may be annotated as shales. This is called
the Shale Line.
3. Anomalously high gamma ray activity above the Shale Line can now be
pencilled in as marine bands or Uraniferous Shales.
4. Ignoring coals, pencil in a Sand Line indicated by gamma ray values typically
in the range 20 to 50 API. These formations may be tentatively labelled
sandstones. Local controls are important here. For instance, sandstones in
some basins may be quite gamma active (between 50 and 100 API), as happens
over much of Queensland’s Bowen Basin.
5. Formations with gamma activity below the Sand Line are likely to be
limestones or evaporites. Examination of gamma ray, density, neutron
porosity and sonic logs (in combination with caliper logs for quality control)
will reveal evaporites if they are present - see Figure 5.5.
6. Remaining materials below the Sand Line are probably limestone. Cross-check
this interpretation against density (limestone generally higher than sandstone),
porosity (limestone generally lower) and sonic (limestone generally slower).
7. The balance of the formations between the Sand and Shale Lines is a mixture
of rock types.
This basic interpretation technique can be refined by using combinations of logs in the
cross-plotting method.
5.7 Cross-Plots
We have seen that the value of a single log is in some cases a diagnostic of particular
rock types. If the rock type has been defined through external control - for example,
local knowledge or core data - then a single log may be used to calculate some
additional attribute such as porosity.
In general, however, a solution for lithology and porosity requires data from at least
two logs, and this is frequently presented in the form of a cross-plot.
In the simplest case of a clean, porous formation, we can join the points at 0% and
100 % porosity with lines, and mark off the intermediate values (such cross-plots are
normally supplied pre-printed by service companies). In the case of density-neutron
and neutron-sonic cross-plots, the lines for sandstone, limestone and dolomite are
well separated. The lithology and porosity of any pair of log values is readily
interpolated. An example is shown in Figure 5.6. Computers automate this
procedure.
Identification of Lithology 59
Cross-plots are also very powerful tools for zoning more complex formations. They
provide an easy way of visualising and quantifying the sensitivity of each log to each
zone. Another way of using cross-plots is to graph log data against core data. This also
allows us to quantify the sensitivity of each log to the parameter of interest.
1.8
ma = 2.65 gm/cc
40
40
2.0
40
35
35
35
30
30
30
2.2
35
25
25
ON
25
S T
30
ND
20
NE 20
SA TO
20
ES 25
M
15
2.4 LI 15
15
E
IT
10
20
10
M
O
15 OL
10
D
5
5
2.6
5
0 B
A 0
10
0
-5
5
2.8
0 -10
-15
ANHYDRITE
3.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
NN POROSITY
Fresh water : rf = 1.0 gm/cc
1 gm/cc = 1000 Kg/m
(Apparent Sandstone pu)
Point A in Figure 5.6 represents 2.62 gcm-3 and an apparent sandstone neutron
porosity of 8 p.u. but plots on the limestone line at the 5 p.u. point. Thus, this
formation is pure limestone with a porosity of 5 p.u. Point B, at 2.6 gcm-3 and 15 p.u.
apparent sandstone porosity represents a limey dolomite of about 9 p.u.
here: the Computed Lithology Analysis uses data from one tool only (gamma ray,
density and caliper) to give a three-component analysis. The Complex Lithology
Analysis is a refinement with additional inputs of neutron porosity and/or sonic transit
time to give a more advanced seven-component analysis.
Other end points depend on lithology, depth and compaction, and are user
determined from a cross-plot. In the example shown, a gamma ray value of 40 API
has been chosen for the sandstone matrix end point and 170 API and 2.55 gcm-3 end
points for the shale.
Lines are drawn between the three sets of values - this triangle now encompasses
shale, matrix and porosity values. Coal lies within the triangle but can be identified
due to its unique combination of low gamma ray and low density.
Identification of Lithology 61
FREQUENCY PLOT
COMPANY PLOTTED 4-MAR-94 9:49
WELL NO. POINTS ANALYSED 410
FIELD NO. POINTS OUT OF RANGE 0
COUNTY
CIUNTRY/STATE
LOCATION
FILE MRGELIT3.CIB
RUN ID MAIN LOG
RUN DATE, TIME 2-JAN-94 16:56
DEPTH RANGE 735.00 - 694.00 M.
200.0000
160.0000
SHALES
API
120.0000
GAMMA RAY
80.0000
40.0000
SANDSTONES
COALS
.0000
1.0000 1.4000 1.8000 2.2000 2.6000 3.0000
DENSITY GM/CC
Figure 5.7 Gamma ray and density cross-plot used for the determination of end
points in the Computed Lithology Analysis shown in Figure 5.8
Coal is plotted where densities of, for example, less than 1.9 gcm-3 are found (this
being an average inflection point between coal and rock densities), together with
caliper values of less than the user inputted value; 4 inches in this case. This caliper
cut-off serves to prevent low densities due to caving being interpreted as coal.
Having identified the end points and any coal present, log values lying inside the
triangle must represent mixtures of the three components. Figure 5.8 depicts a final
output from this technique.
62 Identification of Lithology
COMPUTED LITHOLOGY
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON 18-MAR-1993 AT 11:47
FILENAME: QUARYLIT.CIB RUN ID: COMPUTED LITHOLOGY PLOTTED ON 26-AUG-1994 AT 11:19
SHADING KEY
SANDSTONE POROSITY
SHALE COAL
CAVING
0-------------API-----------200 1.0----------GM/CC---------3.0
11-----INS-----6
705
710
CALIPER-->
715
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON 18-MAR-1993 AT 11:47
FILENAME: QUARYLIT.CIB RUN ID: COMPUTED LITHOLOGY PLOTTED ON 26-AUG-1994 AT 11:19
COMPUTED LITHOLOGY
Figure 5.8 Computed Lithology Analysis derived from the log data cross-
plotted in Figure 5.7
♦ Shale
♦ Limestone
♦ Sandstone
♦ Dolomite
♦ Porosity
♦ Halite
♦ Anhydrite
The Complex Lithology Analysis is not normally used in coal holes - most coal-
bearing formations consist of shales, coals and sandstones - i.e. a relatively simple
lithology; indeed, unlike the simpler Computed Lithology Analysis, no allowance is
made for coal, which consequently appears as extremely porous sandstone.
Colour ‘Miniplots’ at 1:500 or 1:1000 depth scales of the Computed and Complex
Lithology Analyses make very clear visual indicators of borehole to borehole
correlations - trends can be picked out very rapidly by virtue of the colour shadings
for each of the various materials that make up the formations.
Under ideal conditions, thickness measurement from the BRD curve is simple. The
inflection or interpretation point for curves scaled in SBRDU (Standardised Bed
Resolution Density Units) or in gcm-3 is half-way between average base-line and
average peak values since the response is almost linear. Figure 6.1 illustrates this
alongside a caliper log to show the good borehole wall condition.
Where roof or floor caving is present, the BRD can still be used, though more
attention needs to be paid to the caliper, and suitable allowances made for the degree
of caving.
If caving is more extensive, then total reliance should not be placed on the BRD log. A
combination overview of the BRD, LSD, caliper and gamma ray logs is preferable.
68 Inter-borehole Correlation
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
HALF-WAY DISTANCE
749 BETWEEN AVERAGE
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM
BRD VALUES FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
751
HALF-WAY DISTANCE
BETWEEN AVERAGE
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM
COAL BRD VALUES FOR
SEAM INTERPRETATION OF
FLOOR INFLECTION POINT
752
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYBRD.CIB RUN ID: BRD BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 6.1 Bed boundary determination from the BRD log with caliper log
for caving indication and quality control
Figure 6.2 shows the procedure for defining the inflection points. Take an average
through the values immediately above and below the formation, also average the
values within the bed. The inflection points are then read one-third of the distance
from the higher end points chosen and the thickness calculated. Caution is required
where coal seams are bound by clean sandstone roofs or floors.
Bed Boundaries and Thickness 69
ONE-THIRD DISTANCE
FROM AVERAGE GAMMA
RAY MAXIMUM FOR
COAL INTERPRETATION OF
SEAM INFLECTION POINT
ROOF
749
751
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
ONE-THIRD DISTANCE
FROM AVERAGE GAMMA
RAY MAXIMUM FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
752
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYGAM.CIB RUN ID:GAMMA RAY BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 6.2 Bed boundary determination from the gamma ray log
To interpret historic logs, delineate the seam boundaries and determine average SDU
values for the coal, and for the roof and floor beds. Using the graticule, convert the
SDU values to gm/cc, then compute the average density across each boundary and
70 Inter-borehole Correlation
convert back to SDU values. Transfer the SDU values to the log curve and read off the
roof and floor depths for thickness. As a rule of thumb, boundaries are located about
one-fifth of the SDU span from the high density end, as shown in Figure 6.3.
Modern logs use a linear bulk density scale, and inflection point interpretation is
simply halfway between the low and high density points, as shown in Figure 6.4. Note
that in both LSD presentations, the slopes of coal seam roof and floor are much
shallower than in the equivalent BRD log. This reflects differences in vertical
resolution, and can make interpretation of LSD logs a little more difficult.
Where caving is extensive enough to affect the deeper reading LSD, then a little
imagination is needed in order to effect an interpretation. Figure 6.5 shows an
example of the procedure where an interpolated curve has been drawn over the caved
boundary. Interpretation of seam thickness may then proceed as described above. The
example shown depicts a linear LSD response, although the same procedure applies to
a logarithmic LSD presentation.
Bed Boundaries and Thickness 71
ONE-FIFTH DISTANCE
FROM AVERAGE LSD
COAL MINIMUM (SDU) FOR
SEAM INTERPRETATION OF
ROOF INFLECTION POINT
749
750
<--LONG SPACED
DENSITY OR
LSD (SDU)
751
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
ONE-FIFTH DISTANCE
FROM AVERAGE LSD
MINIMUM (SDU) FOR
INTERPRETATION OF
INFLECTION POINT
752
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYLSD.CIB RUN ID: LSD BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 6.3 Bed boundary determination from the logarithmic LSD log
72 Inter-borehole Correlation
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
HALF-WAY DISTANCE
749 FOR INTERPRETATION
OF INFLECTION POINT
750 <--DENSITY
(GM/CC)
751
752
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYDEN.CIB RUN ID: RHO-B BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 6.4 Bed boundary determination from the bulk density log
Bed Boundaries and Thickness 73
749
COAL
SEAM
ROOF
SEAM ROOF DEPTH
ESTIMATED FROM A
COMBINATION OF ALL
TECHNIQUES
GAMMA RAY-->
<--DENSITY (GM/CC)
<--CALIPER
750
<--BED RESOLUTION
DENSITY (SBRDU)
COAL
SEAM
FLOOR
SOLID BLACK LINE
REPRESENTS A HAND
DRAWN ESTIMATE OF
THE EDGE OF THE
COAL SEAM. IT HAS
THE ADDED BENEFIT
OF SHIFTING THE
751 SHALE DENSITIES
BELOW IT TO MORE
REALISTIC VALUES
THAT CORRESPOND
WITH SHALES IN
THE VICINITY
752
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYCAV.CIB RUN ID: CAVE RHO-B THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
6.4 Caliper
Whilst roof and floor materials are often weak and cave easily, coals themselves
seldom collapse. It is sometimes possible, therefore, to obtain a reasonably accurate
measurement of thickness from the caliper log, as shown in Figure 6.6. It should be
noted, however, that the caliper response at the top and bottom of a cave is
asymmetrical, due to the nature of the measurement.
As the tool is drawn upwards, the caliper springs outwards into the cave bottom quite
abruptly. As the cave top is approached, the caliper closes gradually, since the upper
part of the caliper arm rather than the tip touches the cave top first. Hence
interpretation of seam roof is straightforward, whilst seam floor is interpreted as the
point where the caliper reading ceases curving and continues at a constant value.
74 Inter-borehole Correlation
6-------------INS------------11
515 200--------------------------API-----------------------------0
1.0-------------------------GM/CC--------------------------3.0
32500-----------------------SBRDU------------------------12500
GAMMA RAY-->
516
<--CALIPER
COAL
SEAM <--BED RESOLUTION
ROOF DENSITY (SBRDU)
518
519
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYCAL.CIB RUN ID:CALIPER BED THICKNESS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
There is a way, however, to partially circumvent this dilemma. From any tool that has
at least two measurements, it is possible to extract the high resolution log and impose
it on the poorer resolution (generally compensated) log.
This is VECTAR processing. It’s most notable application is in density logging where
it produces the ADEN high resolution compensated curve. The key to VECTAR
processing is in the digital filter used to smear the short spacing log to match the
resolution of the long (and also compensated) log. Subtracting the unfiltered short
spacing log from the smeared original leaves bed boundary information whilst
eliminating stickoffs die to borehole effects. Adding the boundary information to the
compensated curve (weighted by a function of the degree of compensation) gives an
unconditional improvement to the resolution of the compensated log.
76 Inter-borehole Correlation
Figure 6.7 Comparison of the vertical responses of BRD and micro-resistivity logs
at a depth scale of 1:20
Bed Boundaries and Thickness 77
6.7 Summary
The table in Figure 6.8 below summarises the choices available for thickness
measurement, together with some suggested alternatives in the event of adverse
borehole conditions.
In the simplest case of a vertical well intersecting a formation dipping at angle q to the
horizontal, we have:
In the more general case of an inclined borehole intersecting a dipping bed, their
relative orientations in three dimensions need to be considered.
Inter-borehole Correlation 79
7 Inter-Borehole Correlation
So far we have looked at the interpretation of logs from isolated boreholes. Yet it is
the distribution of strata in three dimensions that controls how a deposit is exploited,
and the cost of exploitation.
The orientations of strata around a single borehole can be measured with dipmeters
(see Chapter 8) and acoustic scanning tools (Chapter 9). Variations of dip as a
function of depth provide useful insight into the nature of the rock, and can identify
faults and other structures intersected by the borehole. However, extrapolation to a
large scale is dangerous, and we need to use other techniques to define the larger scale
structure.
The most basic of these alternative techniques is the correlation of logs from multiple
boreholes. It involves the identification of characteristic patterns or signatures within
the logs, and then matching these to the same or similar patterns in neighbouring
boreholes. his allows tie lines to be drawn between the boreholes which reflect general
variations in bed thickness and dip.
The best combination of logs for the correlation process will depend upon the nature
of the rocks being correlated. We shall consider the following logs:
♦ Neutron porosity
♦ Gamma ray
♦ Density
♦ Sonic
♦ Resistivity
♦ Borehole caliper
Of particular importance is its response in marine bands. These are thin clay-rich
intervals that have high natural gamma activity; they cover large areas, and have been
important in correlating coal-bearing strata in the UK. However, gamma logs alone
may not be able to differentiate sandstones, limestones and coal seams.
Figure 7.1 (gamma ray and neutron porosity), Figure 7.2 (sonic), Figure 7.3 (gamma
ray, density and caliper) and Figure 7.4 (BRD at 1:20 depth scale) show logs
correlated between two boreholes drilled in the UK. These holes were vertical; if they
had been deviated then TVD analyses should be examined to determine true vertical
depths and lateral co-ordinates of the coal seam.
This information (plus any other available data) enables a basic structure to be
established.
740
710
720
760
730
770
740
Figure 7.1 Inter-borehole correlation using gamma ray and neutron porosity
710
<--60 CM
SONIC
<--60 CM CURVE
SONIC
20 CM CURVE 750
SONIC 20 CM
CURVE--> SONIC
720 CURVE-->
760
730
770
740
710
CALIPER-->
CALIPER-->
GAMMA
RAY--> GAMMA
RAY-->
DENSITY(GM/CC)--> 750
DENSITY(GM/CC)-->
720
760
730
770
740
Figure 7.3 Inter-borehole correlation using gamma ray, density and caliper
838
810
<--BED
RESOLUTION
DENSITY 840
812 <--GAMMA
RAY
<--CALIPER
<--CALIPER BED
GAMMA RESOLUTION
RAY--> DENSITY---->
Figure 7.4 Coal seam BRD and caliper log “fingerprints” at 1:20
The following example uses data from two UK boreholes (Fillongley Hall and Chapel
Green) plus a third borehole.
Referring to Figure 7.5, coal seam floor depths were determined along with surface
surveying parameters of borehole elevations and grid references. After reducing the
floor depths to a common datum (in this case ground level at Chapel Green, but we
could have chosen Ordnance Datum), simple trigonometry is used to calculate
apparent dips in two directions from the borehole with the shallowest seam depth.
Plotting the apparent dips and directions on a Wulff stereographic net results in a true
dip of 60 at 2890 from north (or approximately WNW).
-1 tan a1
d = tan
sin b
where b is the angle between the first apparent dip (a1)and the strike of the plane
containing the true dip.
b is given by:
tan a2
d = cot-1 - cot f
tan a1 sin f
where a2 is the second apparent dip, and f is the acute angle between the two
apparent dip directions. o avoid any ambiguity when the true dip does not lie between
the two apparent dip directions, choose:
a1 < a2
This interpretation assumes that a planar structure exists with no folding or faulting
present. his may be confirmed or otherwise by repeating the correlation process at
other depths in the boreholes using other coal seams, marine bands, and so forth. If
all of these follow the same pattern and produce the same dips and azimuths, then it is
a reasonable assumption that a planar structure exists with no tectonic disturbances.
Conversely, a more complex structure may become apparent if a consistent pattern
cannot be perceived. If this is the case, then further data is required, notably from a
dipmeter survey.
"3rd BOREHOLE"
APPARENT DIP OF 6 o
AT 300 o FROM NORTH
93
0m
N
o
00
APPARENT DIP OF 2
12
o
AT 220 FROM NORTH
FILLONGLEY HALL
BOREHOLE
Dipmeters are commonly made in two sections. A lower caliper arm sub contains the
mechanism for holding the dipmeter pads against the borehole wall; the pads contain
the micro-resistivity electrodes. An upper sub contains the magnetometers and level
cells or accelerometers needed to define the orientation of the tool in three
dimensions. The two subs are joined in such a way as to prevent relative rotation.
Rotation of the complete stack (which can lead to subsequent processing difficulties if
too rapid) can be prevented by inserting a swivel between the stack and the cable
head.
Each caliper arm terminates in a pad from which a resistivity measurement is made.
The pads themselves are made as short as possible to allow them to enter small caves.
Resistivities are measured with small laterolog-3 type arrays. The sense electrodes,
commonly referred to as buttons, are discs about 0.01m in diameter, separated by a
thin insulator from the rest of the pad which acts as a guard, current returning to the
body of the dipmeter some distance above the caliper arms.
Pad traces are generally correlated automatically using the interval correlation
technique. This can be augmented by machine-aided manual correlation.
Inclination
0
0 from 900
horizontal
Search
Angle Dipmeter
tadpole
Pad 1 Pad 2
Figure 8.1 Dipmeter processing terminology - only two pads are shown for clarity
The choice of parameters is critical to the appearance of the final tadpole plot.
8.2.1 Interval
It is often stated that long intervals are appropriate to large scale or structural dips,
whilst short intervals are appropriate to small scale or stratigraphic dips. This is
misleading since the dominant feature on a long correlogram is not necessarily going
to be associated with a structural feature. A better approach is to gear the interval to
the information content of the data. So, for example, if the pad traces are poor as a
result of intermittent contact in rugose conditions, the best results may come from a
short interval rather than, as one might expect, a long one. We can say, however, that
stratigraphic interpretations will always benefit from short intervals.
8.2.2 Step
It is usual to overlap the step and interval by some fraction, commonly a half e.g. 2 m
interval, 1 m step. Some overlap is justified since correlatable features may well fall at
or near an interval boundary, and might not result in an identifiable peak on the
correlogram if there were no overlap. However, it is inevitable that overlap will
sometimes result in two or more tadpoles being generated from the same feature. If
this is not recognised, it can lead to a falsely high level of confidence being placed on
the result. Double tadpoles are obvious when they share a common dip angle and
azimuth, but are less obvious when statistical variations introduce differences. It can
be useful to compare plots obtained with and without overlap; however, there is little
or no justification for more than two fold overlap.
Dipmeters and Dipmeter Processing 87
The maximum length of pad trace included in the correlation is a function of the
tangent of the search angle, and the computation time increases accordingly.
Moreover, unnecessarily large search angles increase the risk of finding spurious
correlations associated with apparently steep dips when data quality is poor. The best
results therefore come from the minimum sensible search angle, but a higher search
angle pass will usually be needed to determine what that sensible value is.
Pad traces scaled in apparent resistivity units should be correlated directly. Raw traces
(from the Reeves 3-arm dipmeter, for example) scaled in linear cps should be
transformed onto a logarithmic scale before correlating.
From a 4 arm dipmeter with one button per pad we can derive 6 correlations:
1 to 2 1 to 3 1 to 4 2 to 3 2 to 4 3 to4
The Reeves approach is to assume planarity to start with, which allows us to include
all correlation information in one plot, a correlation surface. We begin by plotting
correlation values on a cross-plot of 1 to 3 offset against 2 to 4 offset; the correlation
values can be contoured, hence the name correlation surface. Each point on the cross-
plot defines a plane and since we are assuming planarity, we can predict the
corresponding offset between the other pads. These are added into the surface to
make a composite. he main peak on the surface corresponds to the most likely dip.
88 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
Stratigraphic dips require that small scale features are correlated to produce dips
representing sedimentary features formed at the time of deposition, such as current
bedding, channels, reefs, etc., as well as unconformities and faults. Accordingly,
shorter steps and intervals are required (for example, 0.5m and 1m, or even 0.25m
and 0.5m, respectively) together with higher search angles of 600 or 800. Such
parameters increase processing times quite markedly and will result in a certain
scattering of tadpoles with lower correlation coefficients.
Where post-depositional tilting has occurred, it is often a useful exercise to regress the
present-day structure back to conditions existing at the time of deposition. This
structural dip removal is achieved by a three-dimensional rotation and subtraction
performed on all the tadpoles according to the values of the structural dip and
direction.
Salt dome
Gouge zone Dips increase with depth
Shear zone above fault; dips within
Compressed zone salt few and erratic
Dips consistent in
azimuth over drag
Reverse Fault structure; fault plane
indicated by
maximum dips
0 0
0 Dip magnitude(degrees) 90
N GREEN
RED
RANDOM
DIPS
Depth
BLUE
GREEN
For example, coal seams associated with abandoned minor channels. River channels
are generally sinuous with distinct upstream and downstream directions which may be
identified from the associated cross-bedding. Once the direction of current flow has
been established, decisions can be made to direct the drilling programme downstream
to the palaeo coast, where further coal may be located associated with a deltaic
environment. Strategically located boreholes logged with dipmeters will refine the
interpretation of the prospect.
One of the more important parameters that the geologist needs to ascertain is the true
thickness of the target horizon for his calculations of reserves. If the bed is dipping,
then wireline logs will show an apparent thickness. rue thickness can be determined
from dipmeter logging.
In some cases, faults are identified by drag structures in the strata either side of the
fault, rather than the fault plane itself. Where these drag structures are not present,
missing sections of strata (normal faulting) or repeated formations (reverse faulting)
may give clues to the presence of faulting.
These are simple, idealised models. Real situations may be more complex and involve
faults at varying angles and directions to the bedding. he situation may be further
complicated by the degree of competency displayed by the strata through which the
fault plane passes - shales are more likely to show drag structures, where limestones
and sandstones may rather fracture. his can result in considerable distortion to the
tadpole patterns and hence interpretations should proceed with care.
MAIN LOG
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DEMODIP1.CIB RUN ID: MAIN LOG PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
0-------------API-----------200 0-----DEG----30
0
6-------------INS------------11 1
695
0
1
<--FORMATION
DIP AND
700 AZIMUTH
<--GAMMA RAY
<--CALIPER 0
1
705
0
1
710
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DEMODIP1.CIB RUN ID: MAIN LOG PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
MAIN LOG
Figures 8.4 and 8.5 show the dipmeter tadpole plots for these two boreholes at the
relevant depths for the coal seam in question.
Dipmeters and Dipmeter Processing 93
Having obtained dip magnitudes and azimuths from the tadpole plots, it is useful to
draw plan and cross-section views with this information annotated. Figure 8.6 shows
the plan view with an interpreted structure, whilst Figure 8.7 illustrates the equivalent
cross-section.
94 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
0
2 NW
CHAPEL GREEN
BOREHOLE
ANTICLINE
INTERPRETED
N
FILLONGLEY HALL
BOREHOLE
0
5 SSE
Figure 8.6 Plan view of the two boreholes showing structure interpreted
using dipmeter data
COMMON
DEPTH
DATUM
1200 m
ANTICLINE INTERPRETED
The interpretation that an anticline exists fits the available dip magnitudes and
directions, whilst the great distance between the boreholes and the low dips involved
indicate a fold rather than any drag structures associated with a fault plane. he
anticline axis is interpreted to lie closer to the Chapel Green borehole, due to the
lower dips present.
Dipmeters and Dipmeter Processing 95
This interpretation from dipmeter data differs considerably from the previous
interpretation of a simple planar structure dipping gently in a WNW direction. This
dipmeter survey has shown the location of a structure whose existence was previously
unknown.
Similarly, Figures 8.8 and 8.9 depict a theoretical situation with a borehole-to-
borehole correlation of the target horizon and subsequent interpretation using
dipmeter data from both boreholes. Since the boreholes in question are fairly close
together, a faulted structure has been interpreted rather than folding.
BOREHOLE A BOREHOLE B
INTERPRETED RESULT
100 m
BOREHOLE A BOREHOLE B
FAULT OR
DIPMETER
FAULTS INDICATES
DIPMETER INTERPRETED
350 DIPS
INDICATES TO NORTH
350 DIPS
TO NORTH
100 m
Clearly, the two interpretations are markedly different and may have significant
bearing on the method of extraction of the target horizon material and on the
estimation of recoverable reserves.
Figure 8.10 shows a typical borehole breakout log from the BGT sonde. The criteria
generally used for identifying breakout is that of Plumb and Hickman (“Stress induced
borehole elongation: A comparison between the four arm dipmeter and the Borehole
Televiewer in the Auburn Geothermal Well”. Journal of Geophysical Research, 90,
1985, pp 5513-5521]:
5. Breakout does not follow the azimuth of the well high side
when it is deviated (takes account of preferential elongation by
drill pipe wear on the low side of the well: key seating).
Dipmeters and Dipmeter Processing 97
BREAKOUT EXAMPLE
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DEMOBRKT.CIB RUN ID: BREAKOUT EXAMPLE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
0-------------API-----------200 4----INS----1.5 1.5---INS-----4 0------------DEG-----------180
0------DEG----180 1 0
740
1 0
HALF HALF
BIT SIZE---> <---BIT SIZE
AZIMUTH OF
X-AXIS---->
BOREHOLE
<--GAMMA
750 BREAKOUT
AZIMUTH-->
RAY BOREHOLE
PROFILE
FROM HALF
X-AXIS &
Y-AXIS
CALIPERS--->
1 0
760
1 0
770
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: DEMOBRKT.CIB RUN ID: BREAKOUT EXAMPLE PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
BREAKOUT EXAMPLE
Figure 8.10 Borehole Breakout log showing minimum and maximum calipers
Whilst such studies were originally of interest in the field of plate tectonics, a spin-off
has been the application of breakout orientations in the planning of mine layouts and
roadways. Studies have revealed that, if a roadway orientation is within
approximately 300 of the breakout direction, then marked stability problems can
occur. This instability manifests itself as rock deformation and associated roof support
collapse. A typical example of this phenomenon occurred at Lea Hall Colliery in the
UK South Midlands Coalfield, where a face heading, oriented parallel to the breakout,
suffered great instability problems, whilst the gate roads leading to the face (i.e.
normal to the direction of the breakout) did not collapse. his is illustrated in Figure
8.11.
MAIN
CLEAT
MINOR FAULTING
BACK
CLEAT
STABLE BECAUSE
ORIENTED NORMAL TO DIRECTION OF
BOREHOLE BREAKOUT MAXIMUM
TAIL GA
BREA
TE
ATE
ECHILLS NO. 1
BOREHOLE
FACE
T
KOU
B R EA
COLLAPSE DUE
TO PARALLEL
ORIENTATION OF ECHILLS NO. 2
BREAKOUT AND FACE BOREHOLE
(LOOKING INBYE
DOWN FACEHEAD)
0 100 200 300 400 500
SCALE IN METRES
Figure 8.11 Underground stability problems due to orientation of coal face with
respect to breakout direction
Three magnetometers and two level cells provide all the data necessary to compute
the tilt and azimuth of the borehole. All data are referenced to a single point,
Dipmeters and Dipmeter Processing 99
normally the casing shoe, itself assumed to be at the same geographical co-ordinates as
the borehole at ground level. Azimuths may be referenced to True North, Magnetic
North or Grid North. From the tilt and azimuth data are calculated true vertical
depth, northings and eastings, polar bearing and radius and polar error co-ordinates.
The Reeves gyroscopic verticality tool can log inside steel casing - its outputs are
treated in the same way as the standard tool.
The analysis results in both graphical and tabular outputs. Figure 8.12 is typical of the
tabular output from the Verticality Analysis and Figure 8.13 the graphic output.
50.00
25.00
MARKERS ANNOTATED
AS ABOVE
.0 .0
3.0 3.0
20.0 20.0
40.0 40.0
60.0 60.0
80.0 80.0
100.0 100.0
120.0 120.0
140.0 140.0
160.0 160.0
180.0 180.0
200.0 200.0
220.0 220.0
NORTH SOUTH WEST EAST
-40.00 .00 40.00 -40.00 .00 40.00
-60.00 -20.00 20.00 60.00 -60.00 -20.00 20.00 60.00
9.1 Introduction
The Slim Acoustic Scanner generates continuous high resolution formation images in
boreholes as small as 3 inches (76 mm) in diameter. Such images provide quantitative
information about the lithological and structural characteristics of rock masses
previously available only from rock core. In particular, it is possible to derive
unambiguous orientations for any planar feature that intersects a borehole, and infer
in-situ stress field orientation from the borehole breakouts which are readily identified
on the images.
All acoustic scanning tools contain a rapidly rotating transducer which emits repeated
short bursts of sound energy. Each burst produces a borehole wall reflection whose
amplitude and travel time characteristics are measured by the tool and recorded at
surface. As the tool traverses the hole, a continuous helical scan is made. This is
transformed into a series of circumferential scan lines which are than rotated into a
common frame of reference to remove the effects of tool orientation and borehole
trajectory. Continuous false colour images are constructed by adding successive scan
lines one above another on a display screen or plotter.
A quarter wave matching plate is bonded to the front face of the piezo material. This
provides impedance matching to the borehole fluid and greatly increases the efficiency
of the transducer. Material behind the plate absorbs energy radiated into the tool and
absorbs internal reflections. Finally, a concave acoustic lens is used to focus the
pressure field and improve the ultimate spatial resolution.
Figure 9.1 shows the results of a pressure-field test on a 500 kHz, 38 mm diameter
transducer with a 76 mm focal length lens. It was constructed from data acquired in a
large water-filled tank, and shows the pressure field amplitude in the plane
perpendicular to the lens and passing through its centre. The nodes are 1 mm apart. It
has the following characteristics:
102 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
♦ lack of sensitivity in the near-field region (in this case about 40mm
in front of the transducer).
90
80
70
60
50 50
Y position (mm) 40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10 X position (mm)
0 0
Figure 9.2 shows the pressure field for a 1 MHz, ½ inch (13 mm) diameter
transducer. In this case the onset of the far-field response is much closer to the
transducer face.
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing 103
Amplitude
90
80
70
60
50 50
Y position (mm) 40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10 X position (mm)
0 0
It will be apparent from Figures 9.1 and 9.2 that in order to maintain optimum
performance in hole sizes ranging from 3 to 8 inches (76 to 203 mm), two transducers
are desirable. We have therefore selected a 1 MHz transducer for the approximate
range 3 to 5 inches (76 to 127 mm), and a 500 kHz transducer for holes larger than 5
inches (127 mm) in diameter.
Spatial resolution is the minimum distance between events such that they can be
distinguished as separate entities. There is a stricter definition which requires the
events not only to be separated, but quantified such that the intrinsic magnitudes of
the features can be ascertained. However, in the context of image analysis, the former
is the more relevant definition, since absolute values will, in any case, be disguised by
processes such as dynamic normalisation.
Detection threshold simply refers to the smallest event that can be detected by the
system. In general, this is much smaller than the system resolution - it is much easier
to see an isolated feature than it is to distinguish between two similar features close
together.
104 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
We must now distinguish between intrinsic and usable resolution. Intrinsic resolution
is solely a function of transducer design. However, logging speeds, sample rates and
the manner in which the images are constructed are additional design factors which
control the usable resolution. The borehole environment may well impose further
restrictions.
In evaluating the SAS, we have studied angular resolution around the hole (and by
implication, the vertical resolution) and the detection threshold.
Results for the 500 kHz transducer in the 8¾ inch pipe are presented in Figure 9.3. It
will be seen that all the grooves are differentiated, except for the pair at 380 and 420
which appear as a single feature. From the plot, we deduce that the angular resolution
is 7.50 at 8¾ inches. The corresponding linear resolution on the borehole wall may be
calculated as 2r tan (angular resolution /2), where r is the borehole radius. This
corresponds to 0.57 inch (14.6 mm) in an 8¾ inch hole, or 0.26 inch (7 mm) in a 4
inch hole.
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
AMPLITUDE (DB)
-1.50
-2.00
-2.50
-3.00
Figure 9.3 Amplitude responses of the 500 kHz transducer in an 8 ¾” steel tube
As previously indicated, the actual resolution in a 4 inch hole will be better than this.
This is supported by additional laboratory data using the 1 MHz transducer in a
grooved 6 inch pipe, which gives an angular resolution figure of 60.
Figure 9.4 shows the results from a scan in an 8 inch pipe. The groove width reduced
progressively from 12 mm (0.47 inch) to 2 mm (0.08 inch). The tool clearly detects
64 256
48 192
4 2
6
32
12 10 8 128
16 64
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Orientation ( Datum points )
Hit <SPACE> Bar to continue.....
Figure 9.4 Results of groove width experiments in an 8” pipe - all grooves from
12 mm width down to 2 mm are clearly detected
all grooves down to and including the 2 mm groove. Experiments in a 6 inch pipe
were able to detect sub 1 mm grooves.
In the SAS, 200 sample pairs are taken per revolution, of which 100 are used in image
construction. This corresponds to an angular sample rate of 1 per 3.60. This is
sufficient to meet the Nyquist criterion for reproducing the intrinsic resolution of 7.50
at 8¾ inches.
The vertical distance between samples depends on logging speed. The symmetry of
the transducer means we can use the linear resolution computed from the angular
resolution as our basis for comparison. To resolve two features separated by 14.6 mm
(to use the worst case figure given above) means sampling with an increment of no
more than 7.3 mm to satisfy the Nyquist criterion. For convenience, we use optional
increments of 5 or 10 mm.
A simple calculation will show that unique samples will be obtained at these
increments at logging speeds of 2.4 m/min and 4.8 m/min respectively (about 500
ft/hr and 1000 ft/hr respectively).
106 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
In-Line
Centraliser
SAP
Slim
Acoustic
Processor
In-Line
Centraliser
SSH
Slim
Scanner
Head
Figure 9.5 SAS tool schematic showing Slim Scanner Head (SSH) and Slim
Acoustic Processor (SAP) subs and the in-line centralisers
It is important that the tool is properly centralised in the borehole. If it is not, the
distance between the transducer and the borehole wall will not be constant along a
circumferential scan line. Since the borehole fluid attenuates the acoustic signal, the
amplitude of the reflected signals will also vary around the hole. This gives rise to an
artefact on the amplitude image which, whilst amenable to reduction by the
processing software, is best avoided in the first instance.
For this reason, the tool is equipped with a pair of optional in-line centralisers. Each
centraliser comprises three articulating arms fabricated from polished steel to reduce
friction at the borehole wall. The arms are linked at their base to a common spring
loaded pivoting assembly. This causes the arms to expand and contract as the
borehole changes shape, thereby maintaining proper centralisation, even when tilted.
closer to the outer diameter of the tool, which contributes to a further reduction in
transmission loss through the borehole fluid.
The head is driven by a stepper motor which causes it to rotate at 8 revolutions per
second. During each rotation, the transducer is pulsed 200 times at its resonant
frequency. Following each pulse, the transducer is switched to receive mode, at which
point it is sensitive to the pressure field reflected from the borehole wall. A
magnetometer adjacent to the transducer provides the azimuth information needed to
orient the image in a vertical well. Additional navigation information is provided by
two level cells in the processor sub which allow the tool to be oriented in the general
case of an inclined borehole.
The processor sub also contains a natural gamma ray measurement which facilitates
depth correlation to core data and other open hole logs.
After the discriminator has been triggered and the arrival time recorded, a window is
opened and the conditioned wavetrain searched for its peak amplitude. Pairs of
amplitude and travel time values are digitised and stored for each pulse cycle. These
are accumulated in downhole buffers prior to transmission to the surface after each
revolution. The digitisation provides resolutions of 0.25 dB amplitude and 0.5 µsec.
When data are acquired in a cased hole, the actual mud velocity can be adjusted in the
software so as to give an exact match to internal casing diameter. This ensures that all
openhole caliper readings are correct and subsequent dip computations are performed
with true diameter inputs.
A typical field plot is shown in Figure 9.6. The salient features are:
108 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
♦ Track 3 (far right) - the Travel Time image, typically also plotted
on a 0-360 degree scale. This too is displayed using a dynamic grey
scale to emphasise detail. By default, long travel times plot darker
than short times and the image is oriented with respect to true or
magnetic north
♦ Depth track - contains the depths (in metres or feet), and borehole
tilt and azimuth plotted as tadpoles.
The rotation to true north requires the magnetic declination to be known. This is
printed on the log tail, and is positive for magnetic north east of true north, and
negative for the inverse. By convention, however, all images are referenced to
magnetic north.
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing 109
Figure 9.6 SAS field log showing real time oriented amplitude and transit time
images
It should be noted that the automatic contrast control generally used to display field
images needs to be removed prior to computer centre processing. This is because the
enhancement methods will assume that the data are completely raw, and have not
been subject to prior processing.
Two Reeves software products have been developed for image analysis. Q-Scan
accepts binary field format files, and is the preferred choice for basic analysis of SAS
data. PC ImagePro is more generic; it takes image logs in LIS format from other
service companies, and has a wider range of enhancement, geological analysis and
plotting options..
Figure 9.7 Dynamically normalised amplitude image (left) contrasted with its
statically normalised equivalent (right) - from PC ImagePro
xxx.00
xxx.00
xxx.00
Figure 9.10 Amplitude image before (left) and after (right) the application of the
vertical enhancement filter - from PC ImagePro
N E S W N
North
West
Dip
Angle
East
South
Dip
Azimuth
In the more general case of a plane intersecting an inclined, non-circular borehole, the
calculation is more complex and less amenable to mental computation. By way of
illustration, a sine wave with no amplitude (in other words, a horizontal line on the
image) could be a boundary with no dip in a vertical well, or a high angle dip whose
amplitude differs from that of the borehole by 180 degrees.
Q-Scan uses the tool navigation and travel time data to compute the exact dip of a
plane through three points highlighted by an interpreter on the screen (PC ImagePro
will calculate the best fit sine wave if more than three points are highlighted, or it can
fit a "rubber band" sine wave to a feature). The resulting dip is displayed
conventionally as a tadpole.
PC ImagePro also performs the inverse process - it will transform tadpoles into sine
waves. This is an extremely useful means of quality controlling dips that have been
automatically generated by the computer. It is most frequently used to compare
dipmeter dips with sine waves on pseudo-images generated from the dipmeter
resistivity traces. In some circumstances, both dipmeter and SAS are run to exploit the
complementary nature of the measurements, in which case the acoustic image can be
examined for evidence of a sine wave generated from a dipmeter tadpole - Figure
9.12.
116 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
Sometimes a more detailed quantitative analysis is justified. The following are some of
the tools in PC ImagePro (many of which are also in Q-Scan) used in pursuit of a
detailed understanding:-
9.9.1 Zonation
Zones in this context are intervals or units of interpretation. They may be defined on
the basis of the log responses, the local stratigraphy, structural units, or some other
attribute which reflects some commonality within the interval. Within each zone, dips
of the same type can be averaged. Such decimation of dip data often simplifies its
interpretation and helps identify the geological processes at work.
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing 117
9.9.2 Classification
Unlike dips computed automatically from dipmeters (in a process which averages
events over an interval), each tadpole derived from the examination of an image is
generally associated with a specific feature. For example, it may be associated with an
open fracture, a filled fracture, a lamination in a cross bedded unit, an erosion surface,
an unconformity, or with beds distorted by faulting. An experienced interpreter will
be able to identify the signature of such features and classify them accordingly.
Classified dips are represented through the use of colour and shape of the tadpole
head.
9.10 Examples
Figure 9.13 shows amplitude and travel time images at a 1:15 depth scale from a
borehole drilled through coal bearing strata. The most frequent use of the travel time
image is as a quality control on the amplitude image interpretation in caved or rugose
intervals. This travel time image is relatively featureless (indicating a smooth borehole
surface), except for the planar cave and co-planar fracture. The latter is interpreted as
being open, as a filled fracture would be visible on the amplitude image only.
118 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
Figure 9.13 SAS images in a coal hole - the planar yellow feature on the transit
time image is a cave; above it a non-planar feature interpreted as an open fracture
Figure 9.14 SAS amplitude image at a depth scale of 1:10, statically normalised, in a
3 inch diameter water-filled hole - from PC ImagePro
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing 119
Figure 9.15 As Figure 9.14, with interpreted dips and sine waves
Figure 9.14 is an SAS amplitude image from a 3 inch (76 mm) diameter water-filled
borehole. The depth scale is 1:10, and the depths are annotated in metres (the interval
shown is only1.5 m). There are a large number of dips with widely varying angles,
reflecting a variety of different features. The normalisation used is static, and is a
compromise for the interval as a whole.
Figure 9.15 is the same interval with sine waves superimposed. Some of these were
picked by interactively enhancing small parts of the image. The different sine wave
colours correspond to different dip classes, also reflected in the colour and shape of
the dip tadpoles.
Figure 9.16 is a 1:2 plot of part of a fracture set showing the excellent vertical and
horizontal resolutions available from the tool. Also plotted for reference are pairs of
vertical and horizontal lines separated by 2 mm.
120 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
Figure 9.16 SAS amplitude image at 1:2 depth scale showing two narrow
fractures - note the 2 mm scaling marks
These transit time changes are seen very clearly on the lower screen dump - the 3600
caliper shows that the wellbore has caved in a particular orientation. This corresponds
to the direction of minimum horizontal principal stress.
The direction of breakout can be measured directly from either the image or the 3600
caliper plot where the borehole is vertical. When the borehole is deviated, a sine wave
should be placed over the image such that the sine wave minimum and maximum
amplitude points correspond with the breakout as displayed on the image. The
resultant tadpole will have a tail that points to one half of the breakout orientation.
The other half lies exactly 1800 opposite.
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing 121
Figure 9.17 Breakout as it appears on amplitude (left) and transit time (right)
0
images (upper picture) and its portrayal on a 360 caliper plot (lower picture)
122 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
Figure 9.18 Conjugate fracture sets are useful for inferring the direction of principal
horizontal stress when borehole breakout is not present
Further examples of open fractures may be seen in Figure 9.19 where the upper
picture shows 2D displays of amplitude and transit time images - two large sub-
vertical fractures can be seen.
The lower picture depicts two 3D “pseudo cores” of the same section of the borehole.
These are oriented at 1800 to each other in order to gain a full 3600 view of the
pseudo core. Both amplitude and transit time image data are incorporated in these 3D
presentations. Pseudo cores of this type can provide valuable correlation information
when compared with actual core.
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing 123
The images in Figure 9.20 show the detail that can be detected and resolved when
small scale structures are present. Thin shale streaks (apparent as yellow bands on the
amplitude image, but which do not appear on the transit time image) and thin open
fractures (thin dark red features on the amplitude image and corresponding yellow
features on the transit time image) are evident within this coal seam. Dip tadpoles
corresponding to all the interpretable features have been assigned to three classes:
Figure 9.20 Dip tadpoles corresponding to complex small scale structures within
a coal seam
The stereo plot for these tadpoles shows a definite set of conjugate fractures with
azimuths in the SE and NW quadrants, another set of fractures in the SW quadrant
and assumed structural dips to the NE. See Figure 9.21.
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing 125
Figure 9.21 Stereo plot of the poles dip poles of the data in Figure 9.20
Having regard for these structural dips, it would be instructive to perform a structural
dip subtraction on the tadpoles in order to assess the structure of the formations prior
to tectonic movements. The results of this 3D rotation can be seen in Figure 9.22.
After removing the structural dips we are left with what appear to be two sets of
conjugate fractures at right angles to each other. Since these fracture sets do not
extend outside the coal seam it is reasonable to assume that these features are cleat
sets. If this is the case, then their orientations are of great importance to the engineers
whose responsibility is the planning and safety of the mine layout and structure.
126 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
Figure 9.22 Stereo plot of the dips after structural dip removal - two sets of
0
conjugate fractures are now apparent at 90 to each other - these are presumed to
be cleat sets
Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing 127
Gamma
Ray
Conjugate
Fractures
Further conjugate fractures can be seen in Figure 9.23 though this set manifests itself
in a different fashion. Of note in this figure is the elliptical feature that is particularly
evident on the transit time image. This has been formed by the intersection of two
sub-vertical fractures with opposing dips - a conjugate set with azimuths of
approximately ESE and WNW. They are confined to the coal seam and are in close
proximity to each other. This has resulted in the ellipsoidal feature now seen.
128 Acoustic Scanning Tools and Image Processing
D C
C
B B
Calipers
2 (inches) 12 Amplitude Travel Time
Core
Figure 9.24 Four fractures interpreted from the amplitude image are confirmed
by the core - the core can be oriented by comparison with the image
Figure 9.24 depicts an SAS amplitude and transit time log alongside a rock core. Four
fractures are interpreted from the amplitude image. They are confirmed by
examination of the core. The core itself, of course, can be oriented by aligning the
core features with equivalents on the images.
Rock Strength 129
10 Rock Strength
Rock strength information is essential to the design of underground and surface mine
workings. In its broadest sense it controls the workability and supportability of
materials, and so helps determine the safest and most effective extraction methods.
The engineering properties of target horizon and overburden rock materials are
needed in terms of intact rock strength and distribution and character of
discontinuities.
Quantitative data is obtained from field and laboratory testing of rock cores.
However, coring is expensive and may not provide full recovery of material,
especially if the strata are soft. Moreover, measurements from cores may not be
representative of the material's properties in-situ.
Dynamic moduli are defined in terms of velocities and density. The ultrasonic pulses
used in their determination induce extremely small stresses and strains, and there is no
functional relationship between these and the static moduli determined by loading
samples in a stiff testing machine. It is ,however, possible to develop empirical
relationships between dynamic and static moduli.
Vp (from Ms series tools) and bulk density (from the DD1, DD3 and DR1) are
continuous logs. Vs may be determined from waveform logs if its value exceeds the
130 Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane
compressional velocity of water (Chapter 2). The SS1 tool excites the shear mode
directly by having its transducers locked against the borehole wall by an eccentralising
arm. This eliminates the fluid path, and has proven to be the most reliable way of
observing shear arrivals. Data must be collected in a series of stationary
measurements.
A typical example of the output from the SS1 tool is shown in Figure 10.1, together
with calculated values of rock strength parameters.
Borehole :
Depth : 1080.00 Sequence No. = s
t p
Figure 10.1 Typical SS1 waveform showing transmitter pulse (t), p-wave break
(p), s-wave break (s) and mechanical properties results
A widely used empirical derivation of shear velocity for hard rock environments is
Christensen's Equation:
3/2
1/ρ + 1/ρ3
Vs = Vp1 − 1.15 1 /ρ
e
STRENGTH MODULI
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYSTR.CIB RUN ID: STRENGTH MODULI PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
705
<--P-WAVE
VELOCITY
DENSITY
(GM/CC)-->
<--CALIPER
715
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYSTR.CIB RUN ID: STRENGTH MODULI PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
STRENGTH MODULI
Figure 10.2 Composite Elastic Moduli Analysis log derived from density and p-wave
sonic logs via Christensen’s Equation and the moduli algorithms
Research supported by Reeves has compared bulk density, sonic, gamma ray, micro-
resistivity and neutron-neutron logs with point-load strength tests on cores from
boreholes drilled in UK Coal Measures. It was found that neutron count rates had the
greatest predictive power for intact strength.
Figure 10.3 shows data from one of these boreholes; core lithology, raw and
smoothed point-load strengths and neutron-neutron logs. Note that the diagonal
lines on the core lithology represent gradational contacts, whilst Is(50) is the point
load strength index in MPa referred to the standard 50 mm core diameter.
Rock Strength 133
MPa 0.5 1 5 10
MPa 0.5 1 5 10
795
Depth, metres
800
Mudstone Sandstone
Figure 10.3 Comparisons of lithology and Is (50) data against wireline log data
Figure 10.4 is a cross-plot of blocked count rate data ( in standardised neutron units -
SNUs) from the neutron tool, and Is (50) data from another of the boreholes, clearly
showing the good relationship between them within the strength range covered by the
tests.
134 Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane
100
0
0.1 1.0 10
Is(50) MPa
Research in Australia on samples with a wider range of strength and in over 1500
geomechanical tests in 40 boreholes, indicated that sonic log data is correlated with
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) [McNally, G. H. 1990. The Prediction of
Geotechnical Rock Properties from Sonic and Neutron Logs. Exploration
Geophysics,21, 65 - 71]. He reports the following relationship:
(-k t)
UCS = A e
where A = a constant
e = the exponent
k = a constant
Given sufficient control data from sonic logs and laboratory tests, the values of A and
k can be established by exponential regression analysis. The value of this technique
can be seen in Figure 10.5 - the close correlation between UCS and transit time
indicates that further coring and laboratory testing can be avoided. Once the
relationship is established, UCS logs can be generated in the Qlog and PC ImagePro
software packages.
Rock Strength 135
120
100
80
60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 180
Figure 10.5 Cross-plot of laboratory test UCS data against sonic transit from six
boreholes on three mine sites in the Bowen Basin, Queensland, Australia - note
the close correlation between point sampled tests and continuous log data
Other empirical relationships have been derived and utilised to predict UCS from
combinations of neutron, sonic and density logs. For example, an alternative to
McNally's exponential sonic model combines density and sonic data in an equation
that has the physical dimensions of stress:
UCS = k * ( ρb * Vp 2 )
The geotechnical application of logs is the focus of much current research, and whilst
it is unlikely that any single log will provide all the answers, it is clear that velocity and
amplitude information extracted from full waveform acoustic logs is going to play an
increasingly important role.
10.3 Applications
Knowledge of the variations in mechanical rock properties throughout a rock mass is
of great value in both civil and mining engineering applications:
10.3.2 Diggability
This is controlled by the intact strength of the rock, and by the distribution of joints,
fractures and partings. The cost of removing overburden or non-ore materials is
commonly the largest single cost in mining. Engineering properties maps have proved
useful in selecting the most appropriate excavation methods for each phase of digging.
10.3.3 Blastability
Successful blasting depends on many factors in addition to the intact rock strength.
Of particular importance in layered formations, for example, is the thickness of each
layer and their relative competence, since this will control the precise placement of
blasting charges.
In none of these cases will a single log interpretation product provide a complete
picture of the engineering properties of a rock mass. However, logs do provide
information about rock types, the positions of boundaries, the orientations of rocks,
and their intact strengths. In some cases they can also say something about rock
discontinuities. All this coupled with other site information can help greatly in the
understanding of rock masses, and feedback about the performance of a rock mass has
further helped to give logs real predictive power.
Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane 137
Figure 11.1 shows some linear ash-density relationships based on the following:
2.6
ROCK
2.5
2.0
DENSITY (gm/cc)
AL L
CO OA
TE S C
A CI N OU US
R I
TH M IN O
AN ITU U M
B T
1.5
E R" " BI
LD R
"O NGE
1.35 OU
"Y
E
1.25 IT
N
G
LI
1.1
1.0
0 50 100
ASH (%)
Figure 11.1 Cross-plot of density against ash content for coals of different rank
The Ash Analysis software package uses BRD logs at 1:20 depth scale (the Seam
Thickness Log) to define bed boundary and dirt parting depths (see Chapter 6 - Bed
Boundaries and Thickness). These depths are transferred to the LSD curve (the Coal
Quality Log) which is generally a more accurate density measurement, particularly in
rugose boreholes. LSD values are then used to derive ash after account is taken of its
vertical resolution.
The intrinsic vertical resolution of the LSD is 0.48m, so features that have a thickness
of less than this will not be fully resolved. Under these circumstances, the density
should be extrapolated from its average centre-bed value to the bed boundaries.
Alternatively, if a Vectar processed density is available (derived from LSD and BRD
density curves, combining the former's depth of penetration and the latter's vertical
resolution), then seams will be fully resolved down to 0.15m in thickness and
Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane 139
It should be borne in mind that the core sampling increments used to provide
calibration points for the geophysical logs may not match the vertical resolutions of
the density curves in use. Careful planning is necessary to ensure appropriate sample
increment matching, or to ensure resolution matching through appropriate resolution
matching filtering of one or other data sets.
Manual selection of boundary depths and density levels may be avoided using an
automatic blocking routine. This is a less tedious and swifter process, but may not be
suitable for all requirements. Figure 11.2 is an example of the Ash Analysis, plotted at
a typical depth scale of 1:20 in metric units.
140 Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane
ASH ANALYSIS
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYASH.CIB RUN ID: ASH ANALYSIS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
SHADING KEY
COAL CAVING
MINERAL
MATTER
749
GAMMA RAY-->
750
<--DENSITY CURVE AND
HISTOGRAM (GM/CC)
751
CALIPER-->
752
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYASH.CIB RUN ID: ASH ANALYSIS PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
ASH ANALYSIS
Figure 11.2 Two component analysis from the Ash Analysis software using
density histogram input with gamma ray and caliper curves for quality control
11.3.1 Definitions
As with commercial coal classifications the CSE utilises arbitrary parameter definitions
but differs from the former in that it refers to in-situ conditions. The definitions are:
SHADING KEY
COAL CAVING
MINERAL MOISTURE
MATTER CONTENT
749
GAMMA RAY-->
750
<--DENSITY CURVE AND <--SONIC CURVE
HISTOGRAM (GM/CC) AND HISTOGRAM
751
CALIPER-->
752
DEPTH BASED DATA - MAXIMUM SAMPLING INCREMENT 10CM. RECORDED ON AA-BBB-199C AT 00:00
FILENAME: QUARYCSE.CIB RUN ID: COAL SEAM EVALUATION PLOTTED ON XX-YYY-199Z AT 00:00
Figure 11.3 Three component Coal Seam Evaluation, using density and sonic
inputs with gamma ray and caliper curves for quality control
Calorific value and volatile content have also been predicted from geophysical logs.
These, in common with other petrophysical parameters, depend on empirical
relationships developed from cross-plots of laboratory data against standard log data.
Much work has also been carried out with non-standard techniques, most notably
with neutron activation for the purpose of quantifying sulphur content. Whilst this
work has reported technical success, it remains to be seen whether the work will
become commercially viable.
There are two types of survey. Both rely on the same seismic propagation mode,
whereby tube (channel) waves are confined to the coal seam by reflections at the coal-
rock interfaces at roof and floor.
within the coal seam enables a simple calculation to be made, resulting in the distance
to that disturbance. Subsequent planning ensures continuity of production, whilst
avoiding the obstruction.
The success of this technique is reported to be between 85% and 90% in the UK coal
industry. Under optimum conditions, structures up to 300 m distant may be detected.
A. Borehole to borehole.
C. Coal-face to coal-face.
All use the same principle: a small explosive charge is detonated in the transmitter
side, and the seismic waveform detected by a geophone in the receiver side. They may
be up to 300 m apart.
The second major benefit of the transmission survey relates to the frequency
characteristics of the propagated wave. Effectively, some propagation occurs above
and below the coal seam. This results in higher frequencies propagating within the
seam at typical coal velocities, whilst lower frequencies tend to be influenced by the
surrounding rock mass at typical rock velocities. This is shown diagrammatically in
Figure 11.4 as a frequency-slowness plot.
The shape of this curve and its absolute frequency values are governed by the coal
seam thickness and structure as shown by three different coal seams in Figure 11.5.
Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane 145
B
Propagation Frequency
A = Rock velocities
B-C = Transition zone
C D = Coal velocities
Slowness
Figure 11.4 Frequency-slowness plot of tube wave transmission path through a coal
seam.
146 Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane
100
Barnsley Seam
(2.8 m thick)
200
Propagation Frequency (Hz)
Parkgate Seam
300 (2.0 m thick)
Corbiecraig Seam
(1.42 m thick)
400
500
600
Slowness (ms/m)
In the UK, a great quantity of data has been accumulated from such surveys
(historically up to approximately 150 surveys per year). The interpretations made
from them have largely been vindicated by driving tunnels and faces subsequent to the
surveys. The resulting correlations have led to computer modelling techniques being
applied to transmission data. Comparison of the acquired curve with computer
modelled curves from seams of different qualities and thicknesses can give rapid
answers to the questions of seam thickness and thickness variations.
Coal Quality and Coal Bed Methane 147
The logistics of the transmission technique are simple. The seismic sources may be
small explosive charges embedded in short boreholes in a coal panel or, in the case of
a borehole, primacord wrapped around a back-off bar lowered to seam depth on the
end of a wireline logging cable. Similarly, geophones may be embedded in the coal
panel or alternatively cemented into the coal seam within the borehole. This
cementing requires precise depth control by the wireline logging contractor in order
to place the geophone at the mid-point of the seam.
60
99
138
177
216
FREQUENCY Hz
255
294
333
372
411
450
489
528
0.5 1.0
SLOWNESS ms/m
In general, gas content increases with depth of burial, and hence temperature and
pressure since it is absorbed in the micro-pores of the coal matrix. For example,
lignites and sub-bituminous coals may contain up to 200 cu.ft/ton, whilst bituminous
coals and anthracites may have 200 to 500 cu.ft/ton.
Quality is important in that the higher the ash (or mineral) content, the lower the
amount of coal and the smaller the volume of gas. Additionally, the depth-pressure
regime of the prospect is also involved in the volume of gas present. Coal porosity (i.e.
volume of gas within the micro-pores) and permeability (in the form of cleats and
fractures) are depth and pressure dependent. Both decrease with increasing over-
burden pressure due to the high compressibility of coal pores.
Permeability of the seam is likely to control producing hole spacings: the higher the
permeability, the greater the area of coal that can be de-gassed by a single borehole.
Before looking at how this is done, we must be aware of some of the commonly used
seismic techniques:
Each seismic line may be several km in length. However, the low frequencies
employed (typically 10 Hz to 200 Hz) and the attenuation of high frequencies with
increasing depth, limits a surveys resolving power. Additionally, the presence of
strong reflecting layers increases attenuation leading to further deterioration in data
quality below these reflectors. Ultimately, attenuation and distortion may be so great
that a meaningful interpretation cannot be performed.
In summary:
150 Seismic Time to Depth Conversion
3. No depth information.
One such technique is the Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP). This survey is conducted
with down-hole geophones and a seismic source at ground level. Data measurements
are made at many different depths. In the IMOVSP or Inverse Multiple Offset
Vertical Seismic Profile, down-hole seismic sources and a surface geophone array are
used. Similarly, data measurements are made at various depths but with the added
advantage of multiple geophones located various distances from the borehole.
IMOVSP surveys have provided superior seismic image data in shorter survey times
then conventional VSPs.
A device known as a back-off bar on the end of the wireline cable holds the downhole
seismic source. This is a solid steel rod around which is wrapped a suitable length of
primacord, the seismic source itself. An electrical detonator completes the downhole
set-up.
An IMOVSP survey provides depth control, since the depth of the seismic source
within the borehole is known and controlled from the surface equipment. Processing
of the IMOVSP survey data to the same presentation format as the surface seismic (i.e.
a linear timescale for the y-axis and a linear distance scale for the x-axis) allows a
direct comparison of the two surveys and hence calibration of the surface data with
Seismic Time to Depth Conversion 151
depths from the downhole data. This is obviously invaluable knowledge, enabling
depth control of the entire surface seismic pattern. Depths of coal seams,
unconformities, major reflectors and other major features throughout the survey area
may then be pinpointed, thus enabling target horizon depths to be quantified for the
drilling of further boreholes. Additionally, three-dimensional data is then available for
structural modelling of the areas of interest.
DRILLING RIG
AND BOREHOLE
SEISMIC
SOURCE
REFLECTING
LAYER
LATERAL EXTENT OF
SEISMIC COVERAGE
(UP TO HALF OF THE BOREHOLE TO FAR
OFFSET GEOPHONE SEPARATION)
Looking beyond the drill bit is possible using the IMOVSP technique. Thus, structures
beneath the total depth of the borehole may be examined (see Figure 12.2) and any
further drilling decisions based on this data.
152 Seismic Time to Depth Conversion
DRILLING RIG
AND BOREHOLE
SEISMIC
SOURCE
REFLECTING
LAYER BELOW
BOTTOM DEPTH
OF BOREHOLE
Figure 12.2 Looking ahead of the drill bit with the IMOVSP technique
One of the more valuable uses of the IMOVSP technique is identification of structures
beneath strong reflectors. Such reflectors prevent (or so seriously attenuate the signal
as to render any interpretation useless) acoustic penetration below themselves. Their
presence dictates a lower depth limit and can severely compromise the value of a
surface seismic survey. No such limitations hinder the IMOVSP survey, since the
borehole can be drilled through these reflectors and therefore imaging of the
structures beneath them may be accomplished.
As with all seismic surveys of the downhole type, a velocity profile may be established,
giving interval velocities between specific horizons and RMS and average velocities to
horizons. These are derived from knowledge of the depth of the downhole source,
drilling rig to geophone lateral separation, knowledge of the characteristics of the near
surface layers and measured one way times.
Figure 12.3 shows the parameters needed to correct travel times for near-surface
effects. These are: depth of the weathering layer (DW), elevation of the logging datum
above seismic datum (ELD), elevation of ground level above seismic datum at the
geophone location (EGL), weathering layer velocity (VWE) and elevation layer velocity
(VE) are all inputs to produce a time correction factor (TE). This allows for variations
in the above parameters and to reduce all data to a common reference point (seismic
datum):
DW (EGL - D W)
TE = -
VWE VE
Seismic datum is commonly mean sea level (M.S.L), ordnance datum (O.D.) or a
nominal distance above or below.
DRILLING RIG
AND BOREHOLE
RA
GROUND LE
VEL
OFFSET
GEOPHONE
DW WEATHERIN
G LAYER
OR LO W VE
LOCITY
VWE LAYER (LVL)
VW
ELD
TE EGL
BOREHOLE
DL
TM
SEISMIC DATUM
TCORR DCORR
DOWNHOLE
SEISMIC
SOURCE
The final stages in producing the velocity profile commence with taking into account
the borehole-to-geophone offset (RA). This is necessary to convert measurements (TM
corrected for seismic datum and weathered layers, etc.) from the hypotenuse to the
vertical (TCORR), assuming a vertical borehole.
DL
TCORR = T M +T
(R + D L2)
2 E
A
Further calculation results in the final velocity profile, which includes tabular and
graphical displays of the following:
Inclined boreholes present additional problems since all data must be corrected for
TVD (True Vertical Depth). Clearly a borehole deviation or verticality survey must be
performed for this to be possible. If a dipmeter (DV1 or DV2) has been logged, then
this information is automatically available from the VO1 or VO2 section of the
survey. Required input data consist of distances of Northings and Eastings from
borehole origin (either surface or casing shoe) and true vertical depths corresponding
to the logged seismic level depths.
These three parameters define the three-dimensional point in space where the
downhole source is located. Of critical importance is measurement of the azimuth of
the geophone from the borehole, as measured with a compass.
RECEIVER
COMMENTS :
1 : T-ZERO DELAY = 0 MSEC
2 : ....
At each depth station (normally sited just below each major reflector), the airgun is
fired, triggering the recording system to display the waveform received by the
downhole geophone as well as the firing pulse recorded by the hydrophone adjacent
to the airgun.
Only the first break (or first arrival) is used to measure the time taken for the acoustic
pulse to travel from the airgun to the geophone.
As with the VSP, a time correction factor should be applied to the measured time and
depth data to correct for the effects of near-surface layers and seismic reference
datum. The equation used is slightly different to allow for the airgun/hydrophone set-
up in a fluid filled pit:
156 Seismic Time to Depth Conversion
100
150
(MS)
200
TWO WAY TIMES
250
300
350
400
450
Figure 12.6 SRS results graph of RMS, Average and Interval velocities derived
from corrected two-way times
100
450
INTERPOLATED DEPTH
150 500
(MS)
550
200
600
TWO WAY TIMES
650
250
700
300 750
800
(M)
350
850
400 900
450
Figure 12.7 SRS results graph of corrected two-way times plotted against logged
depths together with interpolated depths of horizons of interest
158 Seismic Time to Depth Conversion
1
VE
Time
1 DW = 0.5 X C V E - V WE
VWE VE + VWE
xc
0 Distance
Because of low velocities within the weathered layer (or LVL), several effects are
observed. Firstly, high absorption of seismic energy within the zone. Secondly, the
effects on travel times from beyond the LVL appear to be great due to the low
velocities and rapid changes in them. Thirdly, seismic waves travel almost vertically
through the LVL due to the marked velocity contrast at the base of the LVL. Finally,
the base of the LVL has a high acoustic impedance contrast making it a very good
reflector, capable of producing multiple reflections. These multiple reflections may be
erroneously interpreted as primary seismic events if the presence of the LVL is ignored
or misinterpreted.
MS series tools measure the time taken for an acoustic pulse to travel between
transmitter and receiver. Integrating these times over a logged interval derives an
Seismic Time to Depth Conversion 159
interval time. It should match that generated by velocity profile calculations from an
SRS or VSP over the same section of the borehole.
In practice, however, the two are dissimilar because of dispersion (low frequency
seismic waves do not have the same velocity as those from relatively high frequency
sonic tools), variations in borehole diameter, invasion of porous formations by mud
filtrate, chemical alteration of shales by hydration, and the presence of formation gas.
Differences between one-way times and integrated sonic timed may be positive or
negative depending on whether the sonic log is affected mainly by factors that cause
the velocities to be too slow or too fast.
Sonic times are long when signal attenuation causes cycle-skipping occurs (when the
first arrival has a smaller amplitude than the detector threshold causing a subsequent
arrival to be detected). This is more likely to occur for long transmitter - receiver
spacings. Borehole condition also plays an important role; badly caved or rugose
boreholes increase the travel path, resulting in a longer transit time (tortuosity). Large
diameter boreholes may produce problems, especially with shorter spacings, when
first arrivals may be from the borehole fluid, rather than the formation.
The major effect causing sonic velocities to be too fast appears to be the frequency
dependence of these velocities. This phenomenon is known as dispersion. It manifests
itself in increasing acoustic velocities with increasing frequency. This effect can assume
great importance when it is considered that surface seismic and check shot (whether
conventional or inverse) sources all operate at frequencies of the order of 50Hz,
whereas wireline sonic tools use frequencies upwards of 20 kHz.
The process of calibrating the sonic velocity log continues with using a computer to
calculate the magnitudes of drift (the discrepancy between integrated times from
seismic and sonic surveys) and then plot what is known as the Drift Curve
Computation - see Figure 12.9.
500
600
700
800
900
Figure 12.9 Typical drift log curve derived from comparison of integrated times
from wireline sonic logs and VSP or SRS surveys
Various trends may be evident on this plot, which should be examined in combination
with other lithology indicators, such as gamma ray, formation density and neutron
porosity. Knee points are then determined where the gradient of the drift curve
changes at the same depth as a major lithological boundary (see Figure 12.10). Note
that the uppermost check shot depth is defined as the zero drift datum.
Seismic Time to Depth Conversion 161
513.00 500
600
700
786.30
800
900
918.00
Figure 12.10 Typical drift curve log incorporating interactively selected knee
points constructed at major lithological boundaries
These drift curves when applied to the uncorrected sonic log result in a corrected
version which, when re-integrated, shows close agreement with the times from the
check shot survey.
Drift corrections are applied in one of two ways: linear (block) shift where all sonic
transit times are shifted equally without regard for their amplitudes, or as a
differential shift.
Differential shifting starts at a baseline, below which sonic transit times are assumed to
be correct, and above which increasing transit times are given an increasing
correction. It follows an assumption that mechanical damage and chemical alteration
162 Seismic Time to Depth Conversion
are negligible in fast formations (e.g. sandstones and limestones), but are more
pronounced in fast formations (e.g. shales).
Having applied a drift correction, the surface seismic and check shot data are
compared with sonic log data via the Synthetic Seismogram.
Sonic logs are acquired as a series of depth samples, and must be converted to time
samples to be compatible with seismic data. Using corrected one-way times, velocity
values are generated at regular time increments, typically every millisecond. Since
sonic and density logs are depth matched, the same process of depth to time
conversion may be applied to the density.
Next, an acoustic impedance log is generated, this being the product of density and
sonic values. Reflection coefficients are then computed for each time sample. The
magnitude and polarity of each reflection coefficient is governed by the relative
polarity and amplitude of the acoustic impedances of the formations above and below
the boundary. Figure 12.11 depicts the input data and initial results. This is used as
the input to produce the final Synthetic Seismogram.
Seismic Time to Depth Conversion 163
DENSITY
REFLECTION COEFFS.
2-WAY TRANSIT
DEPTH M.
VELOCITY
TRANSMISSION LOSS
TIME SECS
DB
GM/CC
M/S
10000.00
-40.00
20.00
1.00
3.00
-.60
.00
.00
.60
.00
.00
.02
.04 100
.06
.08
.10
.12 200
.14
.16
.18
300
.20
.22
.24 400
.26
.28
500
.30
.32
.34
600
.36
.38
.40
700
.42
.44
Figure 12.11 also depicts the Transmission Loss curve that quantifies the loss of
seismic energy at each reflector. It allows multiple reflections to be evaluated, and the
attenuation and two-way transmission loss to be estimated.
The Synthetic Seismogram can now be produced as a convolution of the time sampled
reflection coefficients and a seismic wavelet. The wavelet is simply a sampled
representation of the seismic pulse used in the original survey. If this was not
recorded, then a wavelet must be assumed. The commonly used forms are zero-phase
(e.g. Ricker), and Klauder wavelets.
164 Seismic Time to Depth Conversion
SYNTHETIC SEISMOGRAM
COMPANY PLOTTED 5-JAN-98 17:34
WELL DEPTH RANGE 55.00 - 770.00 M.
FIELD TIME INTERVAL .0000 - .4530 SECONDS
COUNTY TIME SCALE 20 CM/SEC
COUNTRY/STATE SAMPLING INCREMENT .00100 SECONDS
LOCATION 2-WAY TIME PLOTTED
FILE MRGEDF01.CIB RICKER WAVELET USED
RUN ID WHITE TROUGH -> INC. ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
RUN DATE, TIME 5-JAN-98 15:34
FIRST ORDER
2-WAY TRANSIT
DEPTH M.
TRANSMISSION LOSS
PRIMARIES WITHOUT
PRIMARIES PLUS
MICRO-SEC/FT
MULTIPLES
FIRST ORDER
PRIMARIES
MULTIPLES
TIME SECS
SONIC
140.00
40.00
.00
.02
.04 100
.06
.08
.10
.12 200
.14
.16
.18
300
.20
.22
.24 400
.26
.28
500
.30
.32
.34
600
.36
.38
.40
700
.42
.44
David Firth has worked with log data for more than 20
years, as a field engineer and interpreter.