Food Sci. Technol. Res.

, 10 (3), 334-340, 2004

Microbiology of Kwek-Kwek: An Emerging Philippine Streetfood

Ma. Patricia V. AZANZA

Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Home Economics, University ofthe Philippines, Diliman JIO], Quezon City,
Philippines

Received March 13, 2004; Accepted June 21, 2004

The microbiology of kwek-kwek as a Philippine emerging streetfood made from boiled quail eggs, which
have been battered and fried was studied. The process of water-cooling and manual peeling of the boiled shell
eggs were shown to increase the TPCs, and coliform and staphylococci counts of the product. The batter was
also shown to contribute to microbial contamination of the product. The microbial profile of ready-to-eat
kwek-kwek during vending was: I04-106 cfu/g TPC; ~ I02 MPN/g coliform count; ~ I04 MPN/g coagulase-
positive staphylococci count; and presence of Salmonella sp. per 25 g sample. The flour-based sauces of kwek-
kwek were found to contain higher microbial contaminants than the vinegar-based sauce. It was recommended
that good manufacturing procedures within the boundary of streetfood trade economics be fully considered
in the preparation and vending of the product.

Keywords: streetfood, quail egg, microbiology, street vended

likewise determined to help explain the associated micro-

Introduction
Philippine emerging egg-based streetfoods could gener-
ally be described as hard-boiled shell egg products that are
coated with orange-colored batter, fried and served with
spicy flour- or vinegar-based sauces. The development of
emerging Philippine egg-based streetfood products could
be traced back from an attempt by an enterprising street-
food vendor from an old commercial district in Metro
Manila to salvage rejected hard-boiled duck embryo leakers
(Fernandez, 1 994). De-shelling, batter coating, deep-frying
and addition of spicy sauces were used as methods to utilize
the otherwise rejected materials of the industry. A variant
for this innovative type of streetfood is fried, battered, hard-
boiled quail eggs quaintly called kwek-kwek. The quail egg-
based variant has now surpassed the popularity of the
original duck egg-based streetfood.
Unfortunately, kwek-kwek is based on the utilization of
quail shell eggs of sometimes uncertain quality including
those classified as leakers and hold-overs of incubation.
Shell eggs already considered refuse by the industry, are
still being utilized by vendors solely based on economic
reasons. Possible risk associated with kwek-kwek is further
aggravated by the fact that these types of streetfoods are
processed in a very manual manner under prevailing poor
sanitation conditions in retail market facilities and house-
hold of vendors where the product is usually prepared. This
study was conducted to establish the microbial profile of
kwek-kwek as affected by the preparation and vending pro-
cedures used. Physical characteristics of the streetfood were
E-mail: ma_patricia.azanza@up.edu. ph
bial flora of the commodity. Results of the study may be
used to assist vendors in improving the microbial quality
of this product.
Methodology
Food process flow The preparation and vending pro-
cedures for the street-vended kwek-kwek were established
through face-to-face interviews of street vendors using a
guide survey tool. Briefly, the tool established the follow-
ing information: (1) vendor demographics; (2) raw materi-
als utilized; (3) processing steps; (4) vending protocols; and
(5) Ieft-over management. Observations of the actual oper-
ations were also made to validate the described processing,
vending, storage and left-over management methods
described by the vendors. Generic foodflow for the test
streetfood was then generated based on the information
gathered. Pertinent technical data about the foodflow were
detailed.
Quezon City, Greater Manila Area, Philippines was
selected as the test site for the study since it represented a
typical urban location where streetfood vending is quite
popular. The specific areas in the main thoroughfare in the
test site which were identified for the survey included: a
shopping area along a main avenue, a retail food market,
a public transportation terminal; and an urban poor resi-
dential community. Opportunity to interview vendors in
these strategic sites was optimized by visiting these areas
daily for 2 consecutive weeks between I :O0-10:OO pm.
Within the selected test areas, 100% (n = 25) of the vendors
involved in the sale of the test emerging streetfood were
approached and asked to participate in the survey. All of
the vendors of kwek-kwek who consented to be part of the
Microbiotogy of Kwek-Kwek
survey (10 out of 25) were interviewed and observed during
the preparation and vending of the streetfood.
Quality assessment Food samples for physical and
microbiological analyses were obtained from the different
stages of preparation and street-vending of 3 cooperating
vendors whose operations represented the established typical
vending protocols for the test streetfood. Representative food
samples were taken during 3 separate days of operation of
each of the participating vendors.
Physical analyses The physical properties analyzed
were temperature, water activity (a*), and pH. The tem-
perature of the test samples was recorded by inserting the
metal probe of dial thermometer (25 cm metal probe length,
-15 to 110'C temperature range) in the innermost points
of the food samples. The a~ of the test samples was analyzed
using the Wert-Messer a+ analyzer (Model 583, Germany).
The pH of homogenized test food samples was determined
using a digital pH meter (Suntex Model SP-7, Suntex
Instruments Co. Lt., Taiwan). Analyses of samples were done
in triplicate for 3 trials.
Microbial analyses The total plate count (TPC) of all
test food samples was analyzed based on the method
described in the US Bacteriological Analytical Manual
(Peeler and Maturin, 1992). Twenty-five g food sample
was homogenized with 225 ml peptone saline solution.
Serial dilutions up to l0-5 were prepared. Dilutions were
then pour plated in duplicate using plate count agar (Oxoid,
Unipath Ltd., UK) and incubated at 35'C for 48 h. Colonies
were counted and reported as loglo cfu/g.
For coliform counts, peptone saline dilutions of up to 10~
were inoculated in triplicate tubes of Lauryl Tryptose broth
(LTB) (Oxoid, Unipath Ltd., UK) (Hitchins et al., 1992).
Inoculated tubes were incubated for 48 h at 35'C. Incubated
tubes were examined after 24 h for gas production indi-
cated by the displacement of medium in fermentation vial.
Negative tubes were reincubated for another 24 h. Loopfuls
of samples from inoculated LTB, which were positive for
turbidity and gas formation, were streaked onto dry plates
of solid Eosin Methylene Blue agar (EMB) (Pronadisa,
Hispanlab, SA) to confirm the presence of coliforms. Streak-
plated plates were incubated at 35'C for 24 h. Flat, dark-
centered, colonies with or without metallic sheen were
considered as coliforms. Results of the tests were reported
as the log of most probable number (MPN) per g of
sample.
Presumptive tests for the detection of Salmonella sp.
were done based on the methods of Jay and Davey (1989).
Twenty-five g of food sample was dispersed in 225 ml
buffered peptone water and incubated for 16-20 h at 37'C
to resuscitate sub-1ethally damaged organisms. One ml
resuscitated culture was inoculated to 10 ml Selenite Cystine
broth (BBL, Becton Dickinson & Co., USA) in duplicate.
The inoculated tubes were incubated for 18-24 h at 37'C.
Loopfuls of culture suspension from incubated SC broth
tubes, were streaked onto dry solid Bismuth Sulfite (BS)
agar plates (Pronadisa, Hispanlab, SA) and incubated at
37'C for 24 to 48 h. Typical Salmonella sp. isolates, which
appeared brown, gray or black with or without metallic
335
sheen, were subjected to biochemical tests to confirm the
presence of Salmonella sp.
Biochemical tests for the verification of the presence of
Salmonella sp. were based on the procedures described in
the Bacteriological Analytical Manual (Andrews et al.,
1992). Confirmed Salmonella sp. isolates were microor-
ganisms which showed positive reactions for glucose fer-
mentation, Iysine decarboxylation, H2S production, agglu-
tination and citrate (Simmon's) utilization; and negative
reaction for indole formation and urease activity (Flowers
et al., 1992; Holt et al., 1994). Presence of Salmonella sp.
was reported positive or negative per 25 g sample.
The test for the presence of coagulase-positive staphy-
10cocci in the food samples was based on the procedure
described by Eyles (1989). Peptone saline dilutions of up
to 10-5 were used to inoculate in triplicate tubes of Trypticase
Soya Broth (TSB) (BBL, Becton Dickinson & Co, USA).
Inoculated TSB tubes were incubated for 48 h at 35'C.
Loopfuls of samples from inoculated TSB tubes were
streaked onto dry plates of solid Baird-Parker (BP) agar
base (BBL, Becton Dickinson & Co, USA) enriched with
egg yolk-tellurite solution (Power and McCuen, 1988).
Streak-plated plates were incubated at 35'C for 48 h. Typical
staphylococci colonies, which were round, black colonies
with clear opaque zones, and atypical black suspected
colonies were presumed positive for staphylococci. Selected
colonies of each type were isolated and inoculated into 0.3
ml Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) broth (Oxoid, Unipath Ltd.,
UK). Culture suspensions were then subjected to coagulase
test by adding 0.5 ml coagulase plasma rabbit with EDTA
(BBL, Becton Dickinson & Co, USA). The tubes were
incubated at 35'C and were examined for clot formation
periodically at 6 h interval for a period of 24 h. Coagulase
positive (1+ to 4+) reactions confirmed the presence of coag-
ulase positive staphylococci (AOAC, 1990). Coagulase
positive staphylococci counts were reported as the log of
MPN per g sample.
Results and Discussion
Process description A general process foodflow for
the preparation, storage, vending and left-over manage-
ment operations of kwek-kwek was developed based on the
validated survey results. Briefly, the generic foodflow of
kwek-kwek consists of: (1) receipt of quail eggs; (2) boiling
and cooling of the eggs; (3) manual de-shelling of cooled
boiled eggs; (4) batter-coating of peeled boiled eggs; and
(5) frying of the batter-coated eggs. Ambient hold-on and
re-frying of fried streetfoods were established to be optional
operations based on product turn-over during vending. It
was established that home-scale kitchen level operation
implemented in vendor households or retail market facili-
ties was the basis for the preparation of street-vended kwek-
kwek. The simplicity of the preparation and vending steps
involved may help explain the sustainability of kwek-kwek
as a viable streetfood commodity in the Philippines. Bungay
(undated) cited that micro- to small-scale levels of opera-
tion and use of very basic cooking methods mainly char-
acterize the streetfood industry in the country.
336 M.P.V. AZANZA

Physical characteristics Table I shows the physical and staphylococci (Longree and Armbruster, 1996). The
properties of the raw ingredients and other food samples insufficiency of the frying process for kwek-kwek to reach
obtained from different stages of preparation and vending the prescribed internal temperatures for adequate cooking
of kwek-kwek. The temperature of fresh raw materials to may be explained by the very arbitrary indicators used by
the peeled boiled quail eggs ranged from 26-28'C. This the vendors to determine doneness of the food being
temperature range of the egg samples reflects the temper- cooked. It was established that the level of browness of the
ature of the surrounding environment where food was batter coating or the visibly crunchy appearance of the
prepared and stored. Ambient temperature in the Philippines products served as the primary indicators of the cooking
was reported to be 28'C based on prevailing Philippine suff iciency.
normal climatological conditions (PAGASA, 1999). Fresh The samples during re-frying, recorded internal temper-
eggs were reported to be best stored at temperatures ~ 10'C atures below the required food temperatures for cooked
(Clay and Board, 1991; Dolman and Board, 1992). At foods to render it microbiologically safe. Typical re-frying
ambient temperatures, the total quality of fresh eggs were process used also utilize flash heating which does not
reported to deteriorate rapidly (Clay and Board, 1991; normally achieve adequate heating of the cold points of the
Longree and Armbruster, 1996). food especially in the presence of very thick batter coating
used for this test streetfood. It was previously cited that
Table 1. Physical characteristics of street-vended fried quail eggs pre-cooked ham croquettes, that were batter-coated and
(kwek-kwek) obtained from various stages of preparation, vending and fried for 2 min at oil temperature of about 191'C, only
(a)
storage . attained internal temperatures of about 56.1-62.8'C
Sampling Point Temperature aw pH (Deskins and Hussemann, 1954). The final brown color of
('C) the batter coating was also reported to have been used to
1. Fresh quail eggs 26-28 0.92-0.94 7.20-7.77 indicate doneness of the re-heated ham croquettes. The
2. Pre-processed quail eggs temperatures of flour- and vinegar-based sauces used as
a water-soaked boiled eggs 27-28 O.91-0.93 7.72-8.34 condiments for kwek-kwek during the 8-1 2 h hold-on display
b de-shelled boiled eggs 27-28 0.92-0.96 7.55-7.90
4.65-6.22
at ambient conditions were in the range of 26-38'C. The
3. Batter mixture 27-29 0.92-0.93
4. Fried kwek-kwek
temperatures of the sauces coincide with the ambient con-
a newly fried kwek-kwek 60-67 0.90-0.95 7 .37-7 .9 1 ditions of the vending environment.
b re-fried kwek-kwek 26-55 0.91-0.93 7.53-8.25 A11 samples obtained from various stages of food prepa-
5. Sauces for kwek-kwek ration operations prior to frying recorded a~ readings
a flour-based sweet and
ranging from 0.9 1-0.96 indicating high perishability of the
sour sauce (O h) 26-38 0.90-0.93 4. 1 9-4. 80
food samples (Table 1). Water activity levels within the range
b flour-based sweet and
sour sauce (8 h) 26-32 0.90-0.96 4.29-4.77 of 0.86-0.95 permit growth of most bacteria, specifically
c spiced vinegar sauce (O h) 26-30 0.92-0.99 2.84-3.54 those of the foodborne pathogens like Salmonella,
d spiced vinegar sauce (8 h) 26-32 0.92-0.94 2.83-3.66
Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus
(a) Analyses were conducted m 3 tnals (Roberts, 1992). With batter-coating and subsequent frying
and refrying processes, the a~ range of the fried samples
Hard-boiled egg samples, which have been soaked in the in this study did not drop to lower ranges. In related studies,
cooling water, and consequently de-shelled, also recorded frying generally caused a considerable reduction in the a~
temperatures ranging from 27-28'C. Holding of cooked of some deep-fried food commodities attributed to the des-
foods at this temperature range, which is within the danger iccating effect of the procedures (Azanza and Gedaria,
zone of 7.2-60'C (FDA, 1978), is critical to its microbial 1998a; Azanza et al., 2001). In this study, the anticipated
quality (Longree and Armbruster, 1996). Further, de-shelled reduction in the a~ of the fried kwek-kwek samples was not
cooked eggs may be considered more susceptible to spoilage realized perhaps due to insufficiency of the cooking steps
since the natural barrier offered by the shell and its to take effect in the thick batter coating of the eggs. The
membrane no longer protects the food materials. Oblinger inner layers of the batter-coating and the egg itself may have
and Angalet ( 1 974) established that low temperature storage just been lightly heated during frying despite apparent
of hard-boiled eggs at 5'C successfully retarded bacterial doneness of the outer surface of the batter. The a~ of both
spoilage even after 21 d of storage. The batter mixture used flour- and vinegar-based sauces were in the range 0.90-0.99
for coating boiled egg products during hold-on was estab- (Table I ). Previous studies on both starch-based and vinegar
lished to likewise have temperature readings of 27-29'C. sauces used for street-vended grilled chicken intestines
Warm temperature holding of the batter mixture during similarly recorded a~ range values between 0.91-0.96
vending in streetcarts was established to be as long as (Azanza and Gedaria, 1998b).
12 h. Egg samples, including fresh shell eggs, hard-boiled
Newly fried kwek-kwek samples were found to have eggs, and fried and re-fried battered egg samples had pH
internal temperatures of between 60-67'C (Table 1). Internal readings in the range of 7.20-8.34 (Table 1). Fronning et
temperatures of cooked foods must reach at least al. (1992) reported that pH of blended yolk and white of
73.9-76.7'C during the cooking process for an effective shell eggs varies between 7.0-7.6. The pH values estab-
reduction or even elimination of pathogens like Salmonella lished for both flour- and vinegar-based sauces were

,
Microbiotogy of Kwek-Kwek
4. 19-4.8 and 2.83-3.66, respectively. Reported pH values
for starch-based sweet and sour sauces for other Philippine
street-vended foods were 3.5-4. I and 2.8-4.2, respective-
ly (Azanza and Gedaria, 1998a; 1998b). Vinegar normally
has pH of about 3.0-4.0 (Jay, 1992).
Microbial characteristics
Totalplate and cohform counts The TPCs and coliform
counts of fresh quail eggs samples were recorded to be in
the range of <101_102 cfu/g and ~ 101 MPN/g, respective-
ly (Table 2). These counts were considerably lower than
the normal microbial counts reported for fresh chicken eggs
which were around 102-104 cfu/g (Mossel et al., 1995;
NAS, 1985) and lO]-l03 MPN/g (Mossel et al., 1995) for
TPC and coliform count, respectively. Fronning et al. ( 1992),
however, reported that TPC of fresh eggs > 102 cfu/g already
indicates possible microbial penetration through the porous
egg shell. The raw eggs used in the study generally were
inherently of low quality since these are leakers.
Soaking in cooling water and subsequent manual peeling
of the boiled eggs were found to have increased the TPCs
and coliform counts of egg samples by 2-4 and 1-3 Iog
units, respectively. The deterioration of the microbial quality
of egg following the boiling, soaking and peeling proce-
dures may be attributed to possible contamination from the
soaking water used to cool the boiled eggs and contact with
the foodhandler. In the study, cooling of the freshly boiled
eggs was done by batch soaking in a container using non-
flowing tap water for about 30 min. Although hard-cooked
eggs are generally considered safe from microorganisms
(Licciardello et al. , 1965), this does not preclude the possible
recontamination of the cooked eggs during subsequent
handling (Merrill et al., 1984). Ideally, wash water of hard-
boiled eggs must be kept at about 10'C warmer than the
hot eggs to prevent aspiration of possibly contaminated
water into the porous shell and membrane of the eggs upon
contraction of the hot eggs contents during cooling process
(Longree and Armbruster, 1996). For cooling, it has been
suggested that hard-cooked eggs must be cooled only in
337
fresh potable water to ensure adequate safety.
The manual de-shelling of the soaked eggs may have
inevitably contributed to the recontamination of the boiled
eggs. Peeling of soaked eggs was manually done by the
vendors with unprotected hands. Foodhandlers were estab-
lished transvectors of microorganisms of public health sig-
nificance including Escherichia coli and staphylococci to
food (Azanza and Gedaria, 1998b). Swab test conducted
on the hands of some streetfood vendors in the Philippines
indicated that vendors are major agents of microbial con-
tamination of local street-vended foods (Azanza and
Gedaria, 1998b).
The batter mixture analyzed was found to have TPCs and
coliform counts in the range of about 105-107 cfu/g and
103-104 MPN/g, respectively. Batter-coated egg-based
dishes have previously been reported to be one of the most
common type of foods implicated in the increasing food-
borne epidemiological cases in United Kingdom (Sharp,
1992). The aerobic plate and coliform guideline values for
batters were reported to be about 105 cfu/g and 102 MPN/g,
respectively (NAS, 1985). The overall microbial quality of
the batter blends used by vendors of kwek-kwek may be
attributed to the microbial quality of the main components
of the mixture including flour, water and spices. Commercial
spices were cited to be heavily contarninated with insect
fragments and microorganisms (Julseth and Deibel, 1974;
Powers et al., 1975). Spices have also been reported to
normally have TPC of about 105-1 06 cfu/g (Marshall, 1986),
and coliform counts of 102 MPN/g (Wehr, 1982). Grain-
based products, Iike flour, are commonly associated with
several types of microbial contaminants, in particular
Bacillus cereus which is capable of releasing enterotoxins
(Longree and Armbruster, 1996).
The frying process was able to reduce the microbial con-
tamination of the streetfood relative to its ingredients by
about 2 Iog units and 1 Iog unit for TPC and coliform
counts, respectively. Reduction of microbial counts of fried
kwek-kwek samples, however, was still not enough to lower
it to acceptable levels for TPCs and coliform counts reported

Table 2. Microbiological quality profile of street-vended fried quail eggs (kwek-kwek) obtained from various stages of preparation, vending and
(a)
storage .

Food sample TPC Coliform Coagulase-positive Salmonella spp.

(log cfulg) (log MPN/g) staphylococci (+/- per 25 g)
(log MPN/g)

l . Fresh quail eggs < I .0-2.7 < 0.5-1.0 < 0.5-1 .O +

2. Pre-processed quail eggs
a water-soaked eggs < 2.0-6.5 o . 6-2 . 4 0.4-1 .6 +
b de-shelled boiled eggs 3 . I -6.9 < o.5-4.4 l .9-4.4 +
3. Batter mixture 5 . 2-6 . 9 3 .o~l .4 2.2-4.4 +
4. Fried kwek-kwek
a newly fried kwek-kwek < 2.0-5.2 < o.5-3.0 o. 9-3 .4

b re-fried kwek-kwek 4, 1-6.0 < o.5-2.6 < 0.5-4.4

5. Sauces for kwek-kwek
a flour-based sauce (O h) 2 . 4-3 . 5 < 0.5-1.0 < 0.5-1.5 +
b flour-based sauce (8 h) < 2.0-6.9 < 0.5-3.4 < 0.5-2.6 +
c vinegar-based sauce (O h) 2 .0-3 . 2 < 0.5 < 0.5-1 .4
d vinegar-based sauce (8 h) 2. 8-5 . l < O.5 < 0.5-1 .4 +
(a) Analyses were conducted in 3 trials.
338
to be about 104 cfu/g and 10 MPN/g for ready-to-eat meals,
respectively (Marshall, 1986). The insufficiency of the
frying procedure to effectively lower the TPCs and coliform
counts to recommended acceptable levels may be related
to the low internal temperature attained by the food during
the frying process. Color and appearance of the cooked batter
coating were found to be the primary indicators of doneness
used by the vendors. However, sensory indicators were
earlier established to be poor indices of adequacy of cooking
foods (Deskins and Hussemann, 1954). Re-fried kwek-kwek
samples, which were held for a maximum of 8 h vending
at ambient conditions recorded 104-106 cfu/g TPC, and ~
102 MPN/g coliform counts. Re-working of kwek-kwek
samples was also established to cause further increase in
microbial count by 1-2 Iog-units.
The TPC and coliform range values of the sauces for
kwek-kwek at the point of sale were: ( 1) flour-based sauces,
104-l07 cfu/g and 101_102 MPN/g; and (2) vinegar-based
sauces, 103-105 cfu/g and 101 MPN/g, respectively (Table
2). Freshly prepared sauces of both types had TPC values
within acceptable levels reported for sauces of 104 cfu/g
(Marshall, 1986). After 8 h of use and hold-on at ambient
condition, an increase of up to 3-4 Iog-units in the TPCs
for both sauces was established. These increases in the
TPCs of the sauces, however, may be attributed to the
growth of surviving heat-resistant organisms and the
acquired contaminants upon use and hold-on of the sauces
during vending operations.
Staphylococci counts Coagulase-positive staphylo-
cocci counts of fresh and water-soaked boiled quail eggs
were recorded to be ~ 101 MPN/g which increased by 3-
10g units after manual peeling. The staphylococci count of
the peeled boiled quail eggs already exceeded the safety
guideline value set for cooked meals or snacks which was
reported to be 102 cfu/g (Marshall, 1986). The most likely
source of additional staphylococci contamination was the
hands of the vendors in contact with the egg samples during
manual peeling since the organism is commensal to the
human skin (Eley, 1992). It has even been demonstrated
previously that S. aureus are able to enter the shell of
cooked eggs since these are no longer protected by their
natural resistance to microbial contamination (Harbrecht and
Bergdoll, 1980; Merrill et al., 1984).
About 1-10g unit decrease in the coagulase-positive
staphylococci counts of the newly fried kwek-kwek samples
was observed. Staphylococci organisms are heat-sensitive,
and its vegetative cells can be destroyed with heating at
temperature of about 60-65'C for 0.2-50 min, depending
upon the food or suspending media employed (Roberts,
1992; Ash, 1997). The addition of starch-based thick batter
coating may have, however, provided protection to the ini-
tially present staphylococci contaminants in the batter and
the peeled boiled eggs. Generally, heat resistance of micro-
biological cells was reported to be affected by the presence
of protective substances such as protein, fats and colloidal
matter (Longree and Armbruster, 1996). Fried kwek-kwek
samples had staphylococci counts ~ 103 MPN/g, which is
still beyond the normally reported S. aureus counts for
M.P.V. AZANZA
prepared meals (Marshall, 1986).
With hold-on display at ambient conditions for about
8 h, re-fried kwek-kwek samples were found to have staphy-
10cocci counts of up to 104 MPN/g. These levels of staphy-
lococci pose risk to consumers due to potential enterotox-
in production if staphylococci concentrations increase to
levels of about ~ 105 cfu/g during prolonged period of hot-
holding (Mossel et al., 1995). Flour- and vinegar-based
sauces sampled during vending operations of kvvek-kwek
were found to have coagulase-positive staphylococci counts
of 100_102 MPN/g and 100_101 MPN/g, respectively.
Presence and survival of staphylococci contaminants in
these sauces may be explained by their ability to tolerate
very wide pH range. For example, growth of S. aureus was
reported to be optimum at slightly alkaline conditions
(7.0-7.5) but can tolerate pH conditions within the range
4.2-9.3 (Ash, 1997).
Presence ofSalmonella spp Salmonella sp. contam-
ination was recorded for almost all of samples tested includ-
ing fresh and cooked egg, batter mixture and sauces (Table
2). Salmonella is considered to be ubiquitous in eggs (Gast
and Beard 1992). Eggs and poultry meat are among the most
common food vehicles of salmonellosis to humans (St.
Louis et al., 1988; Longree and Armbruster, 1996). Presence
of Salmonella in water-cooled and peeled boiled quail egg
samples may indicate either the possible survival of ini-
tially present contaminant during cooking or acquired
through contamination during water-soaking and subse-
quent manual de-shelling procedures. Licciardello et al.
(1965) established that the normal cooking times recom-
mended for hard-cooked eggs was adequate to destroy 4
serotypes of Salmonella. However, the ability of Salmonella
to survive soft boiling of eggs has been reported (Humphrey
et al., 1989). Studies have shown that any form of cooking
where all or some of the yolk remains liquid can permit the
survival of Salmonella enteritidis PT4 even from a very
miniscule inoculum (Stadelman, 1995). Post-process con-
tamination has also been established to be a significant route
by which cooked foods can be contaminated by Salmonella
(Bryan, 1974). The presence of Salmonella in the newly
fried and re-fried kwek-kwek samples suggests that the deep
frying process applied to the batter-coated eggs was not
effective in destroying the contaminant initially present in
the samples. Varnam and Evans ( 1 996) reported a minimum
lethal temperature of 74'C for Salmonella to be complete-
ly destroyed in high a~ foods such as the test streetfood.
Unfortunately, internal temperatures recorded for fried and
re-fried kwek-kwek samples were just ~ 67'C.
Salmonella contamination of kwek-kwek sauces may have
likely been introduced through cross-contamination from
contaminated raw and other pre-cooked food products. The
presence and survival of Salmonella in these sauces could
very well be supported by the favorable extrinsic condi-
tions to which the sauces were exposed to during vending
operation in particular, the prolonged holding at warm tem-
peratures. It was also established that the addition of freshly
cut ingredients such as onions and chili was usually done
after pre-cooking and pre-preparation of sauces for kwek-
Microbiology of Kwek-Kwek
kwek. Gravies were earlier cited to have become contami-
nated with Salmonella through the addition of contaminat-
ed chopped giblets via the chopping board (Longree and
Armbruster, 1996).
Summary
The potential risk associated with the consumption of
kwek-kwek as an emerging streetfood stems primarily from
the use of substandard main ingredients, such as egg leakers
and hold-overs of incubation and the unhygienic handling
of the product during preparation and vending. Survival of
microorganisms of public health significance like
Salmonella sp. and staphylococci in the cooked kwek-kwek
were established. Fried kwek-kwek held at ambient condi-
tions during 0-8 h vending operations had the following
microbial profile: TPC of 104-106 cfu/g; coliform count of
~ I02 MPN/g; staphylococci count of ~ I04 MPN/g; and
positive for Salmonella sp, per 25 g sample. The funda-
mental applications of the basic concepts of good manu-
facturing practices are essentially missing in the street trade
protocols of kwek-kwek. Vendors were found to be not very
discerning of the quality of food ingredients used. The use
of fresh shell eggs, food-grade colorants and high quality
batter ingredients must be advocated within the limits of
street-vending economics to ensure wholesomeness of this
streetfood. Likewise, vendors of kwek-kwek must be given
appropriate training on good manufacturing procedures to
improve the preparation and vending procedures being
implemented.
Acknowledgements This study has been made possible through the
funding of the Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and
Development, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City,
Philippines, Grant O006.2-NSEP.
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