THE ADVERB

English adverbs are a heterogeneous class, varying greatly in their functional and positional
ranges . They constitute a series of overlapping subclasses, and some of them belong to more than one
subclass. For example, the adverb very is an intensifier that functions only as a premodifier (very
large, very careful), whereas too is an intensifier when it functions as a premodifier (too small, too
quickly), but it has a different meaning when it functions as an adverbial, e.g. I have no doubt that my
poor dear mother though him, too. (Charles Dickens)
We may regard as complex adverbs certain fixed expressions that have the form of
prepositional phrases, such as of course and as a result.
The terms ADVERB and ADVERBIAL are distinct. Adverb is the name of a word class or part
of speech, and so adverbs can be contrasted with adjectives. The adverb phrase is a phrase preceded
by an adverb, for example very carefully, preceded by the adverb carefully. Adverbial is the name of a
constituent of a sentence or clause. So adverbial can be contrasted with complements of the verb such
as subject predicative and direct objects. An adverb phrase may function as an adverbial.
Used alone or with one or more modifiers, adverbs have two characteristic functions: A : as a
premodifier of an adjective or of another adverb.
e.g. (1). one foot’s slightly bigger than the other though.
(2). The truly disturbing aspect is that the CIA itself was also laughably amateurish in not
challenging his obvious breaches of Accepted procedure. (= to a degree that was laughable). (The
Sunday Times, 27 February 1994, page 1)
(3). This really takes things too far, doesn’t it?
As premodifiers or postmodifiers, adverbs are generally intensifiers, indicating degree or
extent above or below an assumed norm: slightly (bigger), laughably (amateurish), too (far), very
(badly).
B : As an adverbial in sentence or clause structure.
The other characteristic function is as adverbial in the sentences or clause structure. There is
often more than one adverb functioning as adverbial in the same sentence, e.g. (1). Actually you
probably wouldn’t have enjoyed it here.
(2). Funnily enough, many patients who show such learning consequently deny ever having
done the task before.
Though important informational, adverbials are optional constituents of the sentence or
clause, in the sense that if they are omitted the sentence
remains well-formed.
Adverbs are obligatory constituents when they function as complements, e.g .
(1). Here I am in the playground, with my eye still fascinated by him, though I can not see
him. (Charles Dickens)
(2). If the place grabbed me then I recreated it and put a story there.
As with the other word classes, many adverbs do not have suffixes: now, here, often, therefore,
however. The most common adverb ending is -ly, which is added to adjective to form adverb: openly,
madly, carefully, quickly, axiomatically. If the adjective ends in -ic, the suffix is generally -ally, as in
romantically, heroically, electrically, axiomatically.
Less common are adverb endings in -ward and -wise. The ending –ward usually has a direct
meaning. The ending -wise generally has either a manner meaning or a viewpoint meaning.
-ward: forward, upward skyward, northward, inward, afterward.
-wise: likewise, otherwise, lengthwise, snakewise, marketing-wise, stomachwise, pricewise.
A grammatically important class of adverb are the wh- adverbs, so called because most of them
are written with the initial wh-, the exception being how and however. Several of them introduce
relative clauses: when, where, why, whereby, whereupon, and the archaic whence, wherein.
The wh- adverbs how, when, where, and why introduce interrogative sentences and clauses, e.g.(1).
“How can you be so aggravating?”, said my mother, shedding more tears than before, as to talk in
such an unjust manner. (Charles Dickens)
(2). Why are you looking at me, Bobby? I have never borrowed a hardback.
(3). How well I recollect it, on a cold grey afternoon, with a dull sky, threatening rain.
(4) When I had finished it, he asked me where I was going to school. (Charles Dickens)
Syntactic Values of the English adverb (cf. English Grammar, Sidney Greenbaum, 1996, p.
141-144)
The English adverbs express many meanings; they also realize many kinds of syntactic
functions:
A: potentially, as head of an adverbial group;
B: as adjunct, complement and, marginally as subject and object in clauses;
C: as modifier.
D: as stance adjunct associated with whole clauses;
E: as connectives between clauses.
Less typically, adverbs can realize the integrated clause functions of complement, object and
subject. Since adjuncts of various kinds are syntactic elements that can be realized not only by
adverbs, but also finite and non-finite clauses, some grammars group all these classes of realizations
under the general name of adverbial.
In their functions as modifiers in group structures, adverbs occupy fixed position. As adjuncts,
however, they are more mobile, occupying initial, middle or end positions. Not all adjunctive adverbs
are equally mobile. The choice is determined by its type, the scope of its meaning (whole clause and a
part of clause), the degree of emphasis the speaker wishes to give to it, and the general information
structure of the clause. The scope of reference of adverbs as adjuncts are also very important, the
different positions an adverb may occupy determine the scope of its reference.
Since there is rarely a one -to-one relationship between function and type, many words can
realize more than one syntactic function, with the position of the adverb varying according to its
function. This is illustrated by the adverbs altogether and later:
Altogether: He owes me a hundred dollars altogether (adjunct).
I think you are altogether wrong (modifier of adjective).
There were a lot of interesting people there, so altogether,we had a very good time.
(connective).
Later : There will be another performance later. (adjunct)
The later performance will be at midnight. (modifier of noun)
The performance later will be a better one. (post modifier)
In conversation, adverbs sometimes occur alone, as responses to something said by the previous
speaker. In such cases the adverb can carry out such discourse functions as agreeing emphatically,
expressing mild interest, asserting strongly or granting permission in particular contexts. (English
Grammar, Angela Downing and Philip Locke, 1992, p. 508-514)
Adverb Forms
According to form, adverbs may be of four kinds:
(A), Simple adverbs: here, now, still, how, fast, then, there, before.
(B), Compound adverbs: sometimes, everywhere, anyhow.
(C), Phrase adverbs: at once, at last, at least, forever,
(D), Derivative adverb:
--- adjective + -ly : beautifully, happily, quickly.
--- participle + -ly: charmingly, undoubtedly.
--- ordinal numeral + -ly: firstly, secondly, thirdly.
Note: – The participle or adjectival -ed is pronounced [-id] before -ly when the stress
immediately precedes the suffix: fixedly, allegedly, deservedly (so also where -ed is originally [-id]:
decidedly, doggedly, spiritedly):
Otherwise, [-dli / -tli]: determinedly, shamefacedly.
--- adjectives in “-ic” add “-ly” to form “ -ical”:
basic --basically, scientific – scientifically , economic – economically; and exceptions:
publicly , politically.
Rules of spelling of adverbs derived by adding the suffix “-ly”:
(A). A final “-y” changes to “-i”:
e.g. happy – happily , gay – gaily
 In monosyllables there are, however, alternative forms:
gaily – gayly, drily – dryly , shily – shyly .
(B). A final “-e” is retained:
E.g. sincere – sincerely, extreme – extremely .
However, there are some exceptions as following:
--- adjective ending in the “-ue” drop “-e”:
due – duly , true – truly.
--- adjectives ending in “-ble” drop the final “-e” and add “-y”:
noble – nobly, humble – humbly, sensible – sensibly
--- the word whole: whole – wholly. I wholly agree with you.
(C). The ending “-ic” changes into “ -ically”.
magic – magically, basic – basically
(D). After “ -ll”, we always add “-y” directly.
full – fully.
There are some adjectives which end in “-ly”, like friendly, we cannot add another “-ly” to such an
adjective. Instead we can use a phrase with manner, way, or fashion, e.g. adjective: We received a
friendly greeting.
adverbial: They greeted us in a friendly manner.
Sometimes, we use another adverb formed from an adjective of
similar meaning.
adjective: That is not very likely.
adverbial: That probably won’t happen.
Some adjectives ending in “-ly” are costly, cowardly, friendly, likely, lively, lonely, lovely, silly
and ugly. Participle forms such as annoying and surprising form adverbs in “-ly”, e.g: It was
surprisingly cold for the time of year.
But we do not usually form adverb from participle ending in “-ed”, e.g. Everyone stared in
astonishment .The only exceptions are a few participles ending in “-ed”, like excited, exhausted, e.g :
The crowd shouted excitedly.
Sometimes, the adverb can be with or without “-ly”. In these examples, there is no difference in
meaning, but it is more informal to leave out the suffix “-ly”, e.g: (1). If you buy goods in bulk, you
can sell them cheap/cheaply.
(2). Do you have to talk so loud /loudly?
Others are direct(ly), fair(ly), tight(ly), quick(ly), slow(ly).
We use the form without “-ly” only in frequent combinations like talk loud, go slow, fly direct
or play fair. With longer or less common expressions, we use “-ly”.
There are some pairs such as hard and hardly which are both adverbs, but which have different
meanings, e.g (1). You deserve a rest because you have work hard.
It will take hardly any time at all (hardly any = almost no).
(2). The man raised their hands high in the air.
The theory is highly controversial. (highly = very)
Others are such as near/nearly, late/lately, deep/deeply, free/freely,
most/mostly. (Oxford Learner’s Grammar, 2005, p. 263-265).

Classification of the English Adverb

Adverbs of Manner:
These adverbs describe a verb showing the manner or circumstances of an event or situation.
Some of the “-ly” adverbs of manner that describe the way in which something is done are the
following: carefully, correctly, differently, closely, brightly, quickly, distinctly, easily, formally, quietly,
thickly, widely.
There are adverbs of manner that indicate not only the way in which something is done, but
also the feelings of the person who does it, such adverbs are: angrily, gladly, proudly, sadly,
cheerfully, hopefully, wearily, eagerly.
As it has already been shown above, adverbs of manner may also indicate the circumstance in
which an action takes place, such as: accidentally, bodily, directly, dully, artificially, commercially,
illegally, deliberately.
 Adverbs of manner answer the question “how?”, or “in what way / manner?”.
Adverbs of Place:
Such adverbs give us information about place. They can indicate either location, position or
direction, destination. Some adverbs of place that indicate position are: abroad, halfway, oversea,
ahead, here, there, somewhere, aloft, indoors, anywhere, inland, under, around, midway,
underground, ashore, nearly, underfoot, away, nowhere, underwater, downstairs, offshore, upstairs,
everywhere, outdoors. All these adverbs answer the question where?
Destination is usually expressed by such adverbs of place as: aboard, home, outside, abroad,
inside, overseas, ashore, near, there, downstairs, next door, underground , downtown, outdoor,
upstairs, heavenward, out of doors, uptown.
Direction may be indicated by the following adverbs: ahead, clockwise, southward, along,
downward, around, east, south-east, back, eastward, round, backward, north, up, forward, left, on,
westward, westward, north-east, north-west, sideways, south, upward and so on. Such adverb answer
the question where to or where from?
Some prepositions or prepositional or adverbial phrases can also be used as adverbs, such as:
above, over, in front of, behind, round , in and out of, below, back and forth, next to, beneath,
backward(s), round and round, beside, forward, to and fro, between, here and thither, under, opposite,
in between, underneath.
Adverbs of Time:
Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time can refer either to definite time, indicating “exactly
when” something happens, and answering the question when?, or to duration, answering the question
since when? / for
how long?, or to indefinite time. The last type of adverbs do not answer time questions precisely.
Adverbs of definite time refer to the current time or to certain days, years etc., such as: at three
o’clock, yesterday, today, tomorrow, on Monday, on New Year’s Eve, in the morning, at noon, at
dawn, last week, last month, last year, when, then, ago. When more than one adverb of definite time
occurs, the more particular must precede the more general, that is the order should be time + day +
date + year:
e.g. We will have to meet them at 10 o’clock in the morning on Sunday May 21st 1995.
Ago is used only when the point of reference is present, e.g: I wrote to him three days ago.
When the point of reference is past or future, before and not ago must be used, e.g: She said she
had met him two days ago.
They will arrive here before noon.
Adverbials of duration indicate how long something lasts or takes and can be expressed either
by such adverbs as always, all day long, (not) any more, (not)any longer, no longer, no more, briefly,
for ever, indefinitely, long, overnight, permanently, temporarily, or by prepositional, phrases
beginning with the following preposition: after, before, by, during, for, from… to …., in, since,
through, till, until.
The preposition for indicates how long something continues to happen and marks the duration
of a period of time in the past or in the future, or up to the present, e.g. You stayed in the hotel for ten
days. (=You no longer stay there).
You have stayed in the hotel for ten days. (=You are still there).
When the period of time is mentioned for the first time, for is followed by for an hour, for a
week, for a month, for a year, for a (long/short) while, e.g. We waited for him for an hour.
When the period of time is already known (season, period of the day), or when the time word is
modified by such words as past, coming, following, next, last, for is followed by the, e.g. My
mother is off for the day.
They have been working for the past two hours.
You will be free for the next three days.
Sometimes, when we want to emphasize or exaggerate how long something lasts, for is
followed by such plural nouns as ages, hours, days, weeks, months, years, centuries, e.g. My son
has not taken any medicine for years.
When we want to be less precise about how long something lasts, we can use approximating
adverbs like about, almost, around, less than, more than, nearly after for, e.g. She lived in that house
for nearly five years.
 Since such verbs as to last, to stay, and to wait have durations as part of their meaning, they can
be followed by a noun group instead of a prepositional phase with for. The verbs to take and to spend
can never be followed by a for-phase, but by a noun group.
Since marks the beginning of a period that lasts till now and is associated with the Present
Perfect, or it marks the beginning of a period that lasted till then and is associated with the Past
Perfect, e.g. We have known him since 1985.
When I met him that evening, he had not eaten since morning.
Since can also occur as an adverb on its own, e.g. Our niece visited us in April, but we have not
seen him since.
A time word +after + the same time word emphasizes either that an action is repeated
continuously for a long time, or that a state continues for a long time, e.g. We waited for an answer
day after day.
We use in to show that something will happen before the end of a certain period of time. It can
often be replaced by within in formal English, e.g. They will finish their work in (within) two days.
Till / until are used with “continuity verbs” to mean “any time before and not later than”, while
by is used with “momentary” / “point of time verbs “ having the same meaning of “any time before
and not later than”, e.g. Will you wait here till I come back?
The train will have arrived by 10 o’clock.
During refers to a whole period of time and is always followed by a noun, e.g. Many people
lost their lives during the earthquake.
Among adverbs of time there are also included the adverbs of frequency which indicate how
often an activity is repeated. Such adverbs fall into two categories: adverbs of definite frequency, such
as once, twice, every other day, every three days , every few days, every fourth day, hourly / daily /
weekly / fortnightly / monthly/ adverbs of definite frequency: once, twice, adverbs of indefinite
frequency, such as almost always, nearly always, generally, seldom, (very) frequently / occasionally /
often / rarely, once in a blue moon, sometimes, from time to time,
Adverbs of Degree:
Adverbs of degree indicate the extent of an action or the degree to which an action is
performed. The most frequent adverbs of degree such as: absolutely, far, really, adequately, fully,
reasonably, almost, greatly, remarkably, amazingly, half, significantly, awfully, hardly, simply, badly,
hugely, slightly, barely, immensely, somewhat, a bit, incredibly, soundly, completely, intensely,
strongly, considerably, just, sufficiently, dearly, largely, supremely, deeply, mainly, surprisingly,
drastically, moderately, suspiciously, dreadfully, much, terribly, enormously, nearly, too, enough,
noticeably, totally, entirely, pretty, truly, utterly, purely, very, quite, fairly, well, rather, fantastically,
wonderfully.
These adverbs can make the word they modify weaker or stronger. The words that can be
modified by adverbs of degree may be:
A) adjective : rather difficult;
B) Adverb : quite fluently;
C) Verbs :I did not quite understand;
D) Nous (very rarely) : That was quite an experience.
Fairly / Quite / Rather / Pretty / Very.
Fairly means “less than the highest degree” and is usually combined with adjectives or adverbs
that suggest a good state of affair and it is less complimentary than quite, and fairly is never combined
with comparativ, e.g. Your story is fairly interesting.
Quite is a little stronger than fairly. When used with gradable adjective or adverbs, it means
“less than the highest degree” or “better than expected”, e.g. His answers were quite good
They played quite well.
When used with non-gradable1 adjectives or adverbs (dead, perfectly, marvellous, right,
impossible), quite means “absolutely”, “completely”; Not quite, usually used with non-gradable
words, and means “not completely, like “ I did not quite understand you.

1
In linguistics, the term gradable denotes a word in whose meaning there is some implicit
relationship to a standard: big and small are gradable adjectives. Its opposite is non-gradable or
ungradable.
 Many times the meaning of quite depends on stress and intonation, so if it is pronounced with a
rising tone, it has a positive meaning, if it pronounced with a falling tone, its meaning is negative, e.g.
They managed to finish the job quite quickly. The problem was quite complicated.
Rather is stronger than quite and is used to mean either “more than is usual / expected” or
“more than is wanted / accepted”. Rather can be either preceded, or followed by a with no difference
in meaning, e.g. It was a rather long journey.
It was rather a long journey. It must be underlined that, when we make a favorable comment,
quite is usually preferred to rather, while in unfavorable comments, rather is preferred to quite,
although quite is also possible, e.g. These apples are quite cheap. This car is rather / quite expensive.
Pretty has a similar meaning to rather, but pretty is used in a more informal style, like “I am
pretty hungry.”
Very is the most common intensifier and is used before gradable adjective or adverbs, in the
positive degree, and when by much, very can be followed by comparatives, and when preceded by the,
or possessive adjectives, it can be followed by superlatives or nouns, e.g. My car is very much faster
than bus. She will do her very best to help us. Read the lesson from the very beginning, please!
Much / Far / A Lot
Much and far as intensifiers are usually combined with comparatives and superlatives. While a
lot is followed only by comparatives, e.g. This exercise is much / far more difficult than the other. This
is much / far the worst road in the country. It is a lot warmer today than it was yesterday.
Too – Enough
Too means “more than the right amount” or “more than is desirable”. Enough means “the right
amount”, and not enough means “less than the right amount”. While too goes before an adjective or
adverb, enough goes after it, e.g . This suitcase is too heavy for me. This house is big enough for us.
Note that enough can also be a determiner when used before a noun, e.g. We have enough
money to buy this car.
Hardly / Barely / Scarcely
Hardly, barely, and scarcely are negative words and they mean “almost not”. Consequently,
they can never combine with other negative word, e.g. She hardly ever leaves her house (= almost
never)
They have barely enough food (= almost not enough)
We scarcely know anybody here (= almost no person)
So - Such
Both so and such are used to emphasize a quality that someone or something has. So can be
followed by an adjective , an adverb or a noun group preceded by much, many, little, few. Such may
be followed either by a singular noun preceded by a, or by a plural noun group, e.g. He spoke so
quickly that nobody understood him.
I have never done such difficult exercises.
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of frequency indicate how often an activity is repeated; such adverbs fall into two
main categories:
(a) adverbs of definite frequency: once, twice, three/several times (a day/week/month/year etc),
every + day/ week/ month/ year/ morning/ afternoon/ evening/ night/ etc , every other day , every
three days , every few days, every fourth day, hourly / daily / weekly / fortnightly / monthly/
annually / yearly, on + Sunday / Thursday / weekdays, etc.
(b) adverbs of indefinite frequency: always, almost always, nearly always, generally, seldom,
(very) frequently / occasionally / often / rarely / regularly / usually, (almost) never, hardly ever, again
and again, at times, (every) now and then, from time to time, (every) now and again, once in a blue
moon, sometimes.
The English adverbs of frequency can sometimes go after the subject and before a negative
auxiliary; compare these sentences:
I do not often have breakfast. ( = I seldom have breakfast)
I often do not have breakfast. (= I often go without breakfast)
Always, never, and often in front position are emphatic, and we can use always and never in
instruction, e.g. Always the ghost appeared at the same time.
Never try to adjust the machine while it is switched on.
 We can use a phase with every, most or some to express frequency.
These phrase can go in front or end position. We also can use once, twice,
three times, etc., e.g. Every summer we all go sailing together.
Some evening we do not have the television on at all.
Two tables to be taken three times a day.
Paul has been married several times.
The adverbs daily / weekly / fortnightly / monthly/ annually / yearly etc go in end position, like
“Are you paid weekly or monthly?” (Oxford Guide to English Grammar, John Eastwood, 1994, p.
269).
Interrogative adverbs:
Such adverbs as how, when, where and why are often used to begin a question:
e.g: (1). ‘Silence!’, cried Mr. Mell, suddenly rising up, and striking his desk with the book. ‘What
does this mean? It’s impossible to bear it. It’s maddening. How can you do it to me, boys?’
(2). ‘And how do you get on, and where are you being educated, Brooks?’, said Mr. Quinion.
(3) ‘Why should she be inclined to forgive him now? ‘ said my mother, rather sharply,’ Now that he’s
got a brother, I mean,’ said Peggotty. (Charles Dickens].
Connective / Linking / Relative Adverbs:
Numerous adverbs are used to introduce a clause. Such adverbs are employed when:
(a). An extra reinforcing piece of information is added: also, as well, beside, furthermore,
moreover, e.g. My sister has painted a landscape. She has also painted one.
I do not like this idea, and, moreover, I think it is illegal.
That dress would not fit me, besides I can not afford it.
(b). When a comparison is made: equally, likewise, similarly, e.g. He ignored her, and she
ignored him likewise.
My brother was taught to read by my mother, and similarly, so was I .
(c). A contrast is pointed to: alternately, conversely, even so, however, nevertheless,
nonetheless, rather, still, though, yet.
e.g. I do not like your suggestion . However, you may do as you.
I am feeling ill, but I will come with you nevertheless.
She is pleasant enough, (and) yet I do not like her.
(d). We want to indicate that something happens before or after an event we have already
mentioned: afterwards, beforehand, earlier, (ever) since, finally, first, last, later, meanwhile, next,
presently, simultaneously, soon, soon after, subsequently, suddenly, then, throughout, e.g. The child
had gone into the park. Meanwhile his mother was searching for him in the street.
She looked around. Suddenly, she realized she was alone.
(e). We want to summarize the things mentioned above: all in all, and so on, essentially. The
interrogative adverbs how, when, where and why may also be employed as relative adverbs, e.g. (1)
Glowing with pleasure to find that he had still this interest in me, I told him how my aunt had
proposed the little expedition that I had before me, and whiter it tended.
(2) I believe that Steerforth had said what he had, in jest, or to draw Miss Dartle out; and I
expected him to say as much when she was gone, we two were sitting before the fire. But he merely
asked me what I thought of her. (Charles Dickens)
Focus Adverbs:
Such adverbs as alone, merely, principally, chiefly, mostly, purely, especially, notably, really,
even, only, simply, exclusively, particularly, solely, just, predominantly, specially, mainly, primarily,
specifically precede the word they qualify to focus attention on it. The position of these adverbs in the
sentence is flexible, according to the word we want to focus on and, in this way, they convey slightly
different meaning, e.g: Even Mary could do that exercise. (=although she is not very good at maths).
Mary could do even that exercise. (= among other thing)
Only Nick smelt the flower. (= nobody else)
Nick only smelt the flower (= he did not do anything else)
Nick smelt only the flower (= nothing else)
Sometimes only combined with too to means “extremely”, e.g. That problem was only too difficult for
me.
 The adverbs too, as well, not… either focus our attention by adding some more information,
e.g. This car is too expensive for me. ( =more than desirable)
Grandfather is old, and grandmother is old too / as well. (=also)
I cannot swim and my sister cannot swim either.
Viewpoint adverbs:
Some adverbs or adverbial phrases are used to indicate the speaker’s or the writer’s attitude to
the fact or event he is talking about. So speaker / writer may show:
(a) how sure he / she is about something: certainly, maybe, really, clearly, naturally,
remarkably, definitely, obviously, significantly, evidently, perhaps , strictly, honestly, possibly.
(b) that he is going to be brief : anyhow, anyway, briefly, in brief, e.g. I do not think you can do
it but you can try anyhow.
(c) what is the opinion is: absurdly, hopefully, surprisingly, agreeably, incredibly, typically,
astonishingly, ironically, unexpectedly, mercifully, characteristically, unbelievably, conveniently,
miraculously, unfortunately, curiously, mysteriously, unhappily, fortunately, oddly, luckily, frankly,
paradoxically, unnecessarily, happily, sadly, honestly, strongly, e.g. I was agreeably surprised by the
cheapness of the price.
Unfortunately, I have not enough money to travel abroad.
Truth adverbs:
A truth adverb expresses what the speaker knows about the truth of a statement: how likely it is
to be true, or to what degree it is true, e.g. Perhaps / maybe Mandy has missed the bus. You have
certainly / undoubtedly made a good start.
Most of these adverbs can go in front, mid or end position. Certainly, definitely and probably
usually go in mid position. But in a negative sentence we put a truth adverb after the subject rather
than after the auxiliary. Sometime we can use a prepositional phase, e.g. The whole thing is ridiculous
in my opinion.
We get on quite well together on the whole.
Comment adverbs:
We use this kind of adverb to make a comment on what we are saying, e.g. Luckily, no one
was killed.(=It was lucky that no one was killed)
I am afraid / Unfortunately we did not win anything.
We can also use an adverb to comment on someone’s behaviour. But, if the adverb is in a
different position, it has a different meaning. Compare the adverbs of comment and manner, e.g. I
stupidly left the car unlocked. (= It was stupid of me)
The man stared stupidly. (= in a stupid manner)
We can use a phrase with to for someone’s feeling about something, e.g. To my surprise, the
newspaper was not interested in the story.
To Phil’s delight, his plan proved successful.
Comment adverbs can used to comment on why we are saying something, e.g. Honestly, / To
be honest, I think you are making a wrong decision. (Oxford Guide to English Grammar, John
Eastwood, 1994, p. 275-276).

THE PREPOSITION

The preposition is a traditional word class, comprising words that relate two linguistic
elements to each other, and that genrally precede the word which they ‘govern’.
Simple prepositions are predominantly short words (e.g. at, by, down, for, from, in(to), to, up),
some of which also function as adverbs. There are some longer prepositions (e.g. alongside the quay,
throughout the period), and also COMPLEX prepositions consisting of combinations of two or three
words that function in the same way (e.g. according to, regardless of, in front of, by means of, in
additon to).
 There was at some time considerable prejudice against putting a prepostion later than the
word it belongs to (!). Rewording is possible in some contexts (e.g. the word to which it belongs), but
a deferred (or strandded) preposition is cometimes unavoidable without a major rewriting:
What did you do that for?
The problem is difficult to talk about
This is a matter we have to reckon with.
It’s not to be sneered at!
The predjudice goes back to Latin grammar, in which the chacrateristic placing of the particle
is indicated by its name praepositio, fom praeponere ‘put before’.
Prepositions overlap not only with adverbs but also with other word classes: e.g. near is like
an adjective in having comparative and superlative forms (nearer / nearerest the window), since can
be preposition (since the war), adverb (I haven’t seen them since) and conjunction (since the war
ended).” (The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar)

● In point of form, prepositions can be:

1. Simple, e.g. about, by, during, from, in, on , over, round, to, under, with.
2. Compound, e.g. alongside, into, inside, outside, throughout, within, without.
3. Complex, e.g. according to, ahead of, apart from, as for, because of, due to, instead of,
out of, owing to, together with, up to.
4. Prepositional phrases (in Romanian: locuţiuni prepoziţionale), e.g. at the back of, by
means of, by the side of, in accordance with, in front of, in opposition to, in spite of, on
account of, on behalf of, with a view to.
● In point of semantics, there are: (1) Prepositions of place of direction, e.g. abroad,
above, across, amid(st), inside, next, off, on top of, opposite, outside, past, uder, up, upon,
within; (showing direction or destination): about, after, along, alongside, around, at, down,
from, inside, into, off, onto, out of, to, toward(s), up.
(2) Prepositins expressing time, e.g. about, after, ahead of, at, before, between, by, for, from,
in, inside, on, since, throughout, till, to, towards., until, up, up to, within.
(3) Causal prepositions, e.g. on account of, by reason of, owing to, thanks to.

SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF PREPOSITIONS

1. Space Prepositions (“Prepoziţii spaţiale”):

about – în preajma, în jurul
above – deasupra, e.g. The candelabrum is above the table.
across – de-a curmezişul, peste
after – după
among – printre, e.g. You’ll find it among the books over there.
at – la, în, e.g. He was at school.
before – înaintea, în faţa, e.g. She stood before him, saying no word.
behind – înpoia, în spatele, îndărătul, e.g. Let’s wait behind the wall.
beside – lîngă, alături de, e.g. Stay beside me!
between – între
by – lîngă, pe lîngă
from – de la, din
in – în, la
into – în, înăuntrul, e.g. Come into the room, please.
near (to) – lîngă
off – de pe, e.g. Take these dishes off the table.
on – pe, e.g. The pencils are on your desk.
over – peste, deasupra, e.g.
past – pe lîngă, e.g.
through – prin
to – la, spre, către, e.g.
under – sub, dedesubtul, e.g.
The airplane flew over the town.
I saw him go / walk past the theatre.
I am going to school.
Take the cat from under the table!

2. Temporal Prepositions (“Prepoziţii temporale”):

about – pe la, în jurul, e.g. It’s about five o’clock.
after – după, e.g. after that – după aceea
at – la, în, Ø, e.g. at noon – la amiază; at night – noaptea;
before – înainte de, înaintea…, e.g. before the war – înaintea războiului
by – pînă la, nu mai târziu de, e.g. I’ll be back by eight o’clock.
during – în timpul, e.g. during holiday – în timpul vacanţei / concediului
for – timp de, e.g. They’ve been living in Bucharest for two years.
from – de la, din, e.g. Closed from 9 to 11 a.m.
in – în, Ø, e.g. in July; in the afternoon
on – în; la (data de…), pe, e.g. on Saturday; on July 6
past – după, trecut(e) de, şi…, e.g. ten minutes past ten – (ora) zece şi zece (minute)
since – de la, din, e.g. I’ve known him since 1995.
till / until – pînă, nu mai târziu de, e.g. We waited until six. I’ll wait here till the end of time!
to, towards – spre, către, e.g. twenty minutes to ten; towards evening.

3. Causal Prepositions (“Prepoziţii cauzale”):

of – din cauza, din pricina, de, e.g. She died of lung cancer. – (Cf. from below)
on account of – din cauza, din pricina, e.g. I couldn’t come in time on account of the
snowstorm.
because of – din cauza, e.g. She was punished because of Tom.
by – din, e.g. He did it by mistake.
from – de, din cauza, e.g. She suffered from leuk(a)emia.
for – pentru, din cauza, e.g. Susan is proud of her family for their support.
owing to – datorită, din pricina, e.g. Sue’s reading was hesitant owing to a stammer.
out of – din, de, e.g. She did it out of charity, not out of spite!
thanks to – datorită, mulţumită, graţie…, e.g. I’m here thanks to your helpful brother.

4. Final Propositions (“Prepoziţii finale / de scop”):

for – pentru (a…), în vederea…, ca să…, e.g. He lacks the necessary tools for making an umbrella.
He is responsible for the efficient running of the department.

5. Prepositions expressing reference (“Prepoziţii care exprimă referirea”):

about – despre, în privinţa, e.g. What are you talking about?
of – despre, în legătură cu, e.g. Are you sure of it? We don’t know of anything that would be
suitable.
on – despre, asupra, e.g. This is a book / treatise on style.

SOME SOURCES OF ERRORS IN TRANSLATING PREPOSITIONS

a man about town – om de lume

above suspicion – în afară de orice bănuială
to ask after somebody – a se interesa de cineva / de sănătatea cuiva
against a blue background – pe un fond albastru
at liberty, at a distance – în libertate, în depărtare
at interest – cu dobândă
at somebody’s expense – pe cheltuiala cuiva
behind somebody’s back, behind the scenes – în spatele cuiva; în culise
by force – cu forţa
by night – pe timp de noapte; noaptea
by chance – din întîmplare
by contrast – prin contrast, spre deosebire
to travel by land / water / road – a călători / merge pe uscat / apă
to travel by train / coach – a călători / merge cu trenul
by Monday; by this time – până / nu mai târziu de luni; între timp
one by one – unul câte unul
to change minute by minute – a se schimba la fiecare minut
to judge by appearances – a judeca după aparenţe
to call him by his last name – a-i spune pe numele mare
to eat by candlelight – a mânca la lumina lumînării
for sale – do vânzare
the train leaves for Braşov – trenul pleacă la Braşov
word for word – cuvânt cu cuvânt
for anything I know – după / din câte ştiu (eu)
safe from danger – în afară de (orice) pericol
in the street(s), in the field / sky – pe stradă, pe câmp / cer; (Cf. AmE on the field / sky);
in the shade / sun – la umbră / soare
in time – la timp / vreme; (Cf. on time “punctual; punctually”: The train was on time. We paid
our bills on time);
in all probability – după toate probabilităţile
in children / small animals – la copii / animalele mici
on their own will – de bună voie
on the way to – în drum spre
on hand – la îndemână
on tiptoe – în vârful picioarelor
on duty – de serviciu
a walk round the town – o plimbare prin oraş
from time to time – din când în când
patient under pain – răbdător la durere
upon principle – din principiu
a custom with the old Germans – un obicei la vechii germani
with Shakespeare – la Shakespeare
shaking with rage – tremurând de furie.

THE CONJUNCTION

The conjunction is a word that connects sentences, clauses or words with the same syntactical
function.
A traditional classification of conjunctions can be drawn according to their form, and also
according to their function.
● Thus, in point of form and complexity, conjunctions can be:
1. Simple, e.g. and, but, if, that
 2. compound, e.g. however, notwithstanding, otherwise, unless
3. Correlative, e.g. as…as, both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also,
whether…or
4. Conjunctional phrases, e.g. as well as, as if, as though, for that reason, for instance,
in order that / to, that is why, so long as.
● In point of function, conjunctions can be:
1. Coordinate / coordinative conjunctions.
2. Subordinate conjunctions.
1. The first set includes the following subclasses of conjunctions: (a) copulative conjunctions,
e.g. and, as well as, besides, both…and, furthermore, no less than, neither…nor, not only…but also
(b) adversative conjunctions, e.g. but, whereas, while, (c) disjunctive conjunctions, e.g. or, also, or
else, otehrwise, either…or. (d) conclusive conjunctions, e.g. accordingly, consequently, on that
account, hence, so, then, that’s why. (e) explanatory [ik’splænət(ə)ri] conjunctions, e.g. that is, for
example, fro instance, let us say, say, such as, that ist o say.
2. The second set of conjunctions includes the following subclasses: (a) conjunctions
introducing subject clauses, e.g. that, what, who, which, whoever, whatever, whichever, when, how,
why, where, if, whether. (b) conjunctions introducing predicate clauses, e.g. what, who, where,
when, whatever, whether, that, why. (c) conjunctions introducing direct object clauses, e.g. that, if,
whether, how, what, whatever, who, whoever, where, wherever, why, which, whichever. (d)
conjunctions introducing indirect object clauses, e.g. to whom / whoever / whomever, to what. (e)
conjunctions introducing prepositional object clauses, e.g. who, whom, whoever, what, whatever,
which, whichever, how – preceded by prepositions. (f) conjunctions introducing relative / attributive
clauses, e.g. who, whom, which, whose, of which, where, when, how, why, that. (g) conjunctions
introducing adverbial clauses of manner, e.g. as, like, muich, just as, how, (in) the way, in the manner,
as if, as though. (h) conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of place, e.g. where, wherever,
wheresoever (archaic). (i) conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of time, e.g. after, as, before,
long before, by the time, each time, every time, the last time, (the) next time, since, when, whenever,
while, once, no sooner…than, hardly/scarcely…when, until, till, now that, as soon as, the moment. (j)
conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of condition, e.g. if, only if, unless, on condition that,
provided (that), providing (that), supposing (that), suppose, but for, if only, in case, as long as . (k)
conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of purpose, e.g. in order that, in order to, so, so as to, so
that, lest. (l) conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of concession, e.g. although, though,
despite (the fact that), in spite of, even if, even though, except that, much as, not that, however,
however much, however long, no matter, no matter whether, whether, whatever, whoever, whichever,
notwithstanding (the fact), while. (m) conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of casue / reason,
e.g. as, because, since, considering (that), for the reason that. (n) conjunctions introducing
adverbial clauses of result (Romanian: circumstanţiale consecutive), e.g. so, so that, and so, such (=
so great) that.

THE INTERJECTION

The term interjection may variously mean, according to dictionaries: “1. a word or remark
expressing emotion; exclamation. 2. the act of interjecting. 3. a word or phrase that is
characteristically used in syntactic isolation and that usually expresses sudden emotion; expletive”.
Or: “A minor word class whose members are outside normal clase structure, having no syntactic
connection with other words, and generally having emotive meanings. Examples: aha, alas, oh!, mm,
oops!, sh! Several interjections involve sounds that are not among the regular speech sounds of
English, e.g. those represented in writing by tut-tut, which is actually a sequence of alveolar clicks, or
ugh, in which gh represents a voiceless velar fricative /x/ (as in the Scottish pronunciation of loch). In
thse two patricular cases a secondary pronunciation based on the spelling has arisen (/tΛt’tΛt/, /Λg/).”
(The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar).
 Let us consider the uses and make-up of the following imitative terms: humph, er, atcha, ba,
hoo-ha, lah-di-dah, kazoo, peekaboo. Here are some more English interjections: ah, ahem, bah, eh,
err, hey, hurray / hooray, oho, ooh, ouch, ow, phew, uh-huh, whoopee, whoops, wow, yippee, yum-yum,
yup.

REMEMBER, AND PRACTICE WITH, YOUR GRAMMAR

EXERCISES

EXERCISES WITH THE MODALS

DARE, (*)WILL, (*)WOULD, *USED TO

1. De obicei mergem la înot de două ori pe săptămână.
2. Am să mă duc la petrecerea lor indiferent dacă vă place sau nu.
3. Deşi reparasem maşina, nu vroia să pornească.
4. Nu a îndrăznit să ne spună pînă acum că are coşmaruri noaptea.
5. Deschideţi, vă rog, portbagajul. E doar un control de rutină.
6. Vrei să-mi aduci o ceaşcă de cafea, te rog?
7. Am sunat la uşă, dar n-a vrut să-mi deschidă, sau cel puţin aşa cred, pentru că era lumina
aprinsă la fereastra sufrageriei.
8. Când mergeam la munte cu echipa de salvamontişti, ne trezeam cu noaptea în cap, de obicei
înainte de răsăritul soarelui.
9. Deşi are de obicei foarte puţin răgaz / timp disponibil, o să te primească neîndoielnic.
10. – Ai verificat şi priza, şi cablul?
– Da, dar frigiderul tót nu merge.
11. – Cum îndrăzneşte el să vină fără să ne anunţe?
– Nici o problemă – noi sîntem familiarizaţi cu tupeul lui, iar el s-a obişnuit să fie acceptat aşa
cum este.
12. Nu vreţi să vă apropiaţi mai mult? De aici se vede mult mai bine peisajul!

● Practise the modal verbs with the following Romanian contexts:

2. Se poate ca nimeni să nu-şi amintească cum s-a întâmplat?
3. Ar trebui să-ţi iei măcar o maşină; preţurile sînt în creştere şi s-ar putea să nu mai găseşti
o asemenea ocazie.
4. Dacă aţi fi amabilă să vă prezentaţi, v-aş putea face o programare; aşteaptă foarte mulţi
pentru audienţe la domnul director.
5. Oricât de mult ţi-ai dori un lucru, trebuie să înveţi că e nevoie de multă muncă pentru a-l
obţine.
6. Cu toţii au insistat să nu se dea jos din pat, întrucât starea de sănătate nu-i permitea acest
lucru.
7. Mi-aş dori ca Moş Crăciun să-mi aducă nişte patine anul acesta.
8. Nu se poate ca el să fi lipsit de la o asemenea întrunire importantă.
9. N-am putut merge ieri la şcoală pentru că am fost la un control medical.
10. Pot să vă duc eu valiza. O să vă fie mai uşor numai cu un bagaj.
11. Asemenea evenimente au loc destul de des când eşti în călătorie.
12. Vă deranjează dacă fumez pe balcon?
13. Deşi era foarte târziu, am reuşit / putut cu greu, în cele din urmă, să termin proiectul acela
stresant.
14. Ştiu că sînt plecaţi de azi dimineaţă aşa că ar fi trebuit să se întoarcă până acum.
15. Oare cum de îndrăzneşte să îi viziteze tocmai la recepţia fiicei lor fără să fie invitat sau
măcar să se anunţe?
16. Mă întreb de ce n-au adus-o şi pe pisicuţa lor; trebuie să se simtă foarte singură acasă.
17. Aş vrea să nu-mi mai adreseze asemenea vorbe apăsătoare.
18. Le-am sugerat să vină mai devreme pentru că se întunecă repede.
19. Dacă acum nu se poate deplasa fără căruciorul cu rotile, sînt sigur că în câteva luni va
putea să facă mici plimbări.
20. Oricât timp vei petrece în compania lor, ia-ţi şi un casetofon portabil.
21. Nu trebuia să-i mai aduci aminte de asta. Ştii că la tine nu-i place să fie cicălit
22. S-ar cuveni ca tinerii să le cedeze locul în autobuz celor mai în vârstă.
23. Ne-au provocat la o întrecere de biciclete în parcul din centrul oraşului.
24. Nu se poate ca ei să aibă îndoieli asupra veridicităţii spuselor tale.
25. Aţi fi putut să ne anunţaţi de la bun început ca să ştim ce măsură să luăm.
26. Când eram mici ne jucam de-a v-aţi ascunselea în grădina din spatele casei.
27. Trebuie să fi vorbit mult în timpul conferinţei pentru că era răguşit când a ieşit.
28. Se poate ca ei să ne fi depăşit deja pe traseu şi acum probabil că ne aşteaptă.
29. Am putut să mă descurc singur atunci şi sper că o voi face şi data viitoare.
30. În caz(ul) că auzi pe cineva strigându-te, să nu întorci capul, ci să mergi mai departe cu
pas grăbit.
31. Nu am putut închide un ochi toată noaptea din cauza vecinului de deasupra.
32. Nu am putut închide un ochi toată noaptea ca să nu rămână cazarma nepăzită.
33. Ori de câte ori îl zărea în capătul uliţei, grăbea pasul vizibil şi trecea glonţ pe lângă el,
dând nemulţumit din cap.
34. Ni s-a recomandat să fim mai punctuali şi mai puţin zgomotoşi.
35. Dacă s-ar trezi devreme ar termina de scris articolul; poate că l-a şi terminat deja.
MUST
1. Nu te grăbi. Trebuie să mai fie destul timp până la plecarea (take-off) avionului.
2. Începe să ningă aşa că trebuie să ne îmbrăcăm cu haine mai groase.
3. Ai observat că mătuşa fratelui tău nu a sosit încă? Trebuie să fi pierdut trenul.
4. Sună telefonul. De ce nu răspunzi? Trebuie să fie colega mea de clasă.
5. Surioara mea mai mică doarme, aşa că nu trebuie să faceţi zgomot în dormitor.
6. Mă privea fix de parcă m-ar fi cunoscut de undeva. Şi eu aveam acelaşi sentiment. Trebuie să
ne mai fi văzut cândva într-un alt loc.
7. Acum o să vă iert, dar nu trebuie să mai repetaţi asemenea greşeli.
8. Bunica nu mai tricotează ca de obicei în faţa şemineului: trebuie să-şi fi rătăcit ochelarii pe
undeva.
9. Nu trebuie să parcăm maşina acolo! Nu vezi indicatorul?
10. Nu ştiu de ce n-a venit încă. Probabil că mai stă de vorbă cu prietena lui în parc.
SHOULD, OUGHT TO
1. Părinţii voştri ar trebui să fie mult mai precauţi, nu?
2. Persoanele grase n-ar trebui să mănânce prea multe dulciuri, ce crezi?
3. S-ar cuveni să-l suni de ziua lui, nu-i aşa?
4. Ar trebui să cumperi cadourile de Crăciun de pe acum!
5. N-ar trebui să staţi de vorbă cu necunoscuţi sub nici o formă.
6. Ar trebui să ne vizitaţi mai des!
7. Cred că n-ar mai trebui s-o luăm de la capăt.
8. Ar cam trebui să revizuiţi majoritatea materiei: începem să uităm, nu?
9. Dacă tot a sosit poştaşul cu pensia, ar trebui să plătim şi abonamentul TV.
10. Trebuia să fiţi mai atenţi la traversarea străzii.
11. Ar fi trebuit să te laşi de fumat mai demult; acum n-ai mai avea probleme cu inima şi
plămânii.
12. N-ar fi trebuit să-i spuneţi tot adevărul; nu vedeţi ce trist e acum?
13. Dacă tot a sosit poştaşul cu alocaţia pentru copii, n-ar fi trebuit să ne aducă şi ziarul de azi?
14. Cred că ar fi trebuit să te bizuieşti mai mult pe puterile tale.
15. Spunea că ar fi trebuit s-o conduci măcar la gară.
16. Vezi bine că nu s-ar fi cuvenit să faci o asemenea afirmaţie.
17. Era poate mai bine să te fi dus să-i urci în tren, nu crezi?
CAN
1. – Poate veni şi ea cu noi?
– Nu, nu e voie, merg numai adulţii.
3. Vorbiţi mai rar; nu înţeleg tot ce spuneţi!
4. – Ştii să cânţi la cimpoi sau fluier?
– Nu, dar va trebui să ştiu până la sfârşitul cursului.
5. După ce a răsărit soarele, am putut ieşi pe terasă.
6. Nu pot citi cu ochelarii aceştia; pot să îi folosesc pe ai tăi?
7. – Pot să vă conduc la aeroport?
– Da, ne poţi însoţi – mai e un loc liber în maşină.
8. Te-aş fi anunţat mai din timp dacă aş fi putut…
9. Ar fi putut să vină mai devreme, dar au preferat să se întoarcă pe jos.
10. Nu am putu să expediez telegramele ieri – mi s-a spus că poşta e închisă.
11. Era foarte fericit pentru că a reuşit să cumpere computerul de care avea atâta nevoie.
12. Vor putea schia din nou de îndată ce va ninge.
SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, TO BE SUPPOSED TO, HAD BETTER
1. – Aş prefera să nu mănânc în seara asta decât să mă îngraş din nou…
– Mai bine ai fi încercat o cură de slăbire prin mişcare.
2. Vă promit că veţi avea în curînd tricourile pe care vi le doriţi aşa de mult.
3. N-ar trebui să aşteptăm pe peronul de vis-à-vis?
4. Aş prefera să dau examenul de literatură universală în sesiunea de toamnă decât acum.
5. Ar trebui să acordaţi mai multă atenţie pronunţării engleze. sînt o mulţime de cuvinte care se
pronunţă altfel decât se scriu; în plus, faceţi o sumedenie de greşeli de intonaţie.
6. Ar fi trebuit să asculţi emisiunea de ieri de la radio: a fost foarte educativă.
7. N-ar fi mai bine să discutăm despre asta acum, ca să înlăturăm orice nelămurire?
8. – Să-l întreb acum, când e mai bine dispus şi nu s-a plictisit încă de toată tevatura asta?
– Nu, nu e nevoie… Poate că n-ar trebui să-l întrebi chiar deloc.
9. Mai bine v-aţi ocupa de organizarea cinei. Fiecare participant îţi va suporta doar cheltuielile
de drum.
10. De ce s-o încurajăm? N-are ea nevoie de nici o încurajare. Mai bine o ajutăm sa-şi facă
bagajele.
11. – Poimâine este ziua de naştere a logodnicei mele. S-o sun să-i spun la mulţi ani sau să-i
trimit o felicitare?
– Mai bine i-ai duce un buchet de flori. I-ar face mai mare plăcere să te vadă decât să te audă
doar.

MODAL VERBS – REVIEW

1. Vei putea ieşi la joacă de îndată ce termini temele.
2. Puteţi vorbi mai rar, vă rog? Eu nu pot înţelege prea bine italiana.
3. Trebuie să fie cineva acasă, pentru că poarta e deschisă.
4. Ar fi bine să-ţi iei umbrela – începe ploaia şi s-ar putea să răceşti dacă te udă.
5. N-am terminat traducerea pînă la miezul nopţii, aşa că a trebuit să lucrez aproape pînă în zori.
6. Chiar trebui să plecaţi acum? Nu mai puteţi să zăboviţi puţin?
7. Mi-au spus că ar prefera să locuiască la o pensiune decât în cămin.
8. Puteţi folosi scara de incendiu oricând doriţi.
9. Credem că au fost indignaţi la auzirea acestei veşti, când s-au transmis ştirile de seara.
10. Presupun c-aţi putea amâna spectacolul de adio, dacă e absolut necesar.
11. Recepţionera ar fi trebuit să se arate mai amabilă cu turiştii, nu?
12. Nu voia să mă asculte nici în ruptul capului, deşi am încercat să-i explic situaţia.
13. Nu crezi că ar trebui s-o vizitezi, dacă spui că nu se simte prea bine?
14. Directorul adjunct trebuie să sosească dintr-un moment în altul.
 15. Aş prefera să nu scriu de mână: am un scris dezordonat şi în plus pe calculator pot face
corectura mult mai uşor.
16. Ni s-a spus că nu trebuie să staţionăm mult timp aici. S-au plătit multe amenzi pentru
nerespectarea regulamentului în ultimul timp.
17. Trebuie să termin manualul acesta înainte de sfîrşitul lunii.
18. Singurul din grupul nostru care, după spusele lui, ştia să vorbească ceva germană era George.
Lucrul amuzant e că, atunci când, în Frankfurt, ne-am întîlnit cu acel pictor neamţ, n-a fost în
stare să lege nici măcar o propoziţie ca lumea.
19. Am înţeles că vecina sa ştie să gătească calcan precum un maestru al artei culinare dintr-un
mare restaurant parizian.
20. Pesemne că a nins la munte, de vreme ce bate un vînt atât de rece…
21. N-ai voie să te aşezi la masă fără să te speli pe mâini!

MODAL VERBS TESTS

1) ___ we go now ? a. Will b. Must c. Could d. Might

2) Mark ___ help you tomorrow a. is able to b. may c. can d. should be able to
3) Tom ___ see the museum now: it’s beautiful! a. – b. can c. will d. would
4) You ___ be punished severely, sir. a. need b. would c. shall d. would
5) ___ I have one of those bottles of Coca Cola? a. Will b. Must c. Could d. Would
6) Those boys ___ do crazy things when they are left alone in their room. a. shall b. will c. could d.
would
7) ___ I borrow your umbrella, sir? a. Shall b. May c. Might d. Have (I) to
8) You ___ say all those terrible things about poor Doris! a. shall not b. couldn’t c. mustn’t d.
wouldn’t
9) ___ all their dreams come true! a. May b. Might c. Shall d. Can e. Will
10) She ___ have done better in her maths test. a. could b. might c. would d. has to
11) It ___ rain in the morning… a. shall b. couldn’t c. may d. will have to
12) They ___ have finished all their water-drilling projects. a. may not b. can’t c. mustn’t d. shouldn’t
13) I understood then (that) she ___ go out of the castle whenever she wanted. a. may b. might c. was
obliged to d. should
14) My! It’s bitter cold now; it ___ have snowed in the upper Carpathians. a. must have b. should
have c. could have d. might have
15) Granny ___ arrive on Tuesday. a. shall have to b. might c. shall be able to d. would
16) You ___ have been so rude to little Jim! a. mustn’t b. shouldn’t c. couldn’t d. won’t
17) She ___ all the cleaning and washing. Her husband is very good at doing those jobs. a. needn’t
have done b. mustn’t have done c. didn’t need to do d. can’t have done
18) ___ you be so kind as to offer me a glass of water? a. Shall b. May c. Could d. Must
19) You ___ to do it all by yourself. Nobody asked you to. a. mustn’t have done b. hadn’t to do c.
didn’t have to d. couldn’t have to
20) My children ___ all the mess here. They were in their study reading. a. wouldn’t have made b. can
have made c. mustn’t have made d. couldn’t have done e. couldn’t have made
21) I think she inherited a small fortune: she ___ earn all that money just by going to that silly work
of hers! a. mustn’t b. could c. can’t have d. can’t
22) He looked exhausted. He ___ had a hard working day. a. must have b. could have c. need to
have d. should have
23) Parking across the slope ___ be rather risky, you know. a. will b. can c. need to d. should
24) She ___ watered the exotic plants every day. If she had, they wouldn’t have wilted / withered /
drooped! a. can’t b. must not have c. might not have d. can’t have
25) Passengers ___ not lean over the window. a. may not b. might not c. need not d. must not e.
ought not f. should not g. would not
26) ___ I help you to clean the bookshelves? a. Shall b. Do you need to c. Will d. Would
27) Grandma didn’t hear the phone ring. She ___ in her bedroom. a. must have been b. will have
been c. need have been d. would be e. will be
28) They ___ be in Manchester by now. It takes less than two hours to get there by coach. a. need b.
could c. would d. must
29) Mummy, ___ I add some more baking powder to the dough? a. would b. need c. might d. will
30) He was such a nonconformist and stubborn boy; he ___ never comply with the adults’ requests
and orders, or any kind of rules and regulations! a. need b. would c. should d. ought to.