1.

Complex Numbers in Algebraic Form

1.1 Algebraic Representation of Complex Numbers

1.1.1 Definition of complex numbers

In what follows we assume that the definition and basic properties of the set of real numbers R are
known. Let us consider the set 𝑅 2 = R×R ={ (x, y)| x, y ∈ R}. Two elements (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) of 𝑅 2 are
equal if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2. The operations of addition and multiplication are defined on the
set R2 as follows:

z1 +z2 = (x1, y1)+(x2, y2) = (x1 +x2, y1 +y2) ∈ 𝑅 2

dan

z1 ·z2 = (x1, y1)·(x2, y2) = (x1x2 −y1y2,x1y2 +x2y1) ∈ 𝑅 2

for all z1 = (x1, y1) ∈R2 and z2 = (x2, y2) ∈𝑅 2.

The element z1+z2 ∈𝑅 2 is called the sum of z1,z2 and the element z1·z2 ∈𝑅 2 is called the
product of z1,z2.

Remarks. 1) If z1 = (x1,0) ∈ 𝑅 2 and z2 = (x2,0) ∈𝑅 2, then z1 ·z2 = (x1x2,0). (2) If z1 = (0, y1) ∈𝑅 2 and z2 =
(0, y2) ∈𝑅 2, then z1 ·z2 = (−y1y2,0).

Examples. 1) Let z1 = (−5,6) and z2 = (1,−2). Then

z1 +z2 = (−5,6)+(1,−2) = (−4,4)

2. Complex Numbers in Trigonometric Form

2.1 Polar Representation of Complex Numbers

2.1.1 Polar coordinates in the plane

Let us consider a coordinate plane and a point M(x, y) that is not the origin. The real number
r = √x2 + y2 is called the polar radius of the point M. The direct angle t∗ ∈[ 0,2π)between the vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and the positive x-axis is called the polar argument of the point M. Thepair(r,t∗) is called the polar
𝑶𝑴
coordinates of the point M. We will write M (r,t∗). Note that the function h :R×R\{(0,0)}→(0,∞)×[0,2π),
h((x, y)) = (r,t∗) is bijective.
The origin O is the unique point such that r = 0 ; the argument t∗ of the origin is not defined.
For any point M in the plane there is a unique intersection point P of the ray OM with the unit
circle centered at the origin. The point P has the same polar argument t∗. Using the definition of the sine
and cosine functions we find that

x =r cost∗ and y =r sint∗.

Therefore, it is easy to obtain the cartesian coordinates of a point from its polar coordinates.
Conversely, let us consider a point M(x, y). The polar radius r = √x2 + y2. To determine the
polar argument we study the following cases:

a) If x ≠ 0, from tan t∗ = y /x we deduce that

t∗ =arctan y / x + kπ,

where

0, for x > 0 and y ≥ 0

k= 1, for x < 0 and any y

2, for x > 0 and y < 0

b) If x = 0 and y / 0, then

t∗ = π/2, for y >

0 3π/2, for y < 0.

3. Complex Numbers and Geometry

3.1 Some Simple Geometric Notions and Properties

3.1.1 The distance between two points

Suppose that the complex numbers z1 and z2 have the geometric images M1 and M2.
Then the distance between the points M1 and M2 is given by

M1M2 =| z1 −z2|.

The distance function d :C×C→[ 0,∞) is defined by

d(z1,z2) =| z1 −z2|,

and it satisfies the following properties:

a) (positiveness and nondegeneration):

d(z1,z2) ≥0 for all z1,z2 ∈C;

d(z1,z2) =0 if and only if z1 = z2.

b) (symmetry):

d(z1,z2) =d(z2,z1) for all z1,z2 ∈C.

c) (triangle inequality):

d(z1,z2) ≤d(z1,z3)+d(z3,z2) for all z1,z2,z3 ∈C.

To justify c) let us observe that

|z1 −z2|=| (z1 −z3)+(z3 −z2)|≤| z1 −z3|+| z3 −z2|,

from the modulus property. Equality holds if and only if there is a positive real number k such that

z3 −z1 =k(z2 −z3).

3.1.2 Segments, rays and lines

Let A and B be two distinct points with complex coordinates a and b. We say that the point M with
complex coordinate z is between the points A and B if z ≠ a, z ≠ b and the following relation holds:

|a−z|+| z−b|=| a−b|.

We use the notation A−M – B. The set (AB) ={M : A− M − B}is called the open segment determined by
the points A and B. The set[AB]=(AB)∪{A, B}represents the closed segment defined by the points A and
B.

Theorem 1. Suppose A(a) and B(b) are two distinct points. The following statements are equivalent:

1) M ∈ (AB);

2) there is a positive real number k such that z−a =k(b−z);

3) there is a real number t ∈ (0,1) such that z = (1−t)a +tb, where z is the complex coordinate of M.

Theorem 2. Suppose A(a) and B(b) are two distinct points. The following statements are equivalent:

1) M ∈ (AB;

2) there is a positive real number t such that z = (1−t)a +tb, where z is the complex coordinate of M;

3) arg(z−a) =arg(b−a);
z−a
4) ∈𝑅 +.
b−a

Theorem 3. Suppose A(a) and B(b) are two distinct points. The following statements are equivalent:

1) M(z) lies on the line AB.

2) z−a b−a ∈ R.

3) There is a real number t such that z = (1−t)a+tb.

𝑧−𝑎 𝑧̅ − 𝑎̅
4) | |=0
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏̅ − 𝑎̅
𝑧 𝑧̅ 1
5) |𝑎 𝑎̅ 1| = 0
𝑏 𝑏̅ 1
4. More on Complex Numbers and Geometry

4.1 The Real Product of Two Complex Numbers

The concept of the scalar product of two vectors is well known. In what follows we will introduce this
concept for complex numbers. We will see that in many situations use of this product simplifies the
solution to the problem considerably.

Let a and b be two complex numbers.

Definition. We call the real product of complex numbers a and b the number given by

a·b = 1 / 2 (𝑎̅b+ a𝑏̅).

It is easy to see that

̅̅̅̅̅
a · b = 1 / 2 (a𝑏̅+𝑎̅b) = a·b;

hence a·b is a real number, which justifies the name of this product.

The following properties are easy to verify.

Proposition 1. For all complex numbers a,b,c,z the following relations hold:

1) a · a = | a |2 .

2) a · b =b · a; (the real product is commutative).

3)a·(b+c) =a·b+a·c; (the real product is distributive with respect to addition).

4) (α a)·b = α(a·b) =a·(αb) for all α ∈ R.

5) a · b = 0 if and only if OA ⊥ OB, where A has coordinate a and B has coordinate b.

6) (az)·(bz) =| z|2(a·b).

Proposition 2. Suppose that A(a), B(b),C(c) and D(d) are four distinct points. The following statements
are equivalent:

1) AB ⊥CD;

2) (b−a)·(c−d) =0;

b−a b−a
3) ∈ iR∗ (or, equivalently, Re (d −c ) = 0
d −c

Proposition 3. The circumcenter of triangle ABC is at the origin of the complex plane. If a,b,c are the
coordinates of vertices A, B,C, then the orthocenter H has the coordinate h = a+b+c.