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Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
With a road network of 3.3 million km, carrying 65 per cent of freight and 85 per
cent of passenger traffic, the road traffic is set to grow at 7-10 per cent, while
vehicular traffic is expected to grow at a rate of 10 per cent in India. Though the road
network in India has increased by seven-fold in the last 45 years, the national and
state highways which carry majority of the traffic have increased by only 2 per cent
[1]. Of the 3.3 million km road length in India, the share of concrete roads is very
small. Though they have higher initial cost of construction, the concrete roads are
now being preferred in India owing to their qualities like lower life-cycle cost, better
surface condition, precise in design, long life, resistance to tangential stresses and low
maintenance cost. In the developed countries when the concrete roads were
constructed years ago, the rapid increase in traffic volume and high levels of heavy
truck traffic, which pavements must now carry, were not anticipated [2]. Hence it is
required to relook at the methods of forecasting the traffic volume for the purpose of
design. The pace of road construction in India was limited in the past but recently the
two programmes have given a boost to road construction namely, National Highway
and North South East West corridor (NSEW), 7300 km (completed 4863 km) and the
dual two-lane carriageway national highways has created a paradigm shift in the road
One of the most profound causes of the poor conditions of the roads in India is the
axle load in excess of the standard design axle load and by continuing the use of the
deteriorated roads even after their service life. The axle load spectrum for the design
of the pavements is derived from the existing traffic (surveyed) or assumed in case of
a new road, and the cumulative standard axles (CSA) considered for the design will
be used-up much quicker before the road attains the design life if the vehicles are
overloaded, thus leading to faster deterioration of the pavements [3]. Further, the
roads which are designed and constructed or being constructed for a specific volume
of vehicular traffic, should sustain greater traffic than anticipated, in the near future.
Repair and rehabilitation of these roads shall be an on-going priority to increase their
service life. The traditional methods of repair and rehabilitation incur high
replacement costs and cause several days of traffic interruption, especially in heavy-
traffic areas, such as major intersections, and on toll ways, where congestion/delay is
most prevalent [2]. This situation particularly warrants in case of concrete roads. It is
hence necessary to initiate the study on the fast- track construction and rehabilitation
of concrete roads, mainly for the rigid pavement portion of dual two-lane National
Highways and Expressways of India. One of the most important components of fast-
track construction of concrete roads is the design of suitable concrete mixtures. Fast-
track concrete mixtures do not require the use of special materials or out-of the
care [2, 4, and 5]. Review of literature on the failure causes of rigid pavements;
concrete; features of high early-strength concrete in fresh and hardened state at early
and later age; alternate curing methods and durability aspects of concrete assume
and/or structural breaks [6]. The basic distress in concrete roads is formation of
cracks. Uncontrolled transverse and longitudinal cracks that occur during concrete
pavement construction are due to various reasons and full-depth repairs are the only
not crack at the saw cuts and instead crack at unplanned locations. The common terms
for these early cracks are “random cracks” or “uncontrolled cracks.” The reasons for
uncontrolled cracks are due to factors like saw timing, saw cut depth, weather &
ambient conditions, conditions of base and sub base, quality of concrete, joint
assembly of operating systems that experience temperature, air pressure and vapor
variability and direction of the gradients and these operating conditions can aggravate
or accelerate premature failure of the structures [8]. Concrete roads are vulnerable to
attacks from atmospheric agents. Collepardi [9] in his technical paper has mentioned
that delayed ettringite formation (DEF) in the hardened concrete which occurs after
months or years due to sulphate attack in rigid hardened concrete was responsible for
cracking and spalling of concrete. The paper explained that the sulphate attack could
when environmental sulphate (from water or soil) penetrates into a concrete structure.
Lee et al. [10] have investigated the premature deterioration of Iowa concrete
highway in U.S.A. In the case of Iowa highway, the sulphate ions that promoted
14
delayed ettringite formation were derived from the oxidization of Pyrite (FeS 2) which
was found in coarse aggregate of the concrete. The delayed ettringite formation was
found to be the prime reason for the deterioration of the concrete. It was observed that
in poorly performing concrete, ettringite completely filled many small voids, occurred
as rims lining the margin of larger air entrainment voids and as microscopic
disseminations in the paste. These findings are useful in selection of coarse aggregate,
be constructed or rehabilitated. Akoto and Niles [11] have explained the various types
of distresses and repair restoration techniques for rigid pavements. Depending on the
condition of crack width, spalling and faulting condition, they have recommended
repair and restoration techniques. Shallow spalling, shallow cracking, pop-outs and
scaling were the reasons mentioned for partial depth repair and it was advised that
partial depth repair should be limited to the top one-third of the pavement and should
not bear on dowel bar. The distress identified for the full depth repair were blowup
and corner crack of low severity, D-cracking, joint deterioration (with faulting≥ 6
mm), spalling(with faulting≥ 6 mm) and transverse cracking all of moderate severity
and longitudinal cracking of high severity(faulting ≥12 mm). They have concluded
that Concrete Pavement Restoration (CPR) technique was cost effective compared
with asphalt overlay and could save fuel consumption by as much as 20 per cent.
Sinha et al. [12] in their paper on the causes of cracking of concrete roads have
identified the causes for initial cracking of concrete roads which include curling and
warping of slabs due to temperature and moisture gradients from the top to the bottom
of the slab. Drying process of concrete was also identified as one of the reasons for
early cracks. They have concluded that uncontrolled cracks were due to complexity of
authors suggest that ingredients, mix design and curing methodology play vital role in
the causes of distress in concrete roads. Phull and Rao [13] have reported that the rise
in heat of hydration due to hydration process which peaks at 72 hours after pouring of
concrete, low thermal conductivity of concrete along with shrinkage and creep effects
were responsible for discontinuous internal micro-cracks. The authors have reported
that fatigue of concrete pavements had assumed very high significance due to heavy
axle loads and high traffic volumes and hence have stressed for fatigue adequacy to
increase service life of concrete roads. Analysis presented in their paper explained
that even small changes in the magnitude of the parameters governing fatigue could
adversely affect the fatigue life of the concrete pavements, like even 1 per cent
reduction in concrete strength or 0.5 per cent reduction in pavement thickness could
bring down the fatigue life of the pavement by 13 to 55 per cent. The authors have
IRC: 58-2002, considering load and temperature stresses simultaneously for the
fatigue check. Kapila [14] has assessed cause of cracking of a newly built road in
Ethiopia and found three simultaneous conditions for the cracking of the road,
namely, clayey soil mass forming the sub-grade/embankment and surrounding with
large fine fractions, presence of vegetations in terms of mature trees like Eucalyptus
in the close proximity of road and absence of regular source of water supply to meet
the water requirement of trees. Gupta [15] in his paper on repair and improvement of
damaged cement concrete pavement has given various causes of damage of rigid
pavements like weak sub grade soil, faulty mix design of concrete, poor workmanship
etc. and concluded that causes of damage of cement concrete pavements should be
established first, then and only then the repair and improvement work should be done
accordingly. The author suggested that if cement concrete of the pavement layer was
16
of poor quality where it could be broken by a hammer and coarse aggregates could be
taken out easily then the re-laying of new cement concrete pavement should be done.
It is a known fact that the cracks in concrete initiate when the stress reaches the
strength limit of the concrete but they can only grow if the energy required to break
the material is supplied. Therefore the crack formation at early and later age in
concrete can be studied using energy criterion of fracture mechanics but the
application of fracture mechanics to assess the early age cracking of concrete roads is
still in its infancy [16]. Hence from the review of the literature on the pavement
In case of accelerated partial or full-depth repairs where new concrete layer has to
be laid, the primary requirement is the design of high early-strength concrete mixtures
with suitable qualities in fresh and hardened state and with excellent durability
workability of PQC mix at site, as obtained when placed in front of the slip form
smooth functioning of pavers [17]. Momin et al. [18] have given a brief account of
the range of 305 to 425 kg per cubic metre of concrete was used. They suggested
slump might cause breaking of the edges of the road. Bissonnette et al. [19] have
deformations studied were drying shrinkage, curling and joint opening for normal-
strength and high-strength high flowable concrete mixtures. The slabs made with a
flowable high-strength concrete produced the greatest curl heights and largest joint
openings even though the standard drying shrinkage values were lower than those
obtained for the plain concrete. The study indicated that some intrinsic characteristics
of the concrete, such as high stiffness, low creep, and self-desiccation, could be
The cement concrete pavement generally consists of PQC slab as wearing course,
the base course of Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) that serves as platform for supporting
PQC slab and granular subbase. PQC is the most important part of cement concrete
and often laying of PQC is warranted in the rehabilitation of pavements. PQC for
issues and to increase durability characteristics of concrete. Fly ash and GGBS are
being utilized in the production of concrete, either in the form of partial replacement
to OPC or in the form of blending with cement clinker. Utilization of fly ash is very
employed in fast-track construction. [2]. PPC (fly ash based) and PSC are the two
papers, published in reputed journals have explained the advantages of using them to
the major factors in mass concreting. Concrete roads are always susceptible to early
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parameter in the concretes, modeled for early age behaviour. Heat of hydration can be
controlled by using blended cements [20, 21]. Naik et al. [22] have investigated
mechanical properties and durability of concrete made with blended fly ash and
compared them with that of normal and unblended fly ash concrete. They studied a
mixture without fly ash, and the other containing 35 per cent ASTM Class C fly ash.
Additional mixtures were composed of three blends of ASTM Class C and Class F fly
ash while maintaining a total fly ash content of 40 per cent of the total cementitious
materials. Conventional water curing was adopted for the specimens. Investigation of
concrete. The results revealed that the quality of mixture prepared with blending of
Class C fly ash with Class F fly ash was comparable or better than that of reference
mixture and mixture produced with unblended Class C fly ash. Blending of fly ash,
therefore, lead to comparable or better quality and reduced cost in concreting. Roesler
et al. [23] in their report on long life concrete pavement strategy have included
that the materials used by different agencies to achieve high early-strength concrete
were, ASTM Type I cement with accelerators, and ASTM Type III cement with
mineral admixtures such as fly ash or silica fume, and other proprietary fast setting
hydraulic cement concrete products. Erande and Limaye [24] have given a brief
account of concrete mix design and its optimization for Mumbai-Pune Expressway
where the cementitious material used was, 43 Grade OPC. They suggested attempting
the use of PPC in the production of concrete, especially in summer season to exploit
its low heat of hydration. Concrete technologists believe that the geo-climatic
19
conditions in India are suitable for the use of blended cement to tackle the problems
of durability due to its vast coastline and to take care of the tropical curing conditions
in most part of the country. Concrete produced with blended cements which contain
site with same mineral admixtures, as cement plants have better infrastructure to
clinker with slag and fly ash is not possible in concrete plants or at sites. Further,
optimization of particle size and sulphate content is possible only in cement factories
[25]. Mailvaganam [8] in his paper on concrete repair and rehabilitation remarked that
amidst the global forces that were shaping the repair and restoration industry, there
was a shift in the manner that scientific research was carried out on the deterioration
by products and waste materials. Bouzoubaa et al. [26] have studied the mechanical
properties and durability of concrete produced with High-volume fly ash (HVFA)
blended cement produced in a cement plant. The test results were compared with
normal concrete. The results showed that to obtain slump and air content similar to
those of the control concrete, the use of HVFA blended cement required increased
The use of HVFA blended cement resulted in lower compressive and flexural
strengths at early ages (before 28 days) and higher mechanical properties after 28
days as compared with those of the control concrete made with ASTM Type I cement.
According to Collepardi [9] blended cements particularly pozzolanic and blast furnace
slag cements should be preferred instead of high early strength Portland cements to
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control delayed ettringite formation in concrete. Barnett et al. [27] have investigated
guidance for its use in fast-track construction. The authors have found out that the
early-age strength of concretes with similar 28-day strengths and cured at 20 °C were
temperatures; for example, the strength development of slag cement concretes cured
from either 2 or 3 days onward. Chahal et al. [28] in their paper which details about
the use of PPC in construction works have mentioned several advantages of PPC (fly
ash blended). They also have mentioned about various references like Indian
Standards’ Specifications, Indian Road Congress, and Indian Railways etc. which
speak about the PPC. In the conclusion of their discussion the authors have
recommended the use of PPC in hydraulic structures, mass concreting works and in
aggressive conditions of environment. The quality of fly ash and its grinding with
cement clinker have been emphasized by the authors. Ravishankar et al. [29] have
investigated the combined effects of fly ash and rice husk ash in the concrete for rigid
percentage replacement of cement by fly ash (5 to 25 per cent) and rice husk ash (5 to
15 per cent). Compressive, split tensile and flexural strengths were evaluated. Apart
from control mix, three series of mixtures (in each series 5 mixtures) were prepared
for investigation. Replacement of cement by rice husk ash was kept constant as 5, 10
and 15 per cent in first, second and third series respectively and replacement of
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cement by fly ash was varied from 5 to 25 per cent, at an interval of 5 per cent. The
results revealed that high strengths of order 55 MPa could be produced by partial
replacement of cement by the combination of 15 per cent rice husk ash and 10 per
cent fly ash. The results were encouraging to allow these waste products in the
pavement concrete mixtures from the consideration of strength requirement but the
durability studies on these mixtures were not undertaken by the authors. Pane and
blended cement concrete. They used mineral admixtures like blast-furnace slag, silica
fume and fly ash in the production of concrete. Temperature effect was included in
the early-age stress prediction models and it was reported that the use of blended
influenced the relaxation modulus of concrete significantly. Hale et al. [31] have
studied properties of concrete mixtures containing slag cement and fly ash for use in
aggregate, coarse aggregate and with water-cementitious material ratio of 0.44 but
prepared with different proportions of slag and fly ash were tested for cylinder
shrinkage up to 100 days. The results showed that replacement rates of 15 per cent for
fly ash and 25 per cent for slag cement improved long-term concrete properties
without much sacrifice in early age properties. The addition of slag cement was
largely positive, whereas the addition of fly ash produced mix results. Pathak [32] in
his technical paper on pozzolana cement has reported that 10 per cent of the concrete
produced in the world utilized fly ash either in blended cements or during the
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production of concrete at site, whereas it is only 5 per cent in case of India. As regards
to the permission given by different Indian codes and standards for the use of blended
cements, the author reported that though IS 456:2000 (Code of Practice for Plain and
Concrete Roads) permitted use of PPC, Ministry of Road Transport and Highway
(MORT&H) under its clauses 602 and 1000 has barred its usage. It is well known that
OPC when combines with water shows only primary reactions, which liberate lime.
Because the compounds of such reactions are weak in resisting chemical attacks, the
concrete becomes prone to expansion and cracking. That is, using OPC alone could
materials undergo a secondary reaction, where they combine with lime to give
additional products of hydration that are denser and show higher ultimate strengths,
become impermeable and hence durable. Due to lower density and high volume per
mass, PPC is more efficient in filling voids. Use of PSC for concrete roads is not in
GGBS is available and slag based cements can be satisfactorily used in concrete roads
[1]. Kadkade and Mishra [33] have provided an account of fly ash blended cement
concrete pavement, used for the construction of Yamuna Expressway. PPC of more
than 400 kg per cubic metre of concrete was used in the mix design PQC, which had
target flexural strength of 4.88 MPa. The mix design for DLC too had PPC as
additions etc., and employed alternate curing methods to enhance early strength gain
of concrete. Accelerators are found to be excellent viable options due to the degree of
easiness they offer during mixing operations. But limited application of accelerator is
accelerator. Further, addition of accelerator is not only useful in getting early high
strength in concrete, but it also helps in increasing its wear resistance depending on
curing age [2]. Calcium chloride is the most widely used accelerator and the exact
published on its effect on concrete. It increasers the rate of C-S-H formation thereby
increasing the early strength. It is added at the rate of 0.1 to 0.7 % by mass of
cement. [34]. Cheung et al. [35] have reviewed hydration kinetics of Portland cement
loss. The authors have cautioned about some cases of concretes where the sulphate
gets depleted prior to the main silicate peak, due to either inadequate added sulphate
or more active aluminates as a result, acceleration can be diminished and this impact
Hence suggesting the road map for future research, the authors have concluded that a
alternate curing techniques etc. were needed to model the behaviours of accelerators
in concrete. Therefore the authors have stressed for modeling the behaviour of
Kovler and Roussel [36] have reviewed the literature related to the properties of
24
fresh and hardened concrete published after the 12th International Congress on the
chemical admixtures on the properties of concrete, the authors have mentioned about
the research on the role of corrosion inhibitors, air-entraining agents and water-
reducing agents but research on the accelerator was not discussed. Mailvaganam et al.
with fly ash and slag as 30 per cent replacement to normal Portland cement and
compared with the reference mix containing 100 per cent normal Portland cement.
Two series of mixes utilizing different admixture dosages and cured at two
temperatures (22°C and 5°C) were investigated. The compressive strength results and
temperature time curves indicated that at 22°C all three admixtures were effective in
offsetting the early strength reduction due to cement replacement. With the exception
of fly ash mixes, 28 day strengths were close to and in some instances exceeded the
strength of the 100 per cent Portland cement mixes. At lower temperatures (5°C) the
cement for cold and regular weather use, magnesium phosphate cement for hot
weather use, aluminium phosphate cement and regulated set cement for the purpose
and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests were conducted as part of mechanical
and physiochemical tests on the concretes produced with these cements and water
reducing agents. Test results revealed that magnesium phosphate based cements
hydration process of the cements. The authors did not study the durability attributes
concretes with or without other admixtures. The results were preliminary in nature
but the available experimental evidence showed that the tested chloride-free
these. Smith [40] has investigated effects of two non-chloride accelerating agents
namely, sodium thiocyanate and calcium nitrate to achieve initial set of two brands of
ASTM Type I cement at 21 °C and at 4 °C. The results obtained were compared with
that of calcium chloride accelerator. Test results revealed that low or moderate
dosages of the two non-chloride accelerators could reduce time to achieve initial set
the type of cement and all three of the accelerators were more effective at 4 °C than
at 21 °C. The results highlighted the importance of type of cement and atmospheric
temperature for the effectiveness of accelerator. Rezansoff and Corbett [41] have
compressive strength development of concrete under both wet and dry curing.
Tension and compression tests were made at regular time intervals up to 91 days.
Tension tests included the split cylinder, the modulus of rupture, and a pullout test.
strength averaging 10 and 11 per cent for wet and dry curing, respectively, at 91 days
relative to the compressive strength, when compared to the tensile strength achieved
for the control concrete without accelerating admixture. It was found that the
accelerating admixtures, since tensile strength acceleration might be much less than
accelerator. This was further complicated with dry curing since tensile strengths
might drop significantly with time. Ansari et al. [42] have discussed the development
and testing of two high early-strength concrete mixes. Fast-track concrete was
accelerator. The concrete was used in full-depth repair of jointed concrete slabs on an
programme was implemented for examining the strength gain capability as well as
Ravanbakhsh [43] have studied properties of high-early strength concrete for full
High cement content of 500 kg per cubic metre and 3.2 per cent of accelerator by
weight of cement were used to prepare concrete mixtures. Cellulose fibers and air-
generally high-early strength concretes were seen vulnerable to shrinkage and micro
cracks thus limiting the service life of concrete repairs performed with such concrete.
The strength properties, measured by compression and flexure tests and durability
resistance, were compared with normal concrete and high-early strength concrete
without cellulose fibers. It was found that addition of cellulose fibers helped reduce
the cement and accelerator contents by approximately 10 to 20 per cent while still
micro-cracking and cracking. Laboratory studies confirmed that the air permeability
cellulose fibers. Lee et al. [44] presented a technical report which described
on I-15 at Devore, which was located near San Bernardino in USA. They concluded
that the 72-hour closure was the most economical scenario when compared to other
types of closures from the perspective of construction schedules, road user delays,
and construction costs. Two concrete slab mix designs were compared: Early-age
ASTM Type III Portland Cement Concrete and Fast-Setting Hydraulic Cement
Concrete. They considered 2.8 MPa as the flexural strength for opening of repaired
pavements. It was found that two materials took approximately the same overall
project completion time. Hence they concluded that Fast-Setting Hydraulic Cement
Concrete was not the most economical solution. In his paper on accelerated
construction of cement concrete pavements, Nemati [45] has suggested that the
Cement Concrete Pavement over the weekend in 70 hours, where the use of ASTM
Type III cement was seen to be more beneficial in achieving the early strength. Water
reducing admixtures were used in the concrete which indirectly helped in getting
early strength due to less water demand. Barnett et al. [46] have investigated early-
age strength development of concrete containing slag cement, cured with different
curing temperatures so as to give guidance for its use in fast-track construction. The
percentage slag cement of the total binder in concrete was varied from 0 to 70 in 4
intervals. A total of 15 concrete mixtures were tested for the target 28-day mean
28
strengths of 40, 70, and 100 MPa. The standard and adiabatically-cured cubes were
concretes with similar 28-day strengths and cured at 20 °C (68 °F) were adversely
slag cement was greatly improved by high curing temperatures. The later-age
strength of these concretes under adiabatic curing conditions depended on both the
binder and the strength grade. In some cases, the ultimate or 28-day strength of the
adiabatic curing. Ramseyer et al. [47] in their paper on economic and fast-track
production of very early strength concrete mixtures with low shrinkage properties
using ASTM Type I and Type III Portland cements, where it was found that very
early strength concrete with minimal Type III cement content was possible. For the
tested very early strength mix, decrease in the Type III cement content did decrease
the shrinkage but negatively impacted the early age strength gain required. Increasing
the Type I cement content was necessary to increase the early strength. It was also
Compressive strength of 20.7 MPa at six hours was the requirement of the mixes
which had variable and constant accelerator (conforming to ASTM C 494 as a Type
variable, the mix with maximum accelerator dosage recorded maximum compressive
strength with both types of cements. Buch et al. [48] have experimentally evaluated
high-early strength concrete mixtures used in full depth repairs. In their study, 14
different concrete mixtures were tested for compressive and flexural strengths,
contained ASTM Type I and Type III cements in the range of 425 to 525 kg per cubic
metre. The accelerators calcium chloride and non-chloride were used to hasten the
strength development with most of the mixtures devoid of reducers. The specimens
were air-cured in the moulds before testing. The initial design criteria included a
minimum compressive strength of 13.8 MPa (2000 psi) and a flexural strength of 2.1
MPa (300 psi) within the 6-8 hour opening time criteria. Of the 28 batches 19 did not
achieve the desired 6-8 hour compressive strength, with three of the mixtures that
achieved the desired early strength undergoing high temperature curing. The
early strength. For the specific cements used, the cement type had a notable impact
on various measures of early concrete strength, with Type III cements producing
higher strengths at a given age than Type I cements. All the high-early strength
repair. Ghafoori et al. [49] have used Calcium chloride of constant dosage of 2 per
concretes which are also known as fast-track concretes. They investigated a total of
11 concrete mixtures made with 4 different cement factors, namely: 386, 446, 505
and 564 kg/m3 and 3 different cement types, namely: ASTM Type I, III and V
Portland cements, at early-age and at full maturity. The laboratory test specimens of
prisms and cylinders were cured in insulating boxes for pre-designated period of
strength of 4.5 MPa was the requirement for all the concrete mixtures for opening-to-
traffic time. Most of the mixtures achieved the opening-time strength in about 8
30
hours. Upon removal from the insulation boxes, half of the specimens were directly
immersed in 5 per cent sodium sulphate solution for 270 days and remainder were
cured in lime saturated water tank for 28 days before immersing in 5 per cent sodium
sulphate solution for again 270 days. Length change, loss of compressive strength
and mass loss were studied by the authors. Though fast-track concrete mixtures
showed excellent sulphate resisting attributes, the mixtures that allowed to mature
prior to sulphate attack exhibited better strength and durability characters than those
proved the importance of curing for strength and durability of fast-track mixtures
evolution and setting times of cement pastes at early age, Aggoun et al. [50] in their
work on the effect of some admixtures on the setting time and strength evolution of
cement pastes at early ages, have remarked that research on accelerators dated back
to 1962 where calcium formate (Ca(CHO2)2) was first used as set accelerator.
Stressing the requirement of chloride free accelerators, the authors opined that
calcium chloride had been in the past the most widely used set accelerator in concrete
reinforcement bars and this had renewed the interest to develop a number of chloride
free accelerators. They tested three types of accelerators namely calcium nitrate
which acted as set accelerator as there was marginal hike of compressive strength at
early age (1 and 3 day), TEA and TIPA which acted as hardening accelerator with
more than 50 per cent hike in compressive strength at early age(1 and 3 days). The
paste can be applied to the fast-track concretes as it is the cement which is the binder
concrete. Cangiano et al. [51] have demonstrated the production and use of rapid
hardening concrete for the reconstruction of deck slab of small span bridge at
Brescia, Italy. Ordinary lime stone crushed aggregates of maximum size 10 mm,
cement content in the range of 600-650 kg/m3 and water-cement ratio of 0.25-0.27
were used for the production of concrete for the design strength of 60 MPa. No silica
hardening concrete was able to reach more than the design strength in one day. Use
of high content of cement and small size of coarse aggregate are the limitations of
this work. Khokhar et al. [52] have used mineral admixtures (fly ash and GGBS) to
get optimization in the early strength of concrete. Their study did not include any
accelerating admixture. It was observed in their study that the reduction in water
content and use of superplasticizer were not enough to obtain the design strength for
mixtures with the higher percentages of fly ash. Micro-fillers were used to improve
accelerator during early cement hydration, as they would provide nucleation sites for
the hydration of the C3S and C2S, shortening the dormant stage and accelerating the
mineral additions, an optimization method was introduced. To increase the early- age
strength, w/b ratio was reduced. Optimization was done to reach a compressive
investigation taking into account its proportional use and durability factors. Riding et
al. [34] in their investigation on early age strength enhancement of blended cement
systems by combination of chloride and non-chloride accelerators have found that the
combination of DEIPA and Calcium chloride increased the early age strength of
32
mortar by increasing the degree of cement reaction. The mortar mixtures were
produced with low alkali and high alkali cement in combination with a typical slag,
and a Class F Fly Ash. The mortar strengths at 1 and 7 days were tested. The
strengths of the High Alkali cement and slag blend by 14-19 per cent, the Low Alkali
cement and slag blend by 28-33 per cent and the Low Alkali cement and Class F Fly
Ash blend by 28-62 per cent. The admixtures however, did not significantly affect the
mainly accelerated the aluminate phases. The authors particularly took the study of
DEIPA as there had been many studies on TEA and TIPA, but very few on DEIPA.
Use of new ingredients in such concrete is being researched and there are some
concrete is still in its infancy and it takes some time to optimize their usage. Zhang et
al. [53] have used nano-silica to increase early strength and to reduce setting time of
concretes with high volumes of slag. They have assessed effects of nano-silica
dosages, size and dispersion methods on strength development of high volume slag
mortars. The results indicated that the incorporation of a small amount of nano-silica
reduced setting times, and increased 3 and 7-day compressive strengths of high-
volume slag concrete, significantly, in comparison to the reference slag concrete with
no silica inclusion. The strengths of the slag mortars were generally increased with
2.6 CURING
The most important phase of concrete after casting is curing, and it assumes
promote the cement hydration, namely time, temperature and humidity conditions,
immediately after placement of the concrete mixture into formwork [54]. The
necessity for curing arises from the fact that hydration of cement can take place only
during the early stages of hardening and a loss of water by evaporation from
capillaries must be prevented [55, 56]. There are many methods by which concrete
can be cured to achieve desired strength and durability. Conventional moist curing,
steam curing, high temperature steam curing, membrane curing etc. are the different
feasible. In areas that suffer from paucity of water, membrane curing is a viable
compound is practicable and relatively easy. High temperature curing can give quick
problems. Membrane curing using different water and acrylic based curing
available about the effect of different curing on the properties of concrete. In one of
the early investigations on membrane curing, Rhodes [57] conducted laboratory and
field tests to compare the effect of storage conditions on the physical properties,
warping, temperature control, strength and abrasion resistance of concrete cured with
membranes and with wet burlap. A survey of pavements cured with clear membranes
in spring and summer showed that cracking, when occurred at all, was found
membranes with the usual wet-curing conditions in the field, membrane curing was
found to be efficient, practicable and about as half as expensive as wet curing under
the same conditions. Fattuhi [58] has investigated the effect of liquid based curing
compounds on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete. In the first series, fresh
concrete specimens sprayed with compounds were placed inside cabinets, maintained
variation in the curing efficiencies (25-89 per cent) depending on compound type and
environmental conditions. Low efficiencies (below 47 per cent) were noted for 70 per
cent of the tested compounds. For the hardened concrete cubes, compressive strength
test results generally indicated higher efficiencies (80-100 per cent). Austin et al. [59]
have compared the influence of curing methods on the strength and durability of
concrete produced with slag cement, with that of the normal concrete in a simulated
arid climate. Four curing regimes were investigated to encompass the range of
practical methods encountered on site. Specimens were placed in the hot environment
immediately after casting and conditioned for up to 28 days. The strengths of the slag
concretes were higher than that of the normal control concrete at all test ages (7, 14
and 28 days) when good curing was provided. Partial cement replacement with slag
therefore offered the potential to produce stronger and more durable concrete in hot
climates. The disadvantage of slag concretes was that they proved to be more
sensitive to poor curing than normal concrete with both strength and permeability
getting seriously impaired. Huyke-Luig [60] has investigated the effect of various
In the experimental programme, the strength gain with age of concrete up to 1 year,
35
with different compressive strengths and under different initial and subsequent curing
conditions in warm and high-humidity climates, was determined. The initial curing
techniques evaluated were those most widely used in practice and were intended to
were artificially modeled to simulate dry and rainy climates. Of the curing methods
sprinkling, unsealed plastic covers, and curing compound. Wang et al. [61] have
studied moisture loss in concrete due to membrane curing. It was revealed that the
drying of concrete at early ages did not follow the “three-phase theory” and exhibited
two peak rates in moisture evaporation. When curing compounds were applied, the
rate of moisture loss from concrete was reduced immediately and the second peak was
eliminated. It was also found that the effectiveness of membrane curing depended
crucially on the time of its application and the generic type of the curing compound.
Ramezanianpour and Malhotra [62] have studied the effect of four curing regimes
namely, moist curing, curing at room temperature after demoulding, curing at room
temperature after two days of moist curing and curing at 38 °C with 65 per cent
with fly ash, slag and silica fume. The water-cementitious materials ratio of all the
concrete mixtures was kept constant at 0.50, except for the high-volume fly ash
concrete mixture, for which the ratio was 0.35. Compressive strength at various ages
and resistance to chloride ion penetration was assessed. The results indicated that the
reduction in the moist-curing period resulted in lower strengths and more permeable
concretes. The strength of the concretes containing fly ash or slag appeared to be
more sensitive to poor curing than that of the control concrete, the sensitivity
increasing with the increasing amounts of fly ash or slag in the mixtures. The
36
incorporation of slag or silica fume, or high volumes of fly ash in the concrete
mixtures, increased the resistance to chloride ions and produced concretes with very
has suggested membrane curing for cost effectiveness and durability, with a
maximum allowable water loss of 0.55 kg/m2 at 37.8±1.10 °C, when compared with
curing by using plastic sheets, wet burlap and retaining the shuttering for a specified
number of days, as neither of the first two methods were carried out for a sufficient
duration in the field because of the difficulty of ensuring continuous wetness and the
cost associated with keeping shuttering in place often precluded the use of this
method. Erande and Limaye [24] have suggested an increase in the quantity of
application of curing compound to 250 ml/m2 from 200 ml/m2 for making them more
effective in retaining moisture in freshly laid concrete. Aldea et al. [64] have studied
effect of three curing conditions namely, autoclaving (175°C, 0.5 MPa), steam curing
(80°C) and normal curing (28 days, 20°C, and 100% relative humidity) on the
75 per cent in three equal intervals. The properties examined included mechanical
and phase composition). Steam curing resulted in lower compressive strength and
replacement except for autoclave curing. They concluded that for improved durability,
room temperature curing was the best. Zhang and Zhang [65] have demonstrated the
effect of moist curing in tropical regions at different temperatures on the strength and
other properties of concrete, produced with Portland cement (ASTM Type I) and 20
mm maximum size aggregate. The authors found that the strength of concrete cured at
37
higher temperature to be higher. The concrete was cured at 20 °C and 35 °C for 28-
days with varied water-cement ratio from 0.3 to 0.7, with an increment of 0.05.
Capillary porosity of concrete cured at 20°C was found to be lower. Huo and Wong
[66] have studied early-age behaviour of high performance concrete deck slabs under
different curing methods. The paper highlighted the importance of curing technique
and its duration in the strength and durability characteristics of concrete, where it was
particularly at the early-age of concrete. ASTM Type 1 cement, fly ash (class C) and
silica fume were used to prepare the concrete. Three moisture-curing methods and one
membrane curing method were used in the tests, which were: (1) wet burlap blankets,
(2) cotton mats, (3) curing compound, and (4) polyethylene blankets. The properties
temperature due to hydration heat during early-age. Cotton mats and burlaps retained
more moisture on the concrete surface and reduced the temperature in concrete during
the very early-age. The findings of the paper are important to know the suitability of
curing technique for high performance concrete from the early-age deformation view
point. Al-Gahatani [67] has carried out an experimental study on the effect of three
types of curing methods, namely wet burlap, water based and acrylic based membrane
produced with plain and blended (fly ash and silica fume) cements. The properties
investigated were compressive strength, shrinkage (plastic and drying) and pulse
velocity. It was observed that the strength developed in the concrete specimens, cured
with wet burlap was higher than in the specimens cured by membrane forming curing
compounds but specimens cured with curing compound exhibited higher efficiency in
38
decreasing plastic and drying shrinkage strains than that cured by covering with wet
burlap. The efficiency of acrylic based curing compound was higher than water base
curing compound. The curing efficiency of acrylic based curing compound, in terms
of compressive strength was in the range of 84-96 per cent. Yilmaz and Turken [68]
have studied the effect of curing materials on the compressive strength of concrete
produced with multiple admixtures like cold weather concreting admixture, set
retarding admixtures etc. The curing materials used in the study were paraffin
emulsion based curing material, hydrocarbon resin based curing material, acrylic
dispersion based curing material and acrylic resins. The experimental study revealed
that each chemical curing material used in the study presented various results,
differing from each other, for concrete specimens produced with no admixture and
different chemical admixture. They inferred that a given curing material which
increased the strength of concrete produced with any type of admixture could reduce
the strength of concrete produced with another type of chemical admixture and
produced without any chemical admixture could give inappropriate results for
concrete produced with other chemical admixtures. Hence they suggested that the
compliance. In case of concrete roads it is the flexural strength which governs the
design. Hence it is required to know both the compressive and flexural behaviour of
the flexural strength of such concrete. In their study on flexural strength of concrete,
Yener and Chen [69] have examined the differential influence of six differential
concrete, curing conditions and cement types to assess flexural strength and breakoff
strength, where breakoff strength test was similar to the process of testing cantilever
beam subjected to a concentrated force at the end. The variables included ASTM
Type I and Type III cements, dry and moist curing regimes with 7 and 28 days as
shape of aggregate and water-cement ratio (varied from 0.35 to 0.53) in six equal
intervals. It was experimentally established by the authors that the rupture due to
flexural loading in most of the concretes was usually controlled by the aggregate-
cement bond except in concretes of high strength and concretes made with weak
aggregates. The experimental results proved that neither the aggregate shape nor the
size had any effect on the flexural and breakoff strengths of concrete. It was found
that the water-cement ratio, cement type, curing regime and curing age had significant
effect on the test results. The flexural strength increased rapidly after the age of 7 days
authors suggested that flexural failure was governed by weak-link theory, according
to which the failure gets initiated at the weakest section within the uniform moment.
The formation of the weakest section may be during production of concrete due to
inadequacy in mixing, compacting etc. Effects of admixture and blended cements and
the early-age (before 7 days) flexural behaviour of concrete were not part of the
investigation. Roesler et al. [23] in their report on the design and construction issues
Transportation, have opined that the main concern with opening the rehabilitated
40
concrete to traffic was premature cracking of the slabs and if the flexural strength of
the concrete was not sufficient to resist the applied truck loads, then flexural fatigue
cracking would result. The report has given a list of the recommended opening
Administration Washington D.C., where the required strength for opening to traffic
was based on fatigue analysis and the estimated number of Equivalent Single Axle
Loads (ESALs) the pavement could resist before fatigue cracking. The required
minimum flexural strength for all pavements was 2,068 kPa. Hence looking at the
concrete on the basis of flexural strength but it may be convenient to control it largely
difficult. Initially concrete should be tested extensively to ensure that required flexural
strengths for a particular mix where any significant change detected in the
relationship [24]. Buch et al. [48] have recommended that if the concrete compressive
relationship should be established for the actual job mix. This particularly warrants in
high-early strength mixes. There are some encouraging informations on the flexural
behaviour of concrete made with blended cements. Hale et al. [31] have found that
addition of slag cement increased the modulus of rupture. The authors also found out
that the source of cement had little effect on the modulus of rupture of the control
mixtures. For all the mixtures, the modulus of rupture results ranged from 4.6 MPa to
6.4 MPa. In the Delhi-Metro Rail Project, the concrete produced with fly ash
exhibited about 25 per cent higher flexural strength than normal concrete [32].
41
2.8 DURABILITY
after repair. Permeability, early-age shrinkage and freeze-thaw resistance are the
produced with admixtures, different cements and cured with different curing methods.
Cement composition has major role in the durability of concrete. Concrete made with
modern cements comply with the specified 28-day strengths at higher water-cement
ratios and lower cement contents in comparison with the old cements, but with the
rapid hydration due to high C3S and cement particles spaced more widely apart due to
high water-cement ratio, the pore size distribution which determines permeability will
comprise predominantly of large and possible interlinked pores. Such an open and
ions and solutions than one of similar porosity with fine and discontinuous pores.
permeable, less dense and hence less durable [70]. Durability of the concrete is often
not affected by rapid gain of concrete strength whereas factors like permeability and
water cement ratio affect the durability [4]. Whiting and Nagi [71] have carried out
tests on the strength and durability of highway concrete used for rapid repair, typically
used for full depth repairs. Compressive strength, tensile strength, freeze-thaw
resistance and air-void characteristics were tested for the concrete. Durability results
were mixed, with those mixes having marginal air contents or using chloride
42
have studied the durability aspects of concrete used for early opening of repaired
cements and admixtures, used for full-depth repair (slab replacement) of concrete
pavements and for bridge deck overlays in the states of Ohio, Kentucky, and Georgia
measurement of chloride permeability. Specimens for these tests were prepared in the
field and were subject to standard field curing. Poor freeze-thaw performance of many
of the pavement repair mixes indicated that many questions still remained regarding
observed that the use of calcium chloride reduced freeze-thaw resistance and hence its
avoidance was recommended in concrete. Al-Amoudi et al. [73] have studied the
plain blended cement mortars. ASTM Type I, Type V, and blended cements, made
with fly ash, silica fume, and blast furnace slag, were exposed to sodium-sulphate and
compressive strength. The deterioration of the mortars due to the chemical exposure
was attributed to the initial reaction of these sulphates with calcium hydroxide. Higher
The strength reduction was, however, observed to be relatively lower in plain cement
sulphate environment. The expansion in plain and fly ash-blended cement mortar
specimens, exposed to sodium-sulphate was higher than in silica fume, blast furnace
slag, and low water-cement ratio mortar specimens. The higher expansion in plain
to the formation of secondary ettringite. Saricimen et al. [74] have performed the
permeability and other durability tests on plain and blended cement concrete, cured in
field and laboratory conditions. Class F fly ash with 20 per cent cement replacement
was used in the pozzolanic cement concrete specimens. The concrete was tested at
early and at later age and it was found that fly ash cement concrete specimen were
less permeable. The authors commented that since pozzolanic reaction was highly
dependent on good curing practice, there was often concern about the effect of curing
on the permeability of pozzolanic cement concretes. Mangat and Khatib [75] have
investigated sulphate resistance of concrete produced with fly ash, silica fume and
slag. The concrete was prepared with different proportions of these mineral additions,
with a total cementitious content of 350 to 450 kg per cubic metre of concrete and
0.45 as water-cementitious material ratio. The concrete specimens were cured for 14
days after casting under different temperatures (20°C and 45°C) and humidity (25, 55
and 100) before immersion in sulphate solution. Results showed that cement
replacement by 22 and 32 per cent of weight by fly ash produced maximum sulphate
per cent replacement of cement by silica fume improved the sulphate resistance of
concrete considerably. Vieira et al. [76] have studied the influence of water curing on
44
the durability characteristics of fly ash concrete used for road pavement. Abrasion
permeability and open porosity, were performed on concrete mixtures with different
cement and fly ash contents, using limestone coarse aggregate and natural siliceous
sand. The results showed that fly ash concretes could develop satisfactory resistance
performance was improved with longer water curing times. Experimental studies on
diffusivity of PPC, PSC and OPC concretes of grades M30 and M45, has confirmed
that some of the above durability parameters of PPC and PSC concretes were higher
than that of OPC concrete [25]. Basheer et al. [77] in their review paper on the
diffusion and the general principles adopted for their test methods. The durability
and freeze-thaw deterioration were also discussed. From the reported results it was
evident that all the transport processes were inter-related. The authors concluded that
concrete in relation to the durability parameters discussed and hence they opined that
processes. Naik et al. [78] have tested high volume fly ash pavement concrete for
strength and durability. The investigation was undertaken to examine the performance
characteristics of concrete pavements made with high volumes of Class F and Class C
concrete were tested using specimens from in-situ pavements. Test results indicated
45
penetration for concrete mixtures made with Class F fly ash relative to that made with
Class C fly ash. Aydin et al. [79] have studied the effect of ASTM Class C fly ash on
the sulphuric acid resistance of concrete. Cement was replaced with fly ash up to 70
per cent. The concrete specimens were cured by water and alternatively by steam.
Test results indicated that sulphuric acid resistance of steam-cured concrete could be
cured Portland cement concrete (control samples without fly ash) subjected to
sulphuric acid attack was much higher than that of standard-cured one. This could be
formation of CSH. However, above 40 per cent fly ash replacement level, steam-
cured concrete showed lower degradation than water-cured one. The results indicated
fly ash was negligible in standard-cured concrete. These results are very important to
understand the effect of method of curing on the acid resisting property of concrete
produced with fly ash, as pavement concrete may also experience chemical attack like
acid rain due to increasing levels of environmental pollution. Banthia et al. [80] have
to understand the permeability attributes of concrete at early (1-3 days) age. It was
found that the presence of a compressive stress below a certain threshold value
decreased the permeability, but there was significant increase in the permeability of
concrete when the applied stress exceeded this threshold value. The authors opined
that the increase in permeability due to applied stress depended upon the overall stress
history. Gonen and Yazicioglu [81] have presented laboratory studies of the concrete
46
containing mineral admixtures, silica fume and fly ash. The concrete mixtures were
porosity, capillary absorption, wet-dry cycle and accelerated carbonation. The test
results confirmed that mineral admixtures improved the performance of concrete. The
beneficial effect of fly ash was observed in relatively longer time. Adding of both
silica fume and fly ash slightly increased compressive strength, but contributed more
dioxide, chloride and sulphate attacks, formation of ettringite and thaumasite are
understanding and controlling the chemical attack, the authors opined that the
permeability of concrete and hence the sulphate attack could be controlled by the use
Ahmed et al. [83] with a view to develop possible relationships between these
parameters and to suggest compliance criteria. ASTM C 150 Type I cement, silica
fume and fly ash were used in the production of concrete mixtures. The experimental
findings revealed that, the compressive strength, depth of water penetration and
materials and water-cement ratio. The quantity of the cementitious materials content
did not significantly influence the aforesaid properties. Relationships between the mix
design parameters and compressive strength, depth of water penetration and chloride
permeability were developed by the authors. They presented the compliance criteria
for compressive strength, depth of water penetration and chloride permeability. These
47
guidelines were for crushed limestone coarse aggregates and the authors suggested
compressive strength and certain durability indices of plain and blended cement
concretes was assessed by Al-Amoudi et al. [84]. Plain, silica fume and fly ash
ratio and cementitious materials content were tested for compressive strength, water
of water curing. The investigations revealed that for concrete with water to
cementitious ratio higher than 0.5, water permeability of plain cement concrete was
higher than that of fly ash cement concrete. Further, for the same water to
plain cement concrete was more than that of silica fume and fly ash cement concretes.
The authors have developed the correlation equation relating strength and durability
materials. Pereira et al. [85] have studied the influence of natural coarse aggregate
size, mineralogy and water content on the permeability of structural concrete. Good
quality granite, basalt, calcareous and marble natural coarse aggregates, obtained from
conditions using different sizes of each aggregate type. Their experimental findings
aggregate size and water content had significant role in the permeability of concrete.
Many experimental results have shown that the permeability of concrete made with
blended cements was lower than that made with plain Portland cement concrete. The
validation of this fact in the field is reported by Pathak [32] in his technical paper
48
which mentioned about the concrete used in the Delhi Metro Rail Project where the
permeability of fly ash based concrete was about 47 lower than that of non-fly ash
concrete. But Hoseni et al. [86] in their review paper on the effect of mechanical
stress on the permeability of concrete have reported the experimental findings which
showed that at low stress levels, regular Portland cement concrete (with no mineral
admixture) had better resistance to the permeation of water than a mix containing fly
ash. In all likelihood, this was due to the unhydrated cement particles that tend to
block the pores due to siltation in the pore fluid. The authors further stated that there
was vast discrepancy between the results from various ‘permeability’ tests due to lack
of equilibrium in the fluid flow and concluded that cyclic loading was more
detrimental to permeability than monotonic loading. Guneyisi et al. [87] have studied
the effects of cement type, curing condition and testing age on the chloride
permeability of concrete. The research variables included cement type (plane and four
blended cements), water to cement ratio (0.45 and 0.65), curing conditions
(uncontrolled, controlled and wet curing) and testing age (28, 90 and 180 days). The
test results revealed that the selected parameters had greater effect on the chloride
exhibited higher reduction in chloride permeability with time than those made with
the plain Portland cement, which was due to modification of pore structure. Concrete
permeability.
49
2.9 SUMMARY
The distress of the rigid pavements, suitability of repair and rehabilitation methods
for rigid pavements based on the type and severity of distress, accelerated
admixtures and curing methodologies are reviewed in this chapter. The strength and
produced with different cementitious materials, admixtures and cured with various
curing methods are also reviewed. From the critical review of the existing literature, it
is concluded that there is a certain scope to the value addition of the literature on the
repair and rehabilitation of the rigid pavements. The reported literature on the fast-
track pavement concrete mixtures is limited. In India the construction of the concrete
roads was almost non-existent for 50 years due to scarcity of cement and easy
was also non-existent during this period [88]. There is paucity of information on the
pavement concrete for high early-strength requirement is also limited, so also the use
of curing compounds [2]. There are few durability studies on fast-track pavement
mechanical (at early and later age) and durability properties of pavement concrete are
not yet reported and hence an experimental study in this direction is warranted,
particularly by using the revised guidelines for concrete mix proportioning as given