Master2:

Renewable Energy in Civil Engineering

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

I) Electrical Engineering

Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the

study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This
field first became an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the nineteenth
century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and
electric power distribution and use. It now covers a wide range of subfields
including electronics, digital computers, power engineering, telecommunications,
control systems, RF engineering, and signal processing.
Electrical engineering may include electronic engineering. Where a distinction is
made, usually outside of the United States, electrical engineering is considered
to deal with the problems associated with systems such as electric power
transmission and electrical machines (power systems, high currents and
voltages), whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of electronic
systems including computers, communication systems, integrated circuits, and
radar (control systems, low currents and voltages).
From a different point-of-view, electrical engineers are usually concerned with
using electricity to transmit electric power, while electronic engineers are
concerned with using electricity to process information. The sub-disciplines can
overlap, for example, in the growth of power electronics, and the study of
behavior of large electrical grids under the control of digital computers and
electronics.
This course will mainly focus on the electrical power systems and the use of
circuit modeling approach.

I.1) History

Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th
century. The first electrical engineer was probably William Gilbert who designed

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the versorium: a device that detected the presence of statically charged
objects. He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and
static electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity. In 1775
Alessandro Volta's scientific experimentations devised the electrophorus, a
device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed the
voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.
However, it was not until the 19th century that research into the subject
started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of
Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric
current and potential difference in a conductor, Michael Faraday, the discoverer
of electromagnetic induction in 1831, and James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873
published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism in his treatise
Electricity and Magnetism.
Beginning in the 1830s, efforts were made to apply electricity to practical use in
the telegraph. By the end of the 19th century the world had been forever
changed by the rapid communication made possible by engineering development
of land-lines, submarine cables, and, from about 1890, wireless telegraphy.
Practical applications and advances in such fields created an increasing need for
standardized units of measure. They led to the international standardization of
the units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad, and henry. This was achieved at an
international conference in Chicago 1893. The publication of these standards
formed the basis of future advances in standardisation in various industries, and
in many countries the definitions were immediately recognised in relevant
legislation.
During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a
subfield of physics. It was not until about 1885 that universities and institutes
of technology such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Cornell
University started to offer bachelor's degrees in electrical engineering. The
Darmstadt University of Technology founded the first department of electrical
engineering in the world in 1882. In that same year, under Professor Charles
Cross at MIT began offering the first option of electrical engineering within its
physics department. In 1883, Darmstadt University of Technology and Cornell
University introduced the world's first bachelor's degree courses of study in
electrical engineering, and in 1885 the University College London founded the
first chair of electrical engineering in Great Britain. The University of Missouri
established the first department of electrical engineering in the United States
in 1886. Several other schools soon followed suit, including Cornell and the
Georgia School of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia.
During these decades use of electrical engineering increased dramatically. In
1882, Thomas Edison switched on the world's first large-scale electric power
network that provided 110 volts — direct current (DC) — to 59 customers on

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Manhattan Island in New York City. In 1884, Sir Charles Parsons invented the
steam turbine. Turbines now provide the mechanical power for about 80 percent
of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources.
In 1887, Nikola Tesla, formerly an employee of Edison, filed a number of patents
concerning a different form of electric power distribution — alternating current
(AC). For several years there a bitter rivalry between Edison and Tesla, called
the War of Currents, concerning which would be the accepted form of power
distribution. The method of AC won over DC for generation and power
distribution because of its superior technology, especially the use of
transformers to increase and decrease voltages (not possible with DC). The use
of high-voltage AC vastly extended the range of electric power distribution, and
the use of transformers improved both the efficiency and the safety of electric
power distribution.
The work of Tesla and Edsion did much to advance electrical engineering. Tesla's
inventions in polyphase systems, transformers, and induction motors are still
ubiquitous in electric power distribution. Edison's work in improving the
telegraph, the telephone, and the electric light bulb was lucrative for his
company, which became the General Electric Company. Edison did not "invent"
any of these three devices, but his improvements made them practical for
widescale use, ease of manufacture, and economical for the customers.

I.2) Sub-disciplines

Electrical engineering has many sub-disciplines, the most popular of which are
listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on
one of these sub-disciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes
certain fields, such as electronic engineering and computer engineering, are
considered separate disciplines in their own right.

I.2.a) Power

Power engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of

electricity as well as the design of a range of related devices. These include
transformers, electric generators, electric motors, high voltage engineering, and
power electronics. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an
electrical network called a power grid that connects a variety of generators
together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the
grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power
engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as
the power systems that connect to it. Such systems are called on-grid power
systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the
grid or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect

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to the grid, called off-grid power systems, which in some cases are preferable
to on-grid systems. The future includes Satellite controlled power systems, with
feedback in real time to prevent power surges and prevent blackouts.

I.2.b) Control

Control engineering focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic

systems and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in
the desired manner. To implement such controllers electrical engineers may use
electrical circuits, digital signal processors, microcontrollers and PLCs
(Programmable Logic Controllers). Control engineering has a wide range of
applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to
the cruise control present in many modern automobiles. It also plays an
important role in industrial automation.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing control systems. For
example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle's speed is continuously
monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the motor's power output
accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to
determine how the system responds to such feedback.

I.2.c) Electronics

Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of electronic circuits that
use the properties of components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors,
diodes and transistors to achieve a particular functionality. The tuned circuit,
which allows the user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one
example of such a circuit. Another example (of a pneumatic signal conditioner) is
shown in the adjacent photograph.
Prior to the Second World War, the subject was commonly known as radio
engineering and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and radar,
commercial radio and early television. Later, in post war years, as consumer
devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio
systems, computers and microprocessors. In the mid-to-late 1950s, the term
radio engineering gradually gave way to the name electronic engineering.
Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits were
constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans.
These discrete circuits consumed much space and power and were limited in
speed, although they are still common in some applications. By contrast,
integrated circuits packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical
components, mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of a coin. This
allowed for the powerful computers and other electronic devices we see today.

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I.2.d) Microelectronics

Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and microfabrication of very

small electronic circuit components for use in an integrated circuit or sometimes
for use on their own as a general electronic component. The most common
microelectronic components are semiconductor transistors, although all main
electronic components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) can be created at a
microscopic level. Nanoelectronics is the further scaling of devices down to
nanometer levels. Modern devices are already in the nanometer regime, with
below 100 nm processing having been standard since about 2002.
Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of
semiconductors such as silicon (at higher frequencies, compound semiconductors
like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the desired transport of
electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a
significant amount of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic
engineer working in the field to have a very good working knowledge of the
effects of quantum mechanics.

I.2.e) Signal processing

Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can
be either analog, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the
information, or digital, in which case the signal varies according to a series of
discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal
processing may involve the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio
equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunications.
For digital signals, signal processing may involve the compression, error
detection and error correction of digitally sampled signals.
Signal Processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming
the core of digital signal processing and it is rapidly expanding with new
applications in every field of electrical engineering such as communications,
control, radar, TV/Audio/Video engineering, power electronics and bio-medical
engineering as many already existing analog systems are replaced with their
digital counterparts. Analog signal processing is still important in the design of
many control systems.
DSP processor ICs are found in every type of modern electronic systems and
products including, SDTV | HDTV sets, radios and mobile communication devices,
Hi-Fi audio equipments, Dolby noise reduction algorithms, GSM mobile phones,
mp3 multimedia players, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control
systems, noise cancelling headphones, digital spectrum analyzers, intelligent
missile guidance, radar, GPS based cruise control systems and all kinds of image
processing, video processing, audio processing and speech processing systems.

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I.2.f) Telecommunications

Telecommunications engineering focuses on the transmission of information

across a channel such as a coax cable, optical fiber or free space. Transmissions
across free space require information to be encoded in a carrier wave to shift
the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission, this is known as
modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation
and frequency modulation. The choice of modulation affects the cost and
performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by
the engineer.
Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined,
telecommunication engineers design the transmitters and receivers needed for
such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way
communication device known as a transceiver. A key consideration in the design
of transmitters is their power consumption as this is closely related to their
signal strength. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the
signal's information will be corrupted by noise.

I.2.g) Instrumentation

Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure

physical quantities such as pressure, flow and temperature. The design of such
instrumentation requires a good understanding of physics that often extends
beyond electromagnetic theory. For example, flight instruments measure
variables such as wind speed and altitude to enable pilots the control of aircraft
analytically. Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier-Seebeck effect to measure
the temperature difference between two points.
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger
electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a
furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation
engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.

I.2.h) Computers

Main article: Computer engineering

Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems.
This may involve the design of new hardware, the design of PDAs, tablets and
supercomputers or the use of computers to control an industrial plant. Computer
engineers may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex
software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually
considered a separate discipline. Desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of
the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures

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are now found in a range of devices including video game consoles and DVD
players.

I.2.i) Related disciplines

Mechatronics is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of

electrical and mechanical systems. Such combined systems are known as
electromechanical systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include
automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning
systems and various subsystems of aircraft and automobiles.
The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems but
futurists have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices.
Already such small devices, known as Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS),
are used in automobiles to tell airbags when to deploy, in digital projectors to
create sharper images and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high
definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny
implantable medical devices and improve optical communication.
Biomedical engineering is another related discipline, concerned with the design
of medical equipment. This includes fixed equipment such as ventilators, MRI
scanners and electrocardiograph monitors as well as mobile equipment such as
cochlear implants, artificial pacemakers and artificial hearts.

II) Eletrical Power Systems

Electrical power engineering, also called electrical power systems engineering,

is a subfield of energy engineering that deals with the generation, transmission
and distribution of electric power as well as the electrical devices connected to
such systems including generators, motors and transformers (Fig. 1). Although
much of the field is concerned with the problems of three-phase AC power – the
standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution across the modern
world – a significant fraction of the field is concerned with the conversion
between AC and DC power as well as the development of specialised power
systems such as those used in aircraft or for electric railway networks. It was a
subfield of electrical engineering before the emergence of energy engineering.

II.1) Basics of electric power

Electric power is the mathematical product of two quantities: current and

voltage. These two quantities can vary with respect to time (AC power) or can be
kept at constant levels (DC power).

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 Fig. 1. Illustration of the power electrical systems.

Most refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC

power whereas most computers and digital equipment use DC power (the digital
devices you plug into the mains typically have an internal or external power
adapter to convert from AC to DC power). AC power has the advantage of being
easy to transform between voltages and is able to be generated and utilised by
brushless machinery. DC power remains the only practical choice in digital
systems and can be more economical to transmit over long distances at very high
voltages (see HVDC).
The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important for two
reasons: Firstly, power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at
higher voltages. So in power networks where generation is distant from the load,
it is desirable to step-up the voltage of power at the generation point and then
step-down the voltage near the load. Secondly, it is often more economical to
install turbines that produce higher voltages than would be used by most
appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this mismatch
between voltages can be easily managed.
Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductor revolution, make it
possible to transform DC power to different voltages, build brushless DC
machines and convert between AC and DC power. Nevertheless devices utilising
solid state technology are often more expensive than their traditional
counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use.

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II.2) Power

Power Engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of

electricity as well as the design of a range of related devices. These include
transformers, electric generators, electric motors and power electronics.
The power grid is an electrical network that connects a variety of electric
generators to the users of electric power. Users purchase electricity from the
grid so that they do not need to generate their own. Power engineers may work
on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems
that connect to it. Such systems are called on-grid power systems and may
supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid or do both. The
grid is designed and managed using software that performs simulations of power
flows.
Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid.
These systems are called off-grid power systems and may be used in preference
to on-grid systems for a variety of reasons. For example, in remote locations it
may be cheaper for a mine to generate its own power rather than pay for
connection to the grid and in most mobile applications connection to the grid is
simply not practical.
Today, most grids adopt three-phase electric power with alternating current.
This choice can be partly attributed to the ease with which this type of power
can be generated, transformed and used. Often (especially in the USA), the
power is split before it reaches residential customers whose low-power
appliances rely upon single-phase electric power. However, many larger
industries and organizations still prefer to receive the three-phase power
directly because it can be used to drive highly efficient electric motors such as
three-phase induction motors.
Transformers play an important role in power transmission because they allow
power to be converted to and from higher voltages. This is important because
higher voltages suffer less power loss during transmission. This is because
higher voltages allow for lower current to deliver the same amount of power, as
power is the product of the two. Thus, as the voltage steps up, the current
steps down. It is the current flowing through the components that result in both
the losses and the subsequent heating. These losses, appearing in the form of
heat, are equal to the current squared times the electrical resistance through
which the current flows, so as the voltage goes up the losses are dramatically
reduced.
For these reasons, electrical substations exist throughout power grids to
convert power to higher voltages before transmission and to lower voltages
suitable for appliances after transmission.

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II.3) Components

Power engineering is a network of interconnected components which convert

different forms of energy to electrical energy. Modern power engineering
consists of three main subsystems: the generation subsystem, the transmission
subsystem, and the distribution subsystem. In the generation subsystem, the
power plant produces the electricity. The transmission subsystem transmits the
electricity to the load centers. The distribution subsystem continues to transmit
the power to the customers.

I.3.a) Generation

Generation of electrical power is a process whereby energy is transformed into

an electrical form. There are several different transformation processes, among
which are chemical, photo-voltaic, and electromechanical. Electromechanical
energy conversion is used in converting energy from coal, petroleum, natural gas,
uranium into electrical energy. Of these, all except the wind energy conversion
process take advantage of the synchronous AC generator coupled to a steam, gas
or hydro turbine such that the turbine converts steam, gas, or water flow into
rotational energy, and the synchronous generator then converts the rotational
energy of the turbine into electrical energy. It is the turbine-generator
conversion process that is by far most economical and consequently most
common in the industry today.
The AC synchronous machine is the most common technology for generating
electrical energy. It is called synchronous because the composite magnetic field
produced by the three stator windings rotate at the same speed as the magnetic
field produced by the field winding on the rotor. A simplified circuit model is
used to analyze steady-state operating conditions for a synchronous machine.
The phasor diagram is an effective tool for visualizing the relationships between
internal voltage, armature current, and terminal voltage. The excitation control
system is used on synchronous machines to regulate terminal voltage, and the
turbine-governor system is used to regulate the speed of the machine. However,
in highly interconnected systems, such as the "Western system", the "Texas
system" and the "Eastern system", one machine will usually be assigned as the
so-called "swing machine", and which generation may be increased or decreased
to compensate for small changes in load, thereby maintaining the system
frequency at precisely 60 Hz (in the USA). Should the load dramatically change,
as which happens with a system separation, then a combination of "spinning
reserve" and the "swing machine" may be used by the system's load dispatcher.
The operating costs of generating electrical energy is determined by the fuel
cost and the efficiency of the power station. The efficiency depends on
generation level and can be obtained from the heat rate curve. We may also

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obtain the incremental cost curve from the heat rate curve. Economic dispatch
is the process of allocating the required load demand between the available
generation units such that the cost of operation is minimized. Emission dispatch
is the process of allocating the required load demand between the available
generation units such that air pollution occurring from operation is minimized. In
large systems, particularly in the West, a combination of economic and emission
dispatch may be used.

I.3.b) Transmission

The electricity is transported to load locations from a power station to a

transmission subsystem. Therefore we may think of the transmission system as
providing the medium of transportation for electric energy. The transmission
system may be subdivided into the bulk transmission system and the sub-
transmission system. The functions of the bulk transmission are to interconnect
generators, to interconnect various areas of the network, and to transfer
electrical energy from the generators to the major load centers. This portion of
the system is called "bulk" because it delivers energy only to so-called bulk loads
such as the distribution system of a town, city, or large industrial plant. The
function of the sub-transmission system is to interconnect the bulk power
system with the distribution system.
Transmission circuits may be built either underground or overhead. Underground
cables are used predominantly in urban areas where acquisition of overhead
rights of way are costly or not possible. They are also used for transmission
under rivers, lakes and bays. Overhead transmission is used otherwise because,
for a given voltage level, overhead conductors are much less expensive than
underground cables.
The transmission system is a highly integrated system. It is referred to the
substation equipment and transmission lines. The substation equipment contain
the transformers, relays, and circuit breakers. Transformers are important
static devices which transfer electrical energy from one circuit with another in
the transmission subsystem. Transformers are used to step up the voltage on
the transmission line to reduce the power loss which is dissipated on the way. A
relay is functionally a level-detector; they perform a switching action when the
input voltage (or current) meets or exceeds a specific and adjustable value. A
circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to
protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. A
change in the status of any one component can significantly affect the operation
of the entire system. Without adequate contact protection, the occurrence of
undesired electric arcing causes significant degradation of the contacts, which
suffer serious damage. There are three possible causes for power flow

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limitations to a transmission line. These causes are thermal overload, voltage
instability, and rotor angle instability. Thermal overload is caused by excessive
current flow in a circuit causing overheating. Voltage instability is said to occur
when the power required to maintain voltages at or above acceptable levels
exceeds the available power. Rotor angle instability is a dynamic problem that
may occur following faults, such as short circuit, in the transmission system. It
may also occur tens of seconds after a fault due to poorly damped or undamped
oscillatory response of the rotor motion. As long as the equal area criteria is
maintained, the interconnected system will remain stable. Should the equal area
criteria be violated, it becomes necessary to separate the unstable component
from the remainder of the system.

I.3.c) Distribution

The distribution system transports the power from the transmission system to
the customer. The distribution systems are typically radial because networked
systems are more expensive. The equipment associated with the distribution
system includes the substation transformers connected to the transmission
systems, the distribution lines from the transformers to the customers and the
protection and control equipment between the transformer and the customer.
The protection equipment includes lightning protectors, circuit breakers,
disconnectors and fuses. The control equipment includes voltage regulators,
capacitors, relays and demand side management equipment.

II.4) Electric power conversion

There are three principal power conversions process where electric power can
be involved as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Electric power conversion.

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II.4.a) Electromechanical conversion

There are two main classes of electromechanical machines:

• DC electrical machines (generator or motors);
• AC electrical machines (generator or motors).
For AC electrical machines, there are two main technologies:
• Synchronous electrical machines;
• Asynchronous electrical machines (induction machines).
Electrical machines have many advantages over corresponding internal
combustion engines:
• They are less noisy and less pollutant;
• They are more efficient;
• Self starting capabilities;
• They can be design to avoid the need of a gear box;
• Possibility of having high torque value at low speeds.

II.4.b) Static electrical conversion

There are two main classes of static electrical converters:

• Power transformers;
• Power electronic converters.
Power transformers convert voltage of AC power from a given value to a higher
value for step-up transformers and to a lower value for step-down transformers.
Materials used for constructing the power transformers are the same which are
used to built electrical machines (electromechanical converters) (ferromagnetic
materials for the magnetic circuit and often copper for the coils (windings).
Power electronics is the application of solid-state electronics for the control
and conversion of electric power. It also refers to a subject of research in
electrical engineering which deals with design, control, computation and
integration of nonlinear, time varying energy processing electronic systems with
fast dynamics.
Power electronic converters can be found wherever there is a need to change
voltage, current or frequency of electric power. The power range of these
converters is from some milliwatts (as in a mobile phone) to thousands of
megawatts in an HVDC transmission system. With "classical" electronics,
electrical currents and voltage are used to carry information, whereas with

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power electronics, they carry power. Thus, the main metric of power electronics
becomes the efficiency.
The first very high power electronic devices were mercury-arc valves. In modern
systems the conversion is performed with semiconductor switching devices such
as diodes, thyristors and transistors. In contrast to electronic systems
concerned with transmission and processing of signals and data, in power
electronics substantial amounts of electrical energy are processed. An AC/DC
converter (rectifier) is the most typical power electronics device found in many
consumer electronic devices, e.g. television sets, personal computers, battery
chargers, etc. The power range is typically from tens of watts to several
hundred watts. In industry a common application is the variable speed drive
(VSD) that is used to control an induction motor. The power range of VSDs start
from a few hundred watts and end at tens of megawatts.
The power conversion systems can be classified according to the type of the
input and output power:
• AC to DC (rectifier)
• DC to AC (inverter)
• DC to DC (DC-to-DC converter)
• AC to AC (AC-to-AC converter)

II.4.c) Materials used in electromechanical conversion machines

Electrical machines are mainly constitute of two or three different materials:

copper for the windings, ferromagnetic material (laminated or massive iron), and
permanent magnets (PM).

Table I
Material
Machine type
Copper Ferromagnetic PM

DC machines x x x

Synchrone machines x x x
Asynchronous machines
(Induction machines)
x x

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II.4.d) Why are we using AC currents for the electric power
transmission?

First production and distribution systems of electric power were based on DC

currents (Thomas Alva Edison, end of the 19th century). Today, production and
distribution are done via AC currents and voltages. The idea of using AC
currents was suggested by Nikola Tesla (end of the 19th century).
Electric power transmission over long distances requires the use of high
voltages, in order to reduce losses in the transmission lines.
Let consider a power plant generating a single-phased electric power Pg.
Considering that the transmission line can be modeled as a pure resistance, the
power which will be available to consumers Pc will be equal to:
Pc = Pg - Pl (1)

Pl is the power dissipated in the transmission line (losses).

If U is the reference voltage which should be available to consumers, it can be
shown that the ratio of power loss and consumed power is given by :
Pl ρJL
= (2)
Pc U

where L is the length of transmission line;

ρ Line’s material resistivity ;
J Maximum current density.

It is easily understandable that it is more interesting to have a voltage value U

as high as possible. The losses are reduced when the voltage is increased. It is
also the case for line’s material volume and weight:
PcL
V= (3)
UJ

It was far easier to obtain AC high voltages, by using step-up power

transformers, as compared to obtaining DC high voltages.

II.4.e) Why are we using three-phased systems for the electric

power transmission?

What don’t we use single-phased systems?

Let consider a three-phased AC network which is feeding a three phase
receptor with a current i per phase (Fig. 3). It is supposed that the current
density, corresponding to the current value i, is equal to the maximum admissible
current density J.

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If the same receptors are fed using a single-phased network, it would have been
necessary to have two conductors in which a current of 3i is flowing. If we
consider that the same value of current density is admissible, we will then need
twice the volume of conductors in this case (single-phased network). The three-
phased network is then more economical.

Fig. 3. Three-phased and single-phased grids.

Furthermore, it can be shown that the use of three-phased system makes

disappear the fluctuating power in the expression of the instantaneous power.

Remark: Even if we only talked about three-phased systems, it should be noticed

that what has been discussed also apply to q phased systems (q > 3). However,
the benefit obtained with three phased systems cannot be further improved
when using higher number of phases.

III) Circuit modeling approach of electrical devices

Electrical engineering deals among others with the generation and distribution
of power and information, the use of electric signals to regulate processes and
the manipulation of electric signals. The most generalized approach to get along
with these tasks is the use of the electromagnetic field theory.
However, the application of the electromagnetic field theory is both
cumbersome and requires the knowledge of advanced mathematics. An
alternative is the introduction of the circuit theory. It provides simple solutions
of sufficient accuracy to problems that would become extremely complicated if
treated by the electromagnetic field theory. Instead of partial differential
equations simple algebraic relations like Kirchhoff’s laws or Ohm’s law can be
used.
The lumped element model (also called lumped parameter model, or lumped
component model) simplifies the description of the behavior of spatially
distributed physical systems into a topology consisting of discrete entities that

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approximate the behavior of the distributed system under certain assumptions.
It is useful in electrical systems (including electronics), mechanical multibody
systems, heat transfer, acoustics, etc.
Mathematically speaking, the simplification reduces the state space of the
system to a finite number, and the partial differential equations (PDEs) of the
continuous (infinite-dimensional) time and space model of the physical system
into ordinary differential equations (ODEs) with a finite number of parameters.

III.1) Kirchhoff’s circuit laws

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the conservation of
charge and energy in electrical circuits, and were first described in 1845 by
Gustav Kirchhoff. Widely used in electrical engineering, they are also called
Kirchhoff's rules or simply Kirchhoff's laws (see also Kirchhoff's laws for other
meanings of that term).
Both circuit rules can be directly derived from Maxwell's equations, but
Kirchhoff preceded Maxwell and instead generalized work by Georg Ohm.

III.1.a) Kirchhoff’s current law

This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, or
Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule).
The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:
• At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing
into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node, or:
• The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a
point is zero.
Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting
direction towards or away from a node (Fig. 4.a), this principle can be stated as:
n
∑i k = 0 (4)
k =1

n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from
the node.

III.1.b) Kirchhoff’s voltage law

This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule,
and Kirchhoff's second rule.
The principle of conservation of energy implies that:
• The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around
any closed network is zero (Fig. 4.b), or:

17
 • More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the
sum of the potential drops in that loop, or:
• The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors
and the currents in them in a closed loop is equal to the total emf
available in that loop.
Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:
n
∑ vk = 0 (5)
k =1

Here, n is the total number of voltages measured.

(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Illustration of Kirchhoff's circuit laws.

III.2) Electric impedance

Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to

the passage of a current when a voltage is applied. In quantitative terms, it is
the complex ratio of the voltage to the current in an alternating current (AC)
circuit. Impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC circuits, and
possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike resistance, which has only
magnitude. When a circuit is driven with direct current (DC), there is no
distinction between impedance and resistance; the latter can be thought of as
impedance with zero phase angle.
It is necessary to introduce the concept of impedance in AC circuits because
there are other mechanisms impeding the flow of current besides the normal
resistance of DC circuits. There are an additional two impeding mechanisms to
be taken into account in AC circuits: the induction of voltages in conductors
self-induced by the magnetic fields of currents (inductance), and the
electrostatic storage of charge induced by voltages between conductors
(capacitance). The impedance caused by these two effects is collectively
referred to as reactance and forms the imaginary part of complex impedance
whereas resistance forms the real part.

18
The symbol for impedance is usually Z and it may be represented by writing its
magnitude and phase in the form Z∠θ. However, complex number representation
is often more powerful for circuit analysis purposes. The term impedance was
coined by Oliver Heaviside in July 1886. Arthur Kennelly was the first to
represent impedance with complex numbers in 1893.
Impedance is defined as the frequency domain ratio of the voltage to the
current. In other words, it is the voltage–current ratio for a single complex
exponential at a particular frequency ω. In general, impedance will be a complex
number, with the same units as resistance, for which the SI unit is the ohm (Ω).
For a sinusoidal current or voltage input, the polar form of the complex
impedance relates the amplitude and phase of the voltage and current. In
particular,
• The magnitude of the complex impedance is the ratio of the voltage
amplitude to the current amplitude.
• The phase of the complex impedance is the phase shift by which the
current is ahead of the voltage.
The reciprocal of impedance is admittance (i.e., admittance is the current-to-
voltage ratio, and it conventionally carries units of siemens, formerly called
mhos).

III.2.a) Complex impedance

Impedance is represented as a complex quantity Z and the term complex

impedance may be used interchangeably; the polar form conveniently captures
both magnitude and phase characteristics,

Z = Z e j arg(Z) (6)

where the magnitude Z represents the ratio of the voltage difference
amplitude to the current amplitude, while the argument θ = arg(Z) gives the
phase difference between voltage and current. j is the imaginary unit, and is
used instead of in this context to avoid confusion with the symbol for electric
current. In Cartesian form,
Z = R + jX (7)

where the real part of impedance is the resistance R and the imaginary part is
the reactance X.
Where it is required to add or subtract impedances the cartesian form is more
convenient, but when quantities are multiplied or divided the calculation becomes
simpler if the polar form is used. A circuit calculation, such as finding the total
impedance of two impedances in parallel, may require conversion between forms

19
several times during the calculation. Conversion between the forms follows the
normal conversion rules of complex numbers.

III.2.b) Ohm’s law

The meaning of electrical impedance can be understood by substituting it into

Ohm's law.

V = Z ⋅ I = I ⋅ Z e j arg(Z) (8)

The magnitude of the impedance Z acts just like resistance, giving the drop in
voltage amplitude across an impedance Z for a given current I. The phase factor
tells us that the current lags the voltage by a phase of θ = arg(Z) (i.e., in the
time domain, the current signal is shifted θ·2π/T later with respect to the
voltage signal).
Just as impedance extends Ohm's law to cover AC circuits, other results from
DC circuit analysis such as voltage division, current division, Thevenin's theorem,
and Norton's theorem can also be extended to AC circuits by replacing
resistance with impedance.

III.2.c) Complex voltage and current

In order to simplify calculations, sinusoidal voltage and current waves are

commonly represented as complex-valued functions of time denoted as V and I.
V = V ⋅ e j(ω⋅t + φV )

 (9)
I = I ⋅ e j( ω⋅t + φI )

Impedance is defined as the ratio of these quantities.

V
Z= (10)
I
Substituting these into Ohm's law we have

V ⋅ e j(ω⋅t + φV ) = I ⋅ e j( ω⋅t + φI ) ⋅ Z ⋅ e jθ = I ⋅ Z ⋅ e j( ω⋅t + φI + θ) (11)

Noting that this must hold for all t, we may equate the magnitudes and phases to
obtain
V = Z ⋅ I
 (12)
φV = φI + θ
The magnitude equation is the familiar Ohm's law applied to the voltage and
current amplitudes, while the second equation defines the phase relationship.

20
This representation using complex exponentials may be justified by noting that
(by Euler's formula):
1
[ ]
cos(ω ⋅ t + φ) = e j(ω⋅t + φ) + e − j( ω⋅t + φ)
2
(13)

The real-valued sinusoidal function representing either voltage or current may

be broken into two complex-valued functions. By the principle of superposition,
we may analyse the behavior of the sinusoid on the left-hand side by analysing
the behavior of the two complex terms on the right-hand side. Given the
symmetry, we only need to perform the analysis for one right-hand term; the
results will be identical for the other. At the end of any calculation, we may
return to real-valued sinusoids by further noting that

[
cos(ω ⋅ t + φ) = ℜ e j( ω⋅t + φ) ] (14)

A phasor is a constant complex number, usually expressed in exponential form,

representing the complex amplitude (magnitude and phase) of a sinusoidal
function of time. Phasors are used by electrical engineers to simplify
computations involving sinusoids, where they can often reduce a differential
equation problem to an algebraic one.
The impedance of a circuit element can be defined as the ratio of the phasor
voltage across the element to the phasor current through the element, as
determined by the relative amplitudes and phases of the voltage and current.
This is identical to the definition from Ohm's law given above, recognising that
the factors of e j⋅ω⋅t cancel.

III.2.d) Devices examples

The impedance of an ideal resistor is purely real and is referred to as a resistive

impedance:
ZR = R (15)

In this case, the voltage and current waveforms are proportional and in phase.
Ideal inductors and capacitors have a purely imaginary reactive impedance:
ZL = jωL (16)

the impedance of inductors increases as frequency increases;

1
ZC = (17)
jωC

the impedance of capacitors decreases as frequency increases.

In both cases, for an applied sinusoidal voltage, the resulting current is also
sinusoidal, but in quadrature, 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage.

21
However, the phases have opposite signs: in an inductor, the current is lagging; in
a capacitor the current is leading.
Note the following identities for the imaginary unit and its reciprocal:
 π
 π   π  j⋅
j = cos  + j ⋅ sin  = e 2
 2 2
 π
1 π π j⋅ − 
 
 = − j = cos  − j ⋅ sin  = e  2 
 j 2 2

Thus the inductor and capacitor impedance equations can be rewritten in polar
form:
 π
j⋅
ZL = ω ⋅ L ⋅ e 2

 π
 1 j⋅ − 
 2
ZC = e
 ω⋅C
The magnitude gives the change in voltage amplitude for a given current
amplitude through the impedance, while the exponential factors give the phase
relationship.
Deriving the device-specific impedances
What follows below is a derivation of impedance for each of the three basic
circuit elements: the resistor, the capacitor, and the inductor. Although the idea
can be extended to define the relationship between the voltage and current of
any arbitrary signal, these derivations will assume sinusoidal signals, since any
arbitrary signal can be approximated as a sum of sinusoids through Fourier
analysis.
Resistor
For a resistor, there is the relation:
vR (t) = R ⋅ i R (t) (18)

This is Ohm’s law.

Considering the voltage signal to be
vR (t) = Vp ⋅ sin(ω ⋅ t)

it follows that
vR (t) Vp ⋅ sin(ω ⋅ t)
= =R
i R (t) Ip ⋅ sin(ω ⋅ t)

22
This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to alternating current (AC)
amplitude across a resistor is R, and that the AC voltage leads the current
across a resistor by 0 degrees.
This result is commonly expressed as
Zresistor = R

Capacitor
For a capacitor, there is the relation:
dvC ( t)
iC (t) = C ⋅ (19)
dt
Considering the voltage signal to be
vC (t) = Vp ⋅ sin(ω ⋅ t)

it follows that
dvC (t)
= ω ⋅ Vp ⋅ cos(ω ⋅ t)
dt
And thus
vC ( t) Vp ⋅ sin(ω ⋅ t) sin(ω ⋅ t)
= =
π π
ω ⋅ C ⋅ Vp ⋅ sin ω ⋅ t +  ω ⋅ C ⋅ sin ω ⋅ t + 
iC ( t)
 2  2
This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to AC current amplitude across
a capacitor is 1/(ω·C), and that the AC voltage lags the AC current across a
capacitor by 90 degrees (or the AC leads the AC voltage across a capacitor by
90 degrees).
This result is commonly expressed in polar form, as
π
1 −j
Zcapacitor = e 2
ω⋅C
or, by applying Euler’s formula, as
1 1
Zcapacitor = − j =
ω⋅C j⋅ω⋅C

Inductor
For the inductor, we have the relation:
di L (t)
vL (t) = L ⋅ (20)
dt
This time, considering the current signal to be
i L (t) = Ip ⋅ sin(ω ⋅ t)

23
it follows that
di L (t)
= ω ⋅ Ip ⋅ cos(ω ⋅ t)
dt
And thus
π
ω ⋅ L ⋅ Ip ⋅ cos(ω ⋅ t) ω ⋅ L ⋅ sin ω ⋅ t + 
vL (t)  2
= =
i L (t) Ip ⋅ sin(ω ⋅ t) sin(ω ⋅ t)
This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to AC current amplitude across
an inductor is ω·L, and that the AC voltage leads the AC current across an
inductor by 90 degrees.
This result is commonly expressed in polar form, as
π
j⋅ 
Zinductor = ω⋅L⋅e 2

or, using Euler's formula, as

Zinductor = j ⋅ ω ⋅ L

III.2.e) Generalised s-plane impedance

Impedance defined in terms of jω can strictly only be applied to circuits which

are energised with a steady-state AC signal. The concept of impedance can be
extended to a circuit energised with any arbitrary signal by using complex
frequency instead of jω. Complex frequency is given the symbol s and is, in
general, a complex number. Signals are expressed in terms of complex frequency
by taking the Laplace transform of the time domain expression of the signal.
The impedance of the basic circuit elements in this more general notation is as
follows:

Element Impedance expression

Resistor R
Inductor sL
1
Capacitor
sC

For a DC circuit this simplifies to s = 0. For a steady-state sinusoidal AC signal

s = jω.

24
III.2.f) Resistance vs Reactance

Resistance and reactance together determine the magnitude and phase of the
impedance through the following relations:
 Z = Z ⋅ Z * = R2 + X2

 (21)
X
θ = arctan 
 R
In many applications the relative phase of the voltage and current is not critical
so only the magnitude of the impedance is significant.
Resistance
Main article: Electrical resistance
Resistance R is the real part of impedance; a device with a purely resistive
impedance exhibits no phase shift between the voltage and current.
R = Z ⋅ cos θ

Reactance
Reactance X is the imaginary part of the impedance; a component with a finite
reactance induces a phase shift θ between the voltage across it and the current
through it.
X = Z ⋅ sin θ

A purely reactive component is distinguished by the sinusoidal voltage across the

component being in quadrature with the sinusoidal current through the
component. This implies that the component alternately absorbs energy from
the circuit and then returns energy to the circuit. A pure reactance will not
dissipate any power.
Capacitive reactance
A capacitor has a purely reactive impedance which is inversely proportional to
the signal frequency. A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an
insulator, also known as a dielectric.
−1 −1
XC = = (22)
ω ⋅ C 2π ⋅ f ⋅ C
At low frequencies a capacitor is open circuit, as no charge flows in the
dielectric. A DC voltage applied across a capacitor causes charge to accumulate
on one side; the electric field due to the accumulated charge is the source of
the opposition to the current. When the potential associated with the charge
exactly balances the applied voltage, the current goes to zero.

25
Driven by an AC supply, a capacitor will only accumulate a limited amount of
charge before the potential difference changes sign and the charge dissipates.
The higher the frequency, the less charge will accumulate and the smaller the
opposition to the current.
Inductive reactance
Inductive reactance XL is proportional to the signal frequency and the
inductance L.
XL = ω ⋅ L = 2π ⋅ f ⋅ L (23)

An inductor consists of a coiled conductor. Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction gives the back emf ε (voltage opposing current) due to a rate-of-
change of magnetic flux density ФB through a current loop.
dΦB
ε=−
dt
For an inductor consisting of a coil with N loops this gives.
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
The back-emf is the source of the opposition to current flow. A constant direct
current has a zero rate-of-change, and sees an inductor as a short-circuit (it is
typically made from a material with a low resistivity). An alternating current has
a time-averaged rate-of-change that is proportional to frequency, this causes
the increase in inductive reactance with frequency.

III.2.g) Combining impedances

The total impedance of many simple networks of components can be calculated

using the rules for combining impedances in series and parallel. The rules are
identical to those used for combining resistances, except that the numbers in
general will be complex numbers. In the general case however, equivalent
impedance transforms in addition to series and parallel will be required.
Series combination (Fig. 5)
For components connected in series, the current through each circuit element is
the same; the total impedance is the sum of the component impedances.

Fig. 5. Series combination of impedances.

26
 Zeq = Z1 + Z2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + Zn (24)

Or explicitly in real and imaginary terms:

Zeq = Req + j ⋅ Xeq = (R1 + R2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + Rn ) + j ⋅ (X1 + X2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + Xn )

Parallel combination (Fig. 6)

For components connected in parallel, the voltage across each circuit element is
the same; the ratio of currents through any two elements is the inverse ratio of
their impedances.

Fig. 6. Parallel combination of impedances.

Hence the inverse total impedance is the sum of the inverses of the component
impedances:
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋅⋅⋅ + (25)
Zeq Z1 Z2 Zn

or, when n = 2:
1 1 1 Z + Z2
= + = 1
Zeq Z1 Z2 Z1 ⋅ Z2

The equivalent impedance Zeq can be calculated in terms of the equivalent series
resistance Req and reactance Xeq.


Zeq = Req + j ⋅ Xeq

 (X1 ⋅ R2 + X2 ⋅ R1 )(X1 + X2 ) + (R1 ⋅ R2 − X1 ⋅ X2 )(R1 + R2 )
Req =
 (R1 + R2 )2 + (X1 + X2 )2
 (X ⋅ R + X2 ⋅ R1 )(R1 + R2 ) + (R1 ⋅ R2 − X1 ⋅ X2 )(X1 + X2 )
Xeq = 1 2
 (R1 + R2 )2 + (X1 + X2 )2

27
III.2.h) Star-Delat (Wye-Delta) and Delta-Star (Delta-Wye)
transformations

For very complicated circuits, mesh or nodal analysis is frequently used.

Depending on the type of analysis a star-delta or a delta-star transformation is
required.

Fig. 7. Star (Wye) and Delta connections of impedances.

For a delta-star transformation, using the notation of Fig. 7:

 ZAB ⋅ ZAC
ZAT =
 (ZAB + ZBC + ZAC )
 ZAB ⋅ ZBC
ZBT = (26)
 (ZAB + ZBC + ZAC )
 ZAC ⋅ ZBC
ZCT =
 (ZAB + ZBC + ZAC )

For a star-delta transformation, using the notation of Fig. 7:

 ZAT ⋅ ZBT
ZAB = ZAT + ZBT +
 ZCT
 ZBT ⋅ ZCT
ZBC = ZBT + ZCT + (26)
 ZAT
 Z ⋅Z
ZAC = ZAT + ZCT + AT CT
 ZBT

III.1) Circuit symbols (selected)

Following figures show the most commonly used circuit symbols.

28
Fig. 8. Circuit symbols (figure 1).

Fig. 9. Circuit symbols (figure 2).

29
Fig. 10. Circuit symbols (figure 3).

30
 Bibliographic References

[1] Richard C. Dorf, The electrical engineering handbook. 621.3 DOR

[2] Phillip A. Laplante, Comprehensive dictionary of electrical engineering.

621.3 DIC

[3] Y. N. Luginsky, Dictionary of electrical engineering: English, German,

French, Dutch, Russian. 621.3 DIC

[4] P. Rényi, D. Amrouni, Dictionnaire anglais-français de l'électronique et de

l'électrotechnique. 621.3 DIC

[5] Gediminas P. Kurpis, Christopher J. Booth, The new IEEE standard

dictionary of electrical and electronics terms : including abstracts of all
current IEEE standards. 621.3 DIC

[6] G. Fink, H. Wayne Beaty, Standard handbook for electrical engineers.

621.3 FIN

[7] Delton T. Horn, Basic electricity and electronics. 621.3 HOR

[8] Ralf Kories, Heinz Schmidt-Walter, Electrical engineering : a pocket

reference. 621.3 KOR

[9] Paul Krause,Oleg Wasynczuk, Scott D. Sudhoff, Analysis of electric

machinery. 621.3 KRA

[10] Bertrand Demazet, Richard Gheysens, Paul M. Johnson, Électrotechnique

appliquée = Electrotechnology. 621.31 DIC

[11] William Henry Roadstrum, Dan H. Wolaver, Electrical engineering for all
engineers. 621.31 ROA

[12] J. Cladé, Electrotechnique. 621.31 CLA

[13] G. Séguier, F. Notelet, Electrotechnique Industrielle. 621.3 SEG

31