Chapter 5: Timber 96

1st Ed, Civil Engineering Materials

Chapter 5
TIMBER
5.1 Timber Classification.
5.2 Timber Structure.
5.3 Moisture, Shrinkage and Strength.
5.4 Timber Defect
5.5 Treatment and Curing
5.6 Timber Products.
5.7 Wood in constructions
5.8 Timber Standard Testing

Wood is used intensively in structural engineering (timber: truss, column,

beam and etc.) and products (laminates, plywood, particle board and etc.)

Definition of wood, timber and lumber:

Wood : May be defined as the material that forms the trunks and branches of
trees

Timber : Wood cut from the trunk which can be used for constructing houses,
furniture, bridges and etc.

Lumber: Used in U.S to signify such as sawn and worked timber

Timber Classification

Wood can be conveniently divided into hardwoods and softwood. There are
cases softwood timbers are harder than some hardwoods. Most of the
hardwoods are found in the tropical and semi-tropical region of the world
while softwood is found in temperate zone.
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Softwood Properties: Hardwood Properties:

• coniferous and have needle shaped • broad leaves

leaves • grow slowly to give
• quick growing and give wood generally high density and
generally low density and fairly low
high strength
strength.
• easily worked because softer, less
• less easy to work because
dense, easier to cut very hard
• not normally highly durable unless • very durable although
protected by preservatives without use preservatives
• since they grow quickly, softwood • most hardwoods are very
are relatively cheap expensive due to slow
• clearly growth rings growing
• no vessel • hard to see the growth rings
• have vessels
Example: • higher proportion of
Temperate species heartwood
Hemlock, Redwood, Spruce, Pine,
Hemlock and etc. Example:
Temperate species
Tropical species Bass wood, Cheery, Cottonwood,
Damar minyak, podo, sempilor Oak, Walnut and etc.

Tropical species
Meranti, Kapur, Cengal, Balau,
Keruing, and etc.

Conifers are evergreen trees having pointed

needle like leaves. They show distinct annual
rings, have straight fibres and soft with pine.

In Malaysia, most of the timbers products are hardwood. At least 3000

species of tress in forest and only 12 are softwoods. The hardwood timbers
are classified into 3 classes based on density and natural durability. They are:

i. Heavy hard wood (HHW)

- over 880 kg/m3
- constructional timbers
- some of them contain toxic material within their tissue such as
alkaloids and other substances
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- can be used in most exposed conditions without undergoing

preservative treatment
- however, sapwood requires preservative treatment because
less durable compare to heartwood
- About 14 species under “Malaysian Grading Rules 1984 Edition
1”

i. Medium Hardwood (MHW)

- 720 – 880 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content – MSS 544: 2001
(Consider Dry condition < 19%)
- Moderately heavy to heavy construction
- Come of the timbers (kempas and tualang) are heavy and
strong, but insuffient for used in exposed condition and in
ground contact.
- About 36 species under “Malaysian Grading Rules 1984 Edition
1”

ii. Light hardwood (LHW)

- less than 720 kg/m3
- general utility timbers – joinery work, cabinet marking, furniture,
decorative paneling and etc.
- require preservative treatment as a precaution against wood
destroying agents such as fungi an insects.
- About 47 species under “Malaysian Grading Rules 1984 Edition
1”

Softwood
- No specific classification for softwood.
- About 3 species under “Malaysian Grading Rules 1984 Edition
1”
- Damar minyak is of commercial importance at the moment.
- Density range about 385 – 735 kg/m3
- Timber mainly used as decorative plywood and paneling

Scientific Name or Botanical Name:

- Are given based on international rules
- Can have only one name
- Consist of two part:
a. Genus : Botanical group
b. Epithet : Exact species
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Example:
Kayu Kempas Koompassia Malaccensis
( Genus ) ( Epithet )

- Based on Latin language

Wood Formation

Wood formed as a result of continuous secondary growth in cell. When seed

of a tree germinates, it forms a shoot consisting of thin medulla of spongy
tissue commonly known as the pith. The pith is completely enclosed within
thin meristematic tissue known as cambium, which is turn is protected on the
outside tissue call bark.

Growth of tree is a result of division of cambium cells, provides new cells to

be added to the existing system. The accumulation of woody cells resulting
from the cyclic activity of the cambium from year to year, accounts for the
growth in height and diameter of a stem of a tree. The cambium produces
bark tissue (phloem) on the outside and woody tissue (xylem) on the inside
of the stem.
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Wood is aggregate of cells produced by the tree to serve among others

certain functions connected with the life process of the tree. The functions
are:
a. Conduction of water and dissolved mineral salt solution from the roots
to leaves for manufacture of plant food materials
b. Storage and distribution of manufactured and reserved food materials
c. Provision of mechanical strength of the tree as a shole
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Sapwood
- food conduction and storage
- less resistant to fungi and insect
- can often be recognized, as it is usually lighter in colour
- proportion decrease continuously with the age of tress
- young tress being almost almost all sapwood
- may be less than 20 % in mature three

Heartwood
- structural support
- no longer store food
- structural features is similar with sapwood except, the cell walls of the
latter are often permeated with resinous or gummy substances
- more resistant to fungi and insect
- it is usually darker in colour

Formation of Annual Rings or Growth Rings

Figure 5.1 The Formation of Annual Ring

Temperate Species

The rings of wood formed during each growing season may be clear
differentiated because the vigour of growth during a single growing season is
not uniform throughout.

Early spring, the tissue produced consists of large and porous cells. This is
followed by a gradual decline vigour (of growth) which made the tissue
become smaller and denser cells.

By late autumn (after the fall of the leaves), growth for the year end.
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When the growth resumes in early spring, the cambium starts putting on
large and porous cells which contrast significantly in texture with the cells of
the immediate preceding layer of late autumn wood. This contrast produces
growth rings.

Tropical Species

Clear growth rings are exceptional because there are indistinct seasonal
changes in climate.

No notable differences between the textures of wood produced.

Therefore, in tropical woods, these rings even if distinct, are not criterion of
the age of the tree which calculated one year per ring like temperate species.

Definition of
rings

Usually one ring-gelang is added each year. The rings are widest at the centre and narrower
nearer the bark. The rings are widest at the bottom in young, thrifty trees and near the top in
old ones.

The rings consist of minute tabular or fibrous cells tightly cemented together by lignin which
gives the strength to wood and each ring has two parts; the earlywood/springwood-kayu
awal and the latewood/summerwood-kayu akhir.

The types - Growth ring- gelang tumbesaran = one set of circumference

of ring: added to tree.
- Annual ring- gelang tahunan = also known as growth ring.
- These annual rings give valuable information about the age,
the rapidity and uniformity of its growth.

Moisture, Shrinkage and Strength.

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Shrinkage
• All structures made from timber have the possible effect of shrinkage.

Strength
The factors affecting strength of timber are:
i) Density
Normally, young trees often give low density and reduced
stresses.

ii) Moisture content

Mechanical properties if wood influenced by moisture content.
But the modulus of elasticity is less affected by changes in
moisture.

iii) Temperature
An increasing of temperature, the timber strength will decrease.

iv) Grains structure

It determines the permissible stress and modulus of elasticity.

v) Condition of growth
Environmental factors affecting tree growth such as
temperature, type of soil, spacing between trees.

vi) Defects
It can effects the strength of the wood and can be classified
natural defect, decay and insects and parasites attacked.
Common defect types are shown in figure below:
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Natural wood defects

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Termites Decay

Treatment and Curing

Timber can easily decay by swelling, fungi, insects, fire, etc.

Basic approaches it is to create conditions unfavorable to fungi such as

low humidity, heat and water insulation.

Can be minimized by coating the surface of wood with polymer films or

drying oils, oil base paints, varnishes and synthetic enamels.

Several methods;

1) Oil type preservatives

the moisture content in timber should not be more than 14%.
applied over outside of exposed timber.
unpleasant smell.
not suitable when timber is to be painted.
examples; creosote, carbolinium, solignum, with or without admixture
with petroleum or suitable oils.

2) Water soluble preservatives

moisture content of 20 to 30% is permissible.
odourless organic or inorganic salts and adopted for inside location
only.
examples of leachable type of preservatives; zinc chloride, boric
acid(borax), etc.
the types of zinc chloride, sodium fluoride and sodium-pentachloro-
phenate are toxic to fungi. These types are expensive and odourless.
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benzene-hexa-chloride is used as spray against borers.

Boric acid is used against Lyctus borers and to protect plywood in tea
chests.
another type;
i) copper-chromate-arsenic composition.
ii) acid-cupric-chromate composition.
iii) chromate-zinc chloride composition.
iv) solvent treatment.

3) Various treatment processes.

i) Surface application
by spraying, dipping or brushing the preservatives for a short period.
at least two coats should be applied.
the subsequent coats should not be applied until the first one has
dried or soaked into the wood.
used mostly for treating timber at site and re-treatment of cut surfaces.

ii) Soaking treatment

submerging debarked timber in the preservatives solution for
sufficiently long period until the required absorption of the preservative
is obtained.

iii) Hot and cold process

ensures sterilisation against fungi and insects.
the timber is submerged in the preservation solution which is heated
to about 90°C to 95°C and maintained at this temperature. Then
allowed to cool until the required absorption is obtained. During the
heating period, air in the timber expands and is partially expelled.
while cooling, the residual air in the timber creates a partial vacuum
which causes the preservative to be sucked into the timber.
generally, two baths are used. First-containing the water to prepare
the hot treatment. Second-cold bath-containing the preservatives into
which the timber is transferred immediately after heating.
this to solve the danger of precipitation of chemicals at high
temperature. Also helps to make the process continuous in case the
quantity of timber is large.

iv) Boucherie Process

v) Full cell or bethel process

essentially a pressure process.
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used when maximum absorption of the preservative is desired.

timber charge is introduced into the cylinder.

vi) Empty cell process

also known as pressure processes.
aimed at a maximum penetration of the preservative with a minimum
net retention.
Lawry process and Rueping process are commonly used.

Timber Products

‰ Veneers
thin sheet of wood
manufacture in various grades.
it popular to make a furniture, concrete
mould.
‰ Plywood
it used in beam making
easily can make curve shape for
designing
‰ Boards
two types namely particleboard and
fiberboards.

Wood in constructions

Timber can be used for structural and non-structural member in construction.

For the structural purposes, the properties have to be in compliance with the
MS 544 standard requirements.

ƒ For Furnitures
Leban, Gading, Jati and Arang trees are used.
always this wood small sizes and expensive.

ƒ For Bridge
i.e. Cengal, Resak, Merbau
normally this wood is used to build high structure and
exposed to weather.
this wood is strong and soft even easy to work but expensive.
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ƒ For houses
piling foundation : Bakau, Kempas and Keruing.
mast : Balau Merah, Cengal, Keruing, Meranti Merah Tua.
door and window frame : Meranti Merah Muda, Meranti
Kuning.
stair : Keruing, Kapor, Mengkulang.
floor : Bintangor, Sepetir, Cengal.

ƒ For columns
Balau, Balau Merah, Cengal.

Timber Standard Testing

1) Specific gravity

2) Volumetric shrinkage and swelling

Objectives:
9 To examine the radial, tangential, longitudinal, volume shrinkages
of wood samples using green to oven dry method.

9 To examine the radial, tangential, longitudinal, volume swelling of

wood sample using oven dry to green method.

9 Percentage of radial, tangential, longitudinal and volume shrinkage

and swelling of wood samples can be calculated by using the
following formula:

Percentage of shrinkage :
= Initial dimension – Final dimension x 100 %
Initial dimension

Percentage of Swelling :
= Initial dimension – Final dimension x 100%
Initial dimension
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Procedures:
9 Measure the radial, tangential and longitudinal surface of wood
samples at least three different selected points.
9 Weigh wood samples using to loading balance.
9 Place wood samples in the oven as a temperature of 105 + 1° for
24 hours.
9 Remove wood samples from the oven and let it dry in dessicator
for one hour.
9 Measure the radial, tangential and longitudinal surfaces of oven
dried wood samples at the same points before drying.
9 The wood samples in the water for 24 hours.
9 Obtain the dimension of the soaked wood surfaces. The
measurement must be done as the same place.

3) Static bending strength

Objectives:
9 To obtain an approximate of the maximum load and load of
proportion of timber for bending stress and Modulus of Elasticity
(MOE) of timber.
9 To obtain the value of the deflection versus the applied load.
9 To classify the bending failure according to the appearance of the
fractured surface.

4) Impact bending strength

5) Compressive strength
Objectives:
9 To obtain an approximate of the maximum load and of
proportionality of timber for compressive stress and Modulus of
Elasticity (MOE) of timber.
9 To identify the types of failure when the Compression Parallel to
Grain.

Compressive stress at maximum;

Load = P
A
where,
P = Max. Crushing
A = Cross section area
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6) Tensile strength

7) Brittleness test

8) Moisture content
Objectives:
The experiment is to determine the Moisture Content using two
method according MS 544: 1978.
a) Oven Drying
b) Moisture Meter

9 The Moisture Content (MC) is defined as the the weight of the

water expressed as a percentage of the moisture- free or ovendry
weight of the wood.

MC
= Original Weight – Oven Dry Weight x 100%
Oven Dry Weight

9 Equipment;
a) Moisture meter
b) Oven
c) Digital caliper
d) Weigh scale

9 Procedures:
Choose 3 Species of wood.
For oven dyring method specimen should be cut to include the
full cross- section of the sample. The specimens should
20mm x 20 mm x 25mm
Take wood block weight ( appropriate to 0.01 gram reading)
Put into the oven for 24 hours until weight is constant
Then, take weight of wood block (appropriate to 0.01 gram
reading)
Used by moisture meter, take 3 point different reading
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Tutorial 5

1) List four advantages and disadvantages of wood application in

construction.

2) Referring to ASTM D143 for small clear specimen and BS 5820 for
structural size, list the preparation In Static Bending Test.

3) Give the detail explanation in timber standard testing;

a. Specific gravity
b. Impact bending test
c. Tensile strength
d. Brittleness test

4) Write the formula used in Static Bending Strength

5) Differentiates the differences between heart, cup and star shake.

6) State the types of knot in tree and briefly give the causes.

7) List three diseases occurred in timber.

8) As an engineer, give the opinion the application of timber and

concrete in construction.

9) State the equipment to determine the compression of timber.