HYDRAULICS 2018

HYDRAULICS
Introduction

The Science of Hydraulics. Hydraulics is defined as that branch of science which treats of
water or other fluid in motion. A prerequisite to the understanding of the motion of fluids, however, is
knowledge to the pressure exerted by fluids at rest. The field of hydraulics also includes
hydrodynamics, which relates to the forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion.

The principles relating to the behavior of water or other fluids at rest are based upon certain
definite laws which hold rigidly in practice. In solving problems involving these principles it is possible
to proceed by purely rational methods, the results obtained being free from doubt or ambiguity.
Calculations are based upon a few natural principles which are universally true and simple enough
to permit of easy application. In problems ordinarily encountered in hydrostatics, after the unit weight
of the fluid has been determined, no other experimental data are required.

A fluid in motion, however, presents an entirely different condition. Though the motion
undoubtedly takes place in accordance with fixed laws, the nature of these laws and the influence
of the surrounding conditions upon them are very complex and have thus far defied complete
expression in mathematical form. However, a great number of engineering problems involving fluid
flow have been solved by combining mathematical theory with experimental data.

Although many of the laws governing the flow of fluids have been well known for centuries, it
has been, as in other branches of science, only within comparatively recent times that applications
of these laws have been widely extended. Most of the early knowledge of hydraulics applied only to
water, as the name indicates. With modern use and transportation of oils, gasoline, chemicals, steam,
and gases, it has been necessary to extend the laws of hydraulics both mathematically and
experimentally to include these fluids. A great step in advance was made when it was discovered,
largely through the research of Osborne Reynolds, that, from experiments on any particular fluid, it is
often possible to predict, at least approximately, the characteristics of flow of any other fluid.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

Discharge

The discharge, Q, often called the volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid that passes through an
area per unit time. For example, when filling the gas tank of an automobile, the discharge or volume
flow rate would be the gallons per minute flowing through the nozzle. Typical units for discharge are
ft3/s (cfs), ft3/min (cfm), gpm, m3/s, and L/s.

Volume Flow Rate, Q =A V

Flow rate in terms of Mass or Weight:

Mass Flow Rate, M = ρ Q

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Weight Flow Rate, W = γ Q

Where:

Q = discharge
A = cross-sectional area
V = velocity or mean velocity of flow
ρ = mass density
ϒ = weight density/unit weight

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Streamlines/Path lines

A fluid in motion can be considered to consist of a great number of individual particles all of
which move in the general direction of flow but usually not in parallel lines or even with continuous
motion. Streamlines are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direction of motion in
various sections of the flow of the fluid system.

Stream Tubes

A stream tube is a small bundle of path lines. These represent elementary portions of a flowing
fluid bounded by a group of streamlines which confine the flow.

Laminar Flow

Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of the individual particles do not cross or intersect.
With this type of flow in conduits having parallel sides the path lines are parallel. The flow is always
laminar when the Reynolds number Re is less than 2000.

Turbulent Flow

Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves which continually cross each
other and form a complicated network which in the aggregate represents the forward motion of the
entire stream. Turbulent flow normally occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds 2000.

Steady Flow

If the discharge Q passing a given cross section of a stream is constant with time, the flow is
steady at that cross section. If Q at the cross section varies with time the flow is unsteady. Steady flow
involves permanency of conditions at any particular cross section.

Uniform Flow

If, with steady flow in any length, or “reach”, of a stream, the average velocity at every cross
section is the same, the flow is said to be uniform in that reach. For fluids considered incompressible

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this condition requires a stream of uniform cross section. In streams where changes of cross section
and velocity occur, the flow is said to be non-uniform. Uniform flow implies simultaneous uniformity of
conditions at successive cross sections.

Continuous Flow

When, at any instant, the number of particles passing every cross section of the stream is the
same, the flow is said to be continuous, or there is continuity of flow. Letting Q, A and V represent,
respectively, discharge, area, and mean velocity, with similar applying to the same cross section,
continuity of flow with non-compressible fluids exists when

Q1  Q2  Q3 ...
A1 1  A2  2  A3  3 ...

Q Q1 Q2 Q

With gas flow, the number of particles passing the given point depends not only on their mean
velocity and the area of cross section but also on the density of the gas. The equation of continuity
for compressible fluids thus becomes

1 Q1  2 Q2 ...
One-Dimensional Flow

This occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the direction and magnitude of the velocity at all
points are identical.

Two-Dimensional Flow

This occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes and the streamline patterns are
identical in each plane.

Flow Nets

These are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional flow, or even three-
dimensional flow.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Compute the discharge of water through a 3-in. pipe if the mean velocity is 8.5 ft per sec.

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2. Air that has a mass density of 1.24 kg/m3 (0.00241 slugs/ft3) flows in a pipe with a diameter of 30
cm (0.984 ft) at a mass rate of flow of 3 kg/s (0.206 slugs/s). What are the mean velocity and
discharge in this pipe for both systems of units?

3. A pipe line consists of successive lengths of 15-in, 12-in, and 10-in diameter pipe. With a continuous
flow through the line of 9 cfs of water compute the mean velocity in each size of pipe.

4. Water flows through a 75 mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3 m/s. Find (a) the volume flow rate in
cu.m/sec and lit/sec, (b) the mass flow rate in kg/sec, (c) weight flow rate in N/sec.

5. The hypodermic needle in the figure below contains liquid serum (SG=1.05). If the serum is to be
injected steadily at 6 cm3/s, how fast in in/s should the plunger be advanced (a) if leakage in the
plunger clearance is neglected an (b) if leakage is 10 percent of the needle flow?

6. Water flows steadily through a closed tank, as in the figure. At section 1,

D1 = 6 cm and the volume flow is 100 m3/h. At section 2, D2 = 5 cm and the
average velocity is 8 m/s. If D3 = 4 cm, what is (a) Q3 in m3/h and (b)
average V3 in m/s?

ENERGY AND HEAD

Since the principles of energy are applied in the derivation of the fundamental hydraulic
formulas, an explanation of such principle will be used here as introduced.
Energy is defined as ability to do work. The three forms of energy which must be considered in
connection with the flow of fluids are therefore usually stated as: 1. Kinetic energy. 2. Elevation
energy. 3. Pressure energy. Other forms of such as heat energy and electrical energy have little
bearing on the laws governing flowing liquids, although thermodynamic effects are important in the
flow of gases.

1. Kinetic energy is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity. If in any mass M, every
individual particle has the same velocity v, in feet per second, the kinetic energy of the mass is ½
Mv2, and, since M = W/g,

𝑣2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑊
2𝑔

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which reduces to v2/2g for a weight of unity. The expression v2/2g is of the form
𝑓𝑡
(𝑠𝑒𝑐 )2
= 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
and it therefore represents a linear quantity expressed in feet. It is the height through which a body
must fall in a vacuum to acquire the velocity v. When applied to a moving mass it is called the
velocity head.

𝑣2
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
2𝑔

2. Elevation energy is manifested in a fluid by virtue of its position or elevation with respect to some
arbitrarily selected horizontal datum plane, considered in connection with the action of gravity.
Elevation energy may be explained by considering a mass having a weight of W pounds the
elevation of which above any horizontal datum plane is z feet. With respect to this plane the mass
has Wz foot-pounds of energy. Here again the expression for energy, in this case z, represents a linear
quantity called the elevation head of the mass, but it should be kept clearly in the mind that z is also
the energy expressed in foot-pounds contained in 1 lb of fluid by virtue of its position with respect to
the datum plane.

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊𝑧 = 𝑀𝑔𝑧

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑧

3. Pressure energy differs fundamentally from kinetic and elevation energy, to the extent that no
mass per se can have such energy. Any mass having pressure energy acquires that energy only by
virtue of contact with other masses having some form of energy. Consider a closed tank filled with a
fluid which has a small opening at the top. Without pressure at the top, the fluid practically will not
flow. In the previous subject (fluid mechanics), the equivalent head (pressure head) for a pressure of
p is p/ϒ. Hence pressure energy is equal to:
𝑝
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊
ϒ
𝑝
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 =
ϒ

Total Flow Energy, E

The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and the potential energies.

ENERGY EQUATION Total Energy of Flow:

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E = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energies

2 
E  Z
2g 

2
= velocity head (K.E.)
2g


= pressure head (P.E.)


z = elevation head (P.E.)

Power and Efficiency

Power is the rate at which work is done. For a fluid of unit weight ϒ (N/cu.m.) and moving at a
rate of Q(cu.m/s) with a total energy of E (m), the power in N-m/s (joule/s) or watt is:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄ϒ𝐸

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 = (100%)
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Note:

1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watt

1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/s
1 watt = 1 N-m/s = 1 joule/s

BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli, an eminent European mathematician and philosopher, demonstrated

that in any stream flowing steadily without friction the total energy contained in a given mass is the
same at every point and its path of flow. In other words, kinetic energy, pressure energy, and energy
of position may each be converted into either of the other two forms, theoretically without loss. Thus if
there is a reduction in the amount of energy contained in any one form there must be an equal gain
in the sum of the other two.

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EGL hL

HGL

1
Q
2
z1
z2
datum

PIPE FLOW

Between any two points (1 and 2) along the stream:

E1  H A  H E  H L  E2

where: E1 = Total energy (head) at section 1

HA = head added (by the pump)

HE = head extracted (by turbine or any other

device)

HL = total head lost

Energy Equation without Head Loss

𝐸1 = 𝐸2

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Energy Equation with Head Loss

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

Energy Equation with Pump

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 + 𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑄𝛾𝐻𝐴

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Energy Equation with Turbine or Motor

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2 + 𝐻𝐸
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑄𝛾𝐻𝐸

Hydraulic Gradient and Energy Gradient

Loss of head in pipe flow is illustrated graphically in the figure, in which are shown two lines
designated respectively the hydraulic gradient and the energy gradient. The former is defined by the
locus of elevations to which liquid rises in successive piezometer tubes, and is thus a graphical
representation, with respect to any selected datum, of the potential (pressure + elevation) head or
energy which the liquid possesses at all sections of the pipe.

The energy gradient is above the hydraulic gradient a distance equal to the velocity head at
each section, and is thus a graphical representation, with respect to the selected datum, of the total
head or energy possessed by the liquid.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. A fluid is flowing in a horizontal pipe 8 in. in diameter with a mean velocity of 10 ft/s.
The pressure at the center of the pipe is 5 psi, and the elevation of the pipe above the
assumed datum is 15 ft. Compute the total head in feet if the fluid is (a) water, (b) oil
(SG=0.8), and (c) molasses (SG=1.5).

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2. The jet of water from a nozzle discharging into air has a diameter of 6 in. and a mean
velocity of 120 ft/s. Compute the velocity head and the horsepower in the jet.
3. The pump-turbine system in the figure below draws water from the upper reservoir in
the daytime to produce power for a city. At night, it pumps water from lower to upper
reservoirs to restore the situation. For a design flow rate of 15,000 gal/min in either
direction, the friction head loss is 17 ft. Estimate the power in kW (a) extracted by the
turbine and (b) delivered by the pump.

4. The Horizontal pump in the figure below discharges water at 57 m 3/h. Neglecting
losses, what power in kW is delivered to the water by the pump?

5. A fireboat draws seawater (SG=1.025) from

submerged pipe and discharges it through a nozzle.
The total head loss is 6.5 ft. If the pump efficiency is
75 percent, what horsepower motor is required to
drive it?

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6. Kerosene (SG=0.804) flows through the pump at

2.3 ft3/s. Head losses between 1 and 2 are 8 ft,
and the pump delivers 8 hp to the flow. What
should the mercury manometer reading h ft be?

7. The liquid in the figure is kerosene. Estimate

the flow rate from the tank for (a) no losses
and (b) pipe losses hf = 4.5V2/2g.

FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT

ORIFICES

An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which

a fluid flows. The usual purpose of an orifice is the measurement or
control of the flow.

The upstream edge of an orifice may be rounded or sharp. An

orifice with prolonged sides, such as a piece of pipe two or three
diameters in length, is called tube. An orifice in a thick wall has the
hydraulic properties of a tube.

Orifices used for measuring flow are usually circular, square, or

rectangular in cross section. Because of simplicity of design and construction, sharp-edged circular
orifices are most common for fluid measurement and have been most thoroughly investigated by

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experiment, although much remains to be learned about the laws governing their discharge,
particularly for fluids other than water.

Velocity of Discharge

Figure below represents the general case of a liquid discharging through a vertical rounded orifice. In

the derivation of the fundamental formula it will be assumed that the water flows without friction and
also that there is no contraction of the jet and therefore no pressure within the jet in the plane of the
orifice. In order to write a general expression applicable to all filaments, it will be necessary to make
the further assumption that all of the water particles in a cross-section of the channel of approach
flow with the same velocity. Applying energy equation from point m at the tank to point n at the jet,
we arrive with the fundamental formula for the velocity of discharge (theoretical):

t  2 gH

Thus, the theoretical discharge flowing from an orifice

Qt  Ao 2gH

Coefficient of Velocity

The actual velocity in the jet is less than the theoretical velocity because of the frictional
resistance that occurs as the fluid enters and passes through the orifice. The ratio of the actual mean
velocity Va to the theoretical velocity Vt which would exist without friction is called the coefficient of
velocity and is designated Cv. Thus Cv = Va/Vt, and

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𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻

Coefficient of Contraction

The figure below represents a cross section of a vertical sharp-edged orifice discharging a
liquid from a reservoir into the atmosphere. The particles of the liquid approach the orifice in
converging paths from all directions. Because of the inertia of those
particles with velocity components parallel to the plane of the orifice,
they cannot make abrupt changes in their directions the instant they
reach the orifice, and therefore follow curvilinear paths, thus causing
the jet to contract for a short distance beyond the orifice. This
phenomenon is referred to as the contraction of the jet. The section
at a where contraction ceases is called the vena contracta. The
vena contracta for a sharp-edged circular orifice of diameter D has
been found to be at a distance of about 0.5D from the plane of the
orifice.

The ratio of the cross sectional area of the jet at the vena
contracta to the area of the orifice is called the coefficient of contraction, Cc. Thus, if a and A are,
respectively, the cross sectional area of the jet at the vena contracta and the area of the orifice,
and Cc is the coefficient of contraction,
𝑎
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴
𝐴

If Va is the actual mean velocity in the vena contracta the discharge through the orifice is

𝑄 = 𝑎𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

Coefficient of Discharge

It is usual to replace the product of CcCv in the equation above with a single coefficient Cd,
called the coefficient of discharge. The equation for the discharge of a fluid through an orifice thus
becomes

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

Experimental Determination of Orifice Coefficients (Coordinate Method)

Since in practice it is usually the discharge from orifices that is required, it is the coefficient of
discharge that is of greatest value to engineers.

Let the figure below represent a side view of a jet from a vertical orifice. The jet at the vena
contracta is travelling horizontally with velocity Va. The force of gravity causes the jet to curve

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downward. Let x and y represent the coordinates of any other point in the jet. Neglecting air
resistance, the horizontal component of the jet velocity is constant with time t, from which

𝑥 = 𝑉𝑡

The jet has a downward acceleration which conforms to the law

of falling bodies, and therefore

1 2
𝑦= 𝑔𝑡
2

Eliminating t between the two equations

2
2𝑉 2
𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑔

which is the equation of a parabola with its vertex at the vena

contracta.

STANDARD SHORT TUBES

A tube with square-cornered entrance and a

length about 2.5 times its diameter is termed a standard
short tube. If flow from such a tube is started suddenly at
a relatively high head, the jet may spring clear of the
walls, as in the figure at the right, and the coefficients will
then be the same as for a sharp-edge orifice in a thin
plate. Thus, the velocity of the discharge

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻

It follows that the discharge

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

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NOZZLE

A nozzle is a converging tube attached to

the end of a pipe or hose which serves to increase
the velocity of the issuing jet. Figures at the right
illustrate two types of nozzles in common use. The
converging part of the tube may be the frustum of
a cone as in the figure (a), or the inside may be
convex as in figure (b). Each of these shapes gives
an efficient stream.

The energy equation for a horizontal nozzle written between points a point at entrance of the
nozzle and a point in the jet as follows

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22
+ = + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

PITOT TUBE

A bent L-shaped tube with both ends

open, similar to the figure at the right, is called a
Pitot tube, after the French investigator who first
used such a device for measuring the velocity of
liquids.

When the tube is first placed in a moving

stream in the position shown, the liquid enters
the opening at e until the surface in the tube
rises a distance h above the surface of the
stream. A condition of equilibrium is then
established, and the quantity of liquid in the
tube remains unchanged as long as the flow
remains steady.

Applying energy equation for path line de, the elevation heads being equal and friction
neglected, the velocity of discharge is

  2 gh

VENTURI METER

An illustration of the practical use of the energy equation is provided by the Venturi meter. This
instrument, which is used for measuring the discharge through pipes, was invented by an American

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engineer, Clemens Herschel, and named by him in honor of the original discoverer of the principle
involved.

A venturi meter set in an inclined position is illustrated below. It consists of a short converging
tube BC, connected to the approach pipe at the inlet end B, and ending in a cylindrical section CD,
called the throat. Usually built as an integral part of a venturi meter is the diverging section DE,
connected to the pipe at the outlet end E. The angle of divergence is kept small to reduce the loss of
head caused by turbulence as
the velocity is reduced.

In practical use of the

venturi meter, head loss, though
small, should not be neglected. It
causes the actual flow, Qa, to be
less than the theoretical flow, Qt.
The correction is usually made by
applying a factor less than 1 to
the theoretical flow. This factor is
called the meter coefficient.
Thus, if C denotes the meter
coefficient,

Q = CQt

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Compute the theoretical discharge of water through a 2-in. circular sharp-edged orifice under
heads of 0.8, 1.6, and 3.2 ft. Determine also the actual velocity and discharge at a constant head of
3.2 ft if Cc=0.62 and Cv=0.98.

2. Theoretically, what diameter of standard, sharp-edged orifice will be required to produce a

discharge of 1.25 cfs of water under a head of 11.5 ft?

3. A 50-mm diameter circular sharp-edged orifice at the side of a tank discharges water under a
head of 3 m. If the coefficient of contraction Cc=0.63 and the head lost is 240 mm, compute the
discharge and the coefficients of velocity Cv and discharge Cd.

4. A sharp-edged orifice, 4 in. in diameter, in the vertical wall of a tank, discharges under a constant
head of 4 ft. The volume discharged in 2 minutes weighs 6350 lb. At a point 2.57 ft below the center
of the orifice the center of the jet is 6.28 ft distant horizontally from the vena contracta. Determine
Cc, Cv, and Cd.

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5. A standard short tube, 4 in. in diameter, discharges water under a head of 20 ft. What is the
discharge in cubic feet per second if Cd=0.829?

6. A nozzle similar to those tested by Freeman has a tip diameter of 7/8 in. and is attached to a hose
having a diameter of 1.55 in. If the pressure I the hose at the base of the nozzle is 40 psi determine the
discharge.

7. A Pitot tube in a pipe in which air (ρ = 1.24 kg/cu.m) is flowing is connected to a manometer
containing water. If the difference in water levels in the manometer is 3.5 in., what is the velocity of
flow in the pipe, assuming a tube coefficient, Cp, of 0.99?

8. A Venturi meter having a diameter of 6 in. at the throat is installed in a horizontal 18-in. water main.
In a differential gage partly filled with mercury (the remainder of the tube being filled with water) and
connected with the meter at the inlet and throat, the mercury column stands 15 in. higher in one leg
than in the other. What is the discharge through the meter in cubic feet per second: (a) neglecting
friction; (b) if the loss of head between inlet and throat is 1 ft of water? Compute the meter
coefficient in (b).

9. In a test to determine he discharge coefficient of a 2-in. by ½-in. venturi meter the total weight of
water passing through the meter in 5.0 min. was 768 lb. A mercury water differential gage connected
to inlet and throat of the meter showed an average mercury difference during that time of 1.18 ft.
Determine the meter coefficient.

DISCHARGE UNDER FALLING HEAD (Unsteady Flow)

The vessel at the right is shown to be discharging a

liquid through an orifice under a head h1. If there is no
compensating inflow, the depth or head will gradually
decrease. The time that will elapse while the head is being
reduced from h1 to h2 is required.

At the instant when he head is H the discharge is

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻

Cd being the coefficient of discharge and A the area of the

orifice. In the infinitesimal time dt, the corresponding volume
which flows out is

𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝑡

In the same infinitesimal time the head will drop dh and the

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volume discharged will be

𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ

where As is the area of the liquid surface when the head is h. Equating the values of dV

𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝑡

Or

𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ

Or
ℎ1
𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡= ∫
ℎ2 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ

By expressing As in terms of h and interchanging between the limits h1 and h2, the time required to
draw the reservoir down the desired amount can be determined. If the time required to empty the
reservoir is desired, the lower lmit of integration h2 = 0. The discharge coefficient is assumed constant.

If the cross-sectional area As is constant and the flow is through an orifice, the formula becomes

t
CA
2 As
2g
 H1  H 2 
If water flows into a tank at the rate of Qi and at the same time leaves at Qo, the time for the level to
change from h1 to h2 is:

h2
As dh
t  Qi  Qo
h1

If water flows through the pipe connecting two tanks, the time for the head to change from H1 to H2
is:

t
As1 As 2 2
As1  As 2 CAo 2 g
 H1  H 2 

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

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1. A cylindrical vessel 4 ft in diameter and 6 ft high has a round-edged circular orifice 2 in. in
diameter in the bottom. The coefficient of discharge is 0.95. If the vessel is filled with water how
long will it take to lower the surface 4 ft.
2. A tank, which is the frustum of a cone having its bases horizontal and axis vertical, is 1o ft high
and filled with water. It has a diameter of 8 ft at the top and 3 ft at the bottom. What is the
time required to empty the tank through a sharp-edged orifice 3 in. square with a Cd of 0.61?
3. Two vertical cylindrical tanks 1 and 2 having diameters 2 m and 3 m, respectively, are
connected with a 200-m-diameter tube at its lower portion, and having Cd=0.6. When the
tube is closed, the water surface in tank 1 is 5 meters above tank 2. How long will it take after
opening the tube, for the water surface in tank 2 to rise 1 meter?

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FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

A pipe may be defined as a closed conduit through which liquids or gases flow. In hydraulics,
pipes are commonly understood to be conduits of circular cross section which flow full. Conduits
flowing partially full are considered to be open channels.

City water and gas mains in which flow occurs under pressure are examples of pipes. Sewers
and drainage tile, which normally do not flow full, are classed as open channels. Since frictional
losses in general are independent of pressure, the same laws apply to flow in both pipes and
open channels, and the formulas for each take the same general form.

Fluid flow in pipes may be steady or unsteady. In steady flow, there are two types of flow that
exist; they are called laminar flow and turbulent flow.

Laminar Flow

The flow is said to be laminar when the path of individual particles do not cross or intersect. The
flow is always laminar when the Reynolds number, Re, is less than 2000.

Turbulent Flow

Flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves which continually cross each
other and form a complicated network which in the aggregate represents the forward motion of
the entire stream. Turbulent flow normally occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds 2000.

Critical Velocity

The critical velocity in pipes is the velocity below which all turbulence are damped out by the
viscosity of he fluid. This is represented by a Reynolds number of 2000.

Reynolds Number

Reynolds number, which is dimensionless, is the ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.

VD VD
Re  
 v
where:
V = mean velocity of flow, m/s
D = pipe diameter, m
μ = (mu) dynamic viscosity (Pa-s)
ν = (nu) kinematic viscosity (m2/s) μ/ρ
ρ = density, kg/m3

For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R, where R is the hydraulic radius, R = A/P
For R <2000, the flow is laminar.

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Laminar flow in circular pipes can be maintained up to values of R as high as 50,000. However,
in such cases this type of flow is inherently unstable, and the least disturbance will transform it instantly
into turbulent flow. On the other hand, it is partially impossible for turbulent flow in a straight pipe to
persist at values of RE much below 2000, because any turbulence that is set up will be damped out by
viscous friction.

Analysis of Velocities

In laminar flow, although the fluid particles while moving forward occupy successively the
same relative transverse positions, the fluid near the axis advances a given distance in a shorter
period than that nearer to the conduit walls. In turbulent flow, however, notwithstanding the
irregular paths traversed by the fluid particles, the average longitudinal speed of each particle is
approximately the same. This can be shown by suddenly injecting a charge of colored liquid into
a pipe in which water is flowing and observing the water at the outlet. The coloring matter will be
found to remain in a comparatively short prism having a length equal to about one-tenth of the
distance traveled. This principle is sometimes utilized in measuring the velocity of flow in the pipes.

The velocities in any longitudinal section when plotted as abscissas with the distance from the
edge of the pipe as ordinates approximately define an ellipse. Experiments indicate that the
mean velocity is about 0.85 of the maximum velocity. If “d” represents the diameter, the circle of
mean velocity is approximately 0.13d from the surface of the pipe.

Any irregularity or obstruction in a pipe or any condition which causes the water to change its
direction of flow will change the regular distribution of velocities. A bend in pipe, for example,
causes the line of maximum velocity to move from the axis of the pipe towards its concave side.
The figure below shows the actual distribution of velocities in a curved pipe from measurements
by Saph and Schoder.

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HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW

Loss of head in feet (or in meter) of fluid meaning loss of energy expressed in foot-pounds per
pound (newton-meter per newton) of fluid, occurs in any flow of fluid through a pipe. The loss is
caused by: (1) “pipe friction” along the straight sections of the pipe of uniform diameter and
uniform roughness; and (2) changes in velocity or direction of flow. Losses of these two types are
ordinarily referred to respectively as major losses and minor losses.

Major Loss. This is the continuous loss of head, hf, assumed to occur at a uniform rate along the
pipe as long as the size and quality of pipe remain constant, and is commonly referred as the loss
of head due to friction.

In the study to determine the laws governing the loss of head due to pipe friction, it has been
observed that the resistance to flow is

1. directly proportional to the length of the pipe, L,

2. varying to a certain power of the mean velocity, V,
3. dependent on the pipe wall’s roughness, only under turbulent conditions,
4. inversely proportional to some power of the diameter, D,
5. independent of the pressure which affects fluid motion.

Minor Losses. These consist of:

1. A loss of head, hc, due to contraction of cross section. This loss is caused by a reduction in
the cross-sectional area of the stream and the resulting increase in velocity. The
contraction may be sudden or it may be tapered. The loss of head at the entrance to a
pipe from a reservoir is a special case of loss due to contraction.

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2. A loss of head, he, due to enlargement of the cross-section. This loss is caused by an
increase in the cross-sectional area of the stream with resulting decrease in velocity. The
enlargement may be either sudden or gradual. The loss of head at the outlet end of a pipe
where it discharges into a reservoir is a special case of loss of head due to enlargement.
3. A loss of head, hg, caused by obstructions such as gates or valves which produce a
change in cross-sectional area in the pipe or n the direction of flow. The result is usually a
sudden increase or decrease in the velocity followed by a more gradual return to the
original velocity.
4. A loss of head, hb, caused by bends or curves in pipes, I addition to the loss which occurs in
an equal length of straight pipe. Such bends may be of any total deflection angle as well
as any radius of curvature. Occasionally, as in a reducing elbow, the loss due to bend is
superimposed on a loss due to change in velocity.

If the symbol HL is used to designate all losses of head in a pipe line in which there is steady,
continuous flow
HL = hf + hc + he + hg + hb

Shearing Stress in Pipe

The maximum shearing stress, τ, is at the pipe wall and is computed using the formula
𝛾ℎ𝐿
𝜏= 𝑟
2𝐿

Or

𝛾ℎ𝐿 𝐷
𝜏=
4𝐿

Shear Velocity or Friction Velocity

𝜏 𝑓
𝑣𝑠 = √ = 𝑣 √
𝜌 8

Wetted Perimeter and Hydraulic Radius

The wetted perimeter “P” of any conduit is the line of intersection of its wetted surface with a
cross-sectional plane. Thus for a circular pipe flowing full, “D” being the diameter, the wetted
perimeter is equal to the circumference.
The hydraulic radius “R” of a conduit is the area of cross section of the stream which it carries
divided by the wetted perimeter of the section. For a circular conduit flowing either full or half full the
hydraulic radius is D/4.

f L V2
Darcy-Weisbach Formula hf  in ft or meter
D 2g

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64
For Laminar flow, f =
R

For Turbulent (smooth pipes, Re between 3 000 and 100 000),

0.316
f= 0.25
Re

For non-circular pipe, use D = 4R

For circular pipes (S.I.)

V2 8Q 2
 2
2g  gD 4
fL 8Q 2
hf 
D  2 gD 4

0.0826 f L Q 2
For S.I. units, hf =
D5

1 2 3 12
Manning’s Formula (S.I.) V  R S
n

where R = hydraulic radius = A/P

S = slope of EGL = hf /L

6.35n 2 L  2
hf 
D4/3

Use D = 4R for non-circular pipes

For circular pipes (S.I.)

10.29 n 2 L Q 2
hf 
D16 / 3

Hazen-William’s Q  0.2785C1 D 2.63 S 0.54

Formula (S.I.) where C1 = Hazen-William’s coefficient

S = slope of EGL = hf / L

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10.67 L Q 1.85
hf  1.85
C1 D 4.87

Minor Head Loss Minor losses are due to changes in direction and velocity of
flow, and is expressed in terms of the velocity head at the
smaller section of the pipe in case of constrictions.

2
hm  K
2g

where K = coefficient of minor loss

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Mercury flows in the 100 mm diameter pipe at 20 degrees Celsius, with v=1.15 x 10-7 m2/s with a
flow of 0.8 liters/second. Determine the type of flow.
2. What is the Reynolds number for a flow of oil (sp.gr.=0.8, absolute viscosity µ=0.002 lb.s/ft 2) in a
6 in. diameter pipe at flow rate of 10 ft3/s?
3. The head loss in 50 m of 12 cm diameter pipe is known to be 6 m when liquid specific gravity =
0.9 of absolute viscosity= 0.04 Pa.s flows at 0.06 m3/s. Find the shear stress at the wall of the
pipe.
4. A city supply pipeline consists of a new 60 cm cast-iron pipe. Compute the frictional loss of
head per kilometer of pipe when the discharge is 0.35 cu.m/s. (f=0.018)
5. A 1 m. diameter new cast iron pipe is 845 m. long and has a head loss of 1.11 m. Find the
discharge capacity of water for this pipe using (a.)Manning’s formula with n=0.013, (b.) Darcy-
Weisbach formula with f=0.018, and (c.) Hazen-William’s formula at C=120.
6. A new cast-iron pipe 12 in. in diameter and 1 mile long carries water from a reservoir and
discharges into the air. If the entrance to the pipe is 10 ft below the water level in the reservoir
and the pipe is laid on a downgrade of 2 ft per 1000 ft, determine the discharge. (f=0.018)
7. Water is pumped through a vertical 5 cm new galvanized iron pipe to an elevated tank on the
roof of building. The pressure on the discharge side of the pump is 1380 kPa. What pressure
can be expected at a point in the pipe 76 m above the pump when the flow is 9.5 liters/s?
8. A 10 cm new steel pipe carries 16 L/s of heavy fuel oil at a temperature of 27 degrees Celsius.
Determine the pipe friction loss for 1600 m long pipe. Kinematic viscosity of the oil at 27
degrees Celsius is equal to 1.06 x 10-4 m2/s.
9. Determine the loss of head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe carrying 57 L/s of water
which suddenly changes from a diameter of 15 cm to 20 cm. Also find the pressure difference
between points before and after the change of section. Ke = 0.185

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