Chapter 26

General Aspects of Cheese Technology

Andrew K. Legg*, Alistair J. Carr**, Rodney J. Bennett**, Keith A. Johnston*
*Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute),
Palmerston North, New Zealand
**Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
INTRODUCTION viewpoint is based on cheese firmness (effectively moisture
content) and the salting technology involved. This is
Cheesemaking involves the conversion of liquid milk (an
illustrated in Table 26.1 and forms the basis of the
unstable, bulky but highly nutritious raw material) into
discussion of the manufacturing processes for the major
cheese (a stable, flavorsome, and concentrated product that
cheese varieties outlined in Fig. 26.1. The initial focus is on
provides eating pleasure and has an extended shelf life).
common steps to the end of the vat stage of manufacture.
Cheesemaking has been practiced for thousands of years,
This is followed by discussion of the technology used for
for most of the time as a cottage industry. Toward the end of
hard, dry-salted varieties, such as Cheddar, with that used
the 19th century as industrialization progressed, cheese
for other types being discussed in later sections.
manufacture moved to the factory; since then, there has been
a progressive development of the technology, especially
equipment, to the situation today with large, highly CHEESE MANUFACTURE IN THE VAT Milk
automated modern factories employing minimal staff. This
Preparation
FABRICACIÓN DE QUESO EN EL IVA
move has been driven by several factors: scale, cost,
Preparación
The milk used fordecheesemaking
leche comes from cows, sheep,
availability of labor, increased hygiene, and the need for
goats,Laandleche utilizada
buffaloes. Aspara la fabricación
the key ingredient, de queso proviene
its quality and de
product uniformity and consistency. This development has
vacas, ovejas,
preparation arecabras y búfalos.
of vital importance.Como Asingrediente
the equipmentclave,and
su calidad
been at the cost of some individuality and variety; therefore,
y preparación
processes son standard
used are de vital dairy
importancia.
operations,Comotheyelare
equipo
not y los
in parallel with the increased mechanization of manufacture,
there has been a resurgence of many small boutique cheese described in detail. Excellent explanations are provided by no se
procesos utilizados son operaciones lácteas estándar,
describen
Bylund en detalle.
(1995a) Bylund
and Muir and (1995a)
Tamimey (2001).
Muir y Hygienic
Tamime (2001)
makers. The impact of computers and automation on the
proporcionan excelentes explicaciones. La
milk harvesting, refrigeration, and gentle handling are recolección higiénica
cheesemaking process has been dramatic, with many of the
de la leche, la refrigeración y el manejo
essential components of milk harvesting and transport to the cuidadoso son
previously manual controlling, programming, analysis, and
componentes esenciales de la recolección
factory. The absence of inhibitory substances, such asy el transporte de la leche
data-logging operations being replaced by computers.
a la fábrica.is La
antibiotics, alsoausencia de sustancias
necessary inhibitorias,
for satisfactory como los
cheese
Greater uniformity of production has been made possible.
antibióticos, también es necesaria para la fabricación
manufacture. Removal of foreign matter is a necessary first satisfactoria
This chapter aims to introduce the steps involved in the
de queso.
step La eliminación
of factory processing, andde materias extrañasbyesfiltration
this is achieved un primer paso
cheesemaking process, explaining their purpose, and then
necesario del procesamiento en fábrica, y esto
through an appropriate mesh or by centrifugal clarification. se logra mediante
describing the equipment and processes that have been
filtración a través de una malla apropiada o
Compositional adjustment of the milk is often requiredmediante clarificación
developed to facilitate large-scale manufacture. Not all
centrífuga.
to achieve the desired final product specifications. This
equipment types are included in detail, but rather the major
El ajuste
commonly de la composición
involves centrifugal de la leche of
separation a menudo
part of setherequiere
types to illustrate their purpose. Cheeses may be classified
para lograr las especificaciones deseadas del
milk stream into skim milk and cream, followed by blending producto final. Esto
in various ways. The diversity of cheese types arises from
composition (the manufacturing process) and from the of the skim milk with the whole milk to achieve the desired flujo de
comúnmente implica la separación centrífuga de parte del
leche
fat en leche
content. For descremada
some products, y crema, seguido
a higher de lamay
fat level mezcla
be de la
cultures or microflora involved (Johnson and Law, 2010).
leche descremada con la leche entera para
necessary, and this is achieved by the incorporation of lograr el contenido de
This chapter focuses on the manufacturing process. A useful
grasa deseado.
additional cream. Para algunos productos, puede ser necesario un
primary classification from a manufacturing technology
mayor nivel de grasa, y esto se logra mediante la incorporación de
crema adicional
 644 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
MANUF DE QUESO Más recientemente, se ha vuelto
factible ajustar también el contenido de proteína de la leche.
More recently, it has become feasible to also adjust the
Esto normalmente se logra mediante el uso de la tecnología
protein content of the milk. This is normally achieved
de ultrafiltración (discutida en el Capítulo 27). La leche
through the use of ultrafiltration technology (discussed in
descremada se concentra y luego se mezcla con otros
Chapter 27). Skim milk is concentrated and then blended
componentes para lograr la composición final deseada. En
with other components to achieve the desired final
algunos casos, concentrado de proteína de leche
composition. In some cases, specialized milk protein
especializado.
concentrate
TABLE 26.1 Cheese Classification Based on Hardness and
Salting Technology
Hardness Salting Technology Examples
Hard/semihard Dry Cheddar, Cheshire
Hard/semihard Brine Emmental, Gouda
Soft/semisoft Brine Camembert, Blue
vein
powders are used to “extend” the protein in the cheese milk.
Advantages include a more uniform starting material,
profitable use of a lactose stream, and greater throughput of
milk solids through the cheese vat, as the milk is effectively
partially concentrated.
Control of the microbiology of the cheese milk is a vital
issue affecting the final product, and there is ongoing
vociferous debate of the merits of raw milk cheese versus
cheese in which heat treatment, normally pasteurization, has
been employed (Johnson and Law, 2010). Pasteurization
through the use of plate heat exchangers and holding tubes
with typical time/temperature relations of 72°C/15 s is
standard practice to remove pathogenic organisms. If the
raw milk is to be stored refrigerated for long periods before
pasteurization, thermization (66°C/15 s) is recommended to
prevent the growth of psychrotrophic organisms and their
associated lipases. Alternative processes for the reduction of
bacterial load include the use of specially designed
centrifuges (bactofuges) or microfiltration (Maubois, 2002).
These avoid some of the perceived detrimental effects of
thermal processes and are especially useful for the reduction
of spores, such as Clostridia, that survive pasteurization and
can cause problems in the final product. Following thermal
or other treatment, the milk then enters the cheese vat at
typically 32°C.
Starter Culture Preparation and Addition
The use of cultures of microorganisms, including bacteria,
yeasts, and molds, is an integral component of cheese
manufacture. Chapters 8–12 are devoted to a detailed
discussion of these cultures. The microorganisms have two
primary roles: the reduction in pH during manufacture due
to the production of lactic acid from lactose, and the
biochemical and physical changes during the curing or
ripening phases after manufacture of the initial cheese. The
cultures responsible for acid development are typically
lactic acid bacteria and are commonly referred to as cheese
starters, although they are also involved during ripening.
The organisms whose primary role is postinitial
manufacture are known as starter adjuncts. Both groups of
cultures are commonly incorporated into the milk in the
cheese vat; although for some varieties, such as smear-
ripened cheeses, the culture may be added to the formed
cheese.
Cheese starters used for hard varieties, such as Cheddar,
are commonly derived from Lactococcus lactis subsp.
cremoris species. The quantity of culture required for a
controlled, rapid acid development in the vat means that a
substantial inoculation is necessary. This may be provided
in a variety of ways, such as a direct addition of powdered
concentrated culture provided by a culture manufacturer.
This may be frozen or freeze-dried and may need to be
reconstituted before addition to the vat. The very successful
system used in New Zealand described by Heap (1998)
depends on the use of frozen single-strain cultures, which
are then grown in heat-treated, reconstituted skim milk in a
pH-controlled environment, to produce a concentrated
culture that is then metered into the milk at a level, such as
0.3% (v/v), as the vat is being filled. A simple fermentation
vessel is used for the bulk culture production. The greatest
hazard to the production of starter and satisfactory acid
development in the vat is the presence of bacteriophages.
Multiple vat filling throughout the day in large plants
increases the potential for phage build-up. Stringent hygiene
precautions, the use of several carefully selected phage-
unrelated strains, and the use of phage-inhibitory growth
medium for starter preparation are all techniques that are
available to minimize this risk.
The starter adjunct cultures can be added directly to the
vat, usually from pottles or suspensions of culture
especially prepared by a culture manufacturer. As they are
adjuncts, the quantities required are much smaller than the
quantities of acid-producing starters.
Coagulant Addition
The most fundamental step in the cheesemaking process
involves the conversion of the liquid milk into a semisolid
gel. Subsequent syneresis, or shrinkage and loss of whey
from this gel, results in the formation of cheese curd.
Detailed discussion of coagulants and syneresis is provided
in Chapters 3–6. Coagulation involves the precipitation of
the casein and is normally achieved by the addition of a
coagulant to the milk at the vat stage of manufacture;
although, it can also be accomplished by pH reduction
through acidification for some varieties, such as Cottage
cheese.
Traditionally, the coagulant of choice has been rennet,
derived from the abomasum of young milk-fed calves, with
the primary active ingredient, chymosin. For reasons of
supply, economy, and ethics, alternatives are now also
frequently used, derived from fungal sources, such as Mucor
meihei or a nature-identical chymosin produced by genetic
engineering technology. The coagulants are normally
 General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 645

supplied by the manufacturer as stable liquid concentrates, is a highly concentrated enzyme system, the quantities
which can be metered directly into the cheese vat at the required are much lower than the quantities of cheese
appropriate stage via a distribution system. As the coagulant starters, with typical addition rates of 0.01% (v/v) for rennet.

FIGURE 26.1 Basic steps in traditional cheese manufacture (see Color Plate Section).
646 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
As the enzymes are also involved in the ripening process,
the level of addition and the enzyme characteristics are of
vital importance to the cheese being produced.
Vat Stage
The cheese vat or cheese tank is the part of the
cheesemaking process where milk is converted from a
standardized liquid to a semisolid gel. This part of the
process concentrates the nutrients contained in the milk by
excluding moisture (whey). The first part of the process
involves the addition of the coagulant to the vat, this is
known as setting the vat. The coagulant is added and mixed
in, as already described, and the vat contents are then left
undisturbed. Determination of the appropriate coagulum
strength for the next stage can be made by an experienced
operator observing the curd or by using instruments, such as
the Tetra Scherping CoAguLite or Stoelting Optiset sensors
and others discussed by Law (2001). Once satisfactory
coagulation has been achieved, usually after about 40 min,
the gel is cut into cubes of 6–10 mm size, to encourage
moisture expulsion (syneresis). In most cheesemaking
processes, the curd/ whey mixture is then cooked to a higher
temperature, while lactose is fermented by the starters and
acid is developed. Acid development is an important step in
most cheesemaking processes and controls the rate and
extent of syneresis, the composition, the final cheese pH,
and, perhaps of most importance, the degree of mineral
solubilization that takes place during the process. The
cooking process has a fundamental role in controlling
syneresis by influencing curd shrinkage and acid
development. Following cooking, the curd/whey mixture is
stirred until the drain pH target is reached and curd/whey
separation (draining) or dewheying is initiated.
For some varieties, a reduction in the lactose content of
the curd and whey in the vat may be accomplished by the
partial removal of the whey followed by the addition of
water, which may be heated to also assist with cooking. This
operation can be described as washing.
Historically, curd was produced in large, open, jacketed,
square-ended, stainless steel vats. The cutting and stirring
mechanisms were mounted above the vat and often both
curd processing (e.g., cutting, cooking, and stirring) and
curd conditioning (e.g., cheddaring) were carried out in the
vat. Labor costs were high, and quality was often variable.
However, although this system is still used successfully
in some small plants, more exacting hygiene standards,
coupled with the demand for higher throughputs at reduced
costs, resulted in the introduction of the enclosed vat system
in the late 1960s. Since then, the enclosed vat system has
been further refined to meet the needs of an increasingly
mechanized and automated industry, an industry that in
some countries also has to deal with processing increasingly
larger milk volumes because of extensive and rapid
amalgamation of a number of smaller plants. This vat stage
of cheese production is a batch process, and, for continuous
throughput, a factory must have a number of vats, usually at
least six to eight, to enable production to be sequenced to
produce a continuous output.
The majority of the enclosed vat systems available
contain:

one or two revolving knife panels of various designs,
which are used for both cutting and stirring operations
depending on their direction of rotation;

a fully surrounding or partially surrounding (steam or
hot water) heating jacket;

whey removal systems for predraw and in-vat curd
washing; and

automated rennet addition, cleaning-in-place (CIP), and
computer-controlled options for cutting/stirring speeds
and cooking recipes (later models only).
The choice of equipment for the vat stage of the
cheesemaking process depends on many external factors,
including type of cheese to be made, downstream curd
processing, flexibility, cost, and throughput, to name but a
few. Internal vat factors are also important. For example, the
configuration of the vat and its cutting and stirring
mechanism, how the tank is heated and emptied, rennet
addition, and CIP configurations are also important.
How the curd is cut is of particular significance. The
cutting operation, together with the speed of stirring
following cutting, influences how large the particles will be
at draining and how much of the original milk components
(fat and protein) are lost to the whey.
Johnston et al. (1991) showed that the speed and duration
of cutting in Damrow vats determined the curd particle size
at draining and hence the moisture content in the final
cheese, and that whey fat losses could be minimized
depending on the cutting program used. They also proposed
a model for cutting that explains how variation in cutting
speed and duration of cutting, followed by a constant stirring
speed, determines the curd particle size distribution in a
Damrow cheese vat. A similar study (Johnston et al., 1998)
using OST vats (30,000 L) gave similar trends. However,
the OST vat study also showed that, although similar, the
trends were sufficiently different from those from Damrow
vats to warrant characterization of each vat type as to the
effect of the speed and duration of cutting, before
implementing a specific cutting regime.
There are numerous suppliers of industrial closed cheese
vats, and the various designs can be categorized most simply
by the axis of rotation of the cutting/stirring shafts (vertical
or horizontal) and by the number of cutting/stirring shafts
(single or double). Some common vats are described here.

There is a similar discussion of vats and their design in Law
(2001).
FIGURE 26.2 Traditional open style vats in a Belgian dairy, late 1950s (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
Single Axis, Vertical Vats
This style of a closed vat is no longer common in
industrialscale cheesemaking, and is more typically used as
an open vat in smaller-scale operations where manual access
to the vat is required. Vats are typically square or circular in
shape and common sizes range from 300 to 2000 L. Long,
open, rectangular vats up to 5000 L with multiple overhead
stirrers are also common (Fig. 26.2).
Double Axis, Vertical Vats
Examples of this vat configuration are the Tetra Damrow
Double-O Vat, the APV CurdMaster Vat, and the ALPMA
Cheese Vat. All use a similar design with two knife panels
hung off a centrally located axis within each “barrel.” This
is commonly referred to as the “Double-O design,” and it
offers a number of advantages:
 and cooling. A 5-degree incline and two outlets, instead of
It allows a variable filling volume, ranging from 40% to
100%, without loss of performance.  The shaft seals
are above the product level.  It ensures efficient
horizontal and vertical mixing.

There is minimal air entrapment after predraw or at re-
duced fill levels.
Tetra Damrow Double-O Vat
The vertical Damrow vat (Fig. 26.3) was developed in 1972
and has had numerous updates since then. This was to
become Damrow’s “proven standard” and to date over 900
are in use worldwide. Although used to make a range of
cheese types, the vertical Damrow vats were used almost
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 647
exclusively in the New Zealand cheese industry in the early
days of mechanization, to produce Cheddar and other dry
salted cheeses. Easily recognized with its “double OO”
configuration, the vertical Damrow vat has two vertical
knife arrangements that are used to both cut and stir the curd.
The latest Double-O Vat 8 model features a significantly
improved knife design, which reduces fines losses and fat
losses compared to previous models. Vertical knives may
also be removed for easy resharpening, and an option is
available for a flexible knife configuration to suit different
cheese styles and recipes. Capacities range between 2,000
and 30,000 L (530–8,000 US gal.).
APV CurdMaster Vat
The first APV CurdMaster was produced in 1993 and its
design was based on the Protech CurdMaster and the
Damrow Double-O Vat design. APV modified the
attachment of the bottom of the vat to its support frame
(floating bottom) to avoid welds cracking during heating
one outlet, for more rapid and efficient emptying, staggered
stay-sharp knives, polypropylene agitators for gentle
stirring, and whey predraw during agitation are other
modifications that APV made.
In the first 10 years after launching the CurdMaster vat,
APV Denmark sold over 146 of the vats to 56 customers
mainly throughout Europe and Latin America. APV is now
part of the SPX group of companies. The vat capacity ranges
from 3,000 to 30,000 L.
A wide range of cheese types can be made using the APV
CurdMaster, with a moisture between 35% and 60% and up
to 60% fat in dry matter. Commonly, types made include
Danbo, Raclette, Mozzarella, Gouda, Edam, Emmental,
Tilsit, Blue, Feta, Maasdam, Cagliata, Provolone, Norvegia,
648 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
Manchego, Camembert, Pecorino, Grana, Cheddar,
Cheshire, Havarti, Port Salut, and Parmesan. It is interesting
to note that many of the cheeses listed are curd-washed
varieties.
FIGURE 26.3 Tetra Damrow Double-O cheese vat (see Color Plate Section). CIP, Cleaning in place. (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
Single Axis, Horizontal Vats
Examples of this vat configuration are the Tetra Tebel OST
vat, the Stoelting Horizon II vat, and the Advanced Cheese
Vat by Advanced Process Technologies (APT).
Tetra Tebel OST Vat
One of the first and most popular choices of enclosed
cheesemaking vat was the Tetra Tebel OST (or Ost Sanitary
Tank) vat. To date, six models have been produced and there
are two versions for each model: with and without predraw
capability.
Both the OST I vat and the OST II vat were upright,
single, silo-shaped tanks with one (OST I) or two or more
(OST II) knife panels that were vertically mounted. The tank
volume ranged from 2,000 to 20,000 L and these two models
were first made in mid to late 1969. Manual, semiautomatic,
and fully automatic versions were available; however, in all
cases, an operator was still required to add the coagulant.
The last delivery of these models was made in 1977.
The OST III vat was the first horizontally mounted vat
of the OST series and its design was driven by a demand to
process larger (>20,000 L) volumes of milk. The operating
principles of the design are illustrated in Fig. 26.4.
Switching from the vertical to horizontally mounted vats
simplified the construction required to process the larger
milk volumes. The essential difference between the first
three horizontal OST models (III–V) is in the design of their
cutting/stirring mechanisms. The knife material in the OST
III vat is thicker, and its cutting/stirring speed is limited to 6
rpm. In comparison, the knife material in the OST IV vat is
thinner and has “stay-sharp” qualities that reputedly reduced
fat and fines losses to the whey. The revised construction
and design of the OST V knife frames were carried out to
meet more stringent hygiene requirements and to improve
cheesemaking performance.
The main improvement in the OST 6 vat is the
replacement of the steam jacket with a dimple jacket
supplied with hot water. The use of water for heating gives
improved heat transfer and control over heating rate, and
 General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 649

also reduces the surface temperatures of the vat wall, which speeds required by the two counter-rotating agitators, in
reduces the amount of protein denaturation occurring there. both cutting and stirring modes, together are claimed to
The OST 6 is available in volumes from 15,000–30,000 L reduce losses and to give a more uniform curd particle size
(in steps of 2,500 L). distribution. A cutting study similar to that of Johnston et al.

FIGURE 26.4 OST IV cheese vat. (1) Combined cutting and stirring tools; (2) strainer for whey drainage; (3) frequency-controlled motor drive; (4) jacket
for heating; (5) manhole; (6) CIP nozzle (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
Tetra Pak has delivered over 1400 vats in the OST series. (1991) was also carried out on the Scherping HCV by
Sales of the OST vat have been made in at least 35 countries McLeavey (1995). Improvements in the fully automated
and this vat type is used to make a range of cheese types, third-generation Scherping HCV included incorporating
including semihard (Edam, Gouda, St. Paulin, and Havarti), counter-rotating agitators, dual outlets for more effective
hard (Cheddar, Emmental, Romano, Monterey Jack, emptying, and changes to the knife configuration of
Egmont, etc.), and low-moisture Mozzarella (Pizza type). previous HCVs.
The patented HCVs have been built for US customers
mainly, but they have been installed in one plant in New
Double Axis, Horizontal Vats Zealand. The most popular capacity is 25,000 or 30,000 L.
Tetra Scherping Horizontal Cheese Vat To date, 423 Scherping HCVs have been produced.
The first dual-barreled horizontal cheese vat (HCV) was As would be expected in a mostly American market,
developed by Scherping Systems in 1988. Of interest are the consumer cheeses made using HCVs are the American-style
unique designs of the vats: “counter-rotation,” dual agitator, Cheddar, Colby, Swiss, Cojack, and Monterey Jack cheeses
the cutting and stirring system, and the staggered design of and the Italian-style Mozzarella, Asiago, and Parmesan
the knife arrangement of the third-generation model (Fig. cheeses. Cheeses for further processing, such as the fat-free,
26.5). The unique “interlocking” action and the lower
650 SECTION | I Cheese Technology

reduced-fat, low-moisture barrel Cheddar and Swiss barrel Continuous Processes

cheeses are also made in HCVs.

FIGURE 26.5 Tetra Scherping horizontal cheese vat (HCV) (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
The Damrow Horizontal Vat There have been various attempts to replace the batch vat
The horizontal Double-O Damrow (DOH) was Damrow’s process with continuous systems. Three systems are briefly
second-generation vat. The design was patented in 1994 and mentioned. An innovative system using ultrafiltration
improved upon in 1997, 1999, and 2000. Superior draining technology and a sequential coagulation system was
capability, improved yield, and a dimple jacket for heating developed jointly by the CSIRO in Australia and APV, the
are characteristics of this vat type. DOH vats between process being named Sirocurd. Two commercial plants were
16,000 and 30,000 L are mainly in service in Canada, USA, developed and these successfully produced Cheddar types
and New Zealand, but are no longer manufactured. of cheese, with the benefits of increased yield from the
ultrafiltration stage (Jameson, 1987). However, neither plant
is still in use.
Tetra Scherping Yield Master Vat
As Scherping and Damrow have been owned by Tetra Pak,
a similar but more advanced vat design has been created: the
Tetra Yield Master Vat (YMV). The vat includes a new
knife configuration to improve fat retention and reduce fines
losses, and a hot water dimple jacket for optimized cooking.
Further improved performance is claimed through ease of
rinse out, sanitation, mechanical durability, initial capital
investment, and ongoing maintenance expense. The YMV is
only available in the US market, and to date 66 have been
sold.

The second system, which is still widely used, is the
ALPMA continuous coagulator. A diagram of this
equipment is shown in Fig. 26.6. The system incorporates
the use of a continuous belt, which is formed into a trough
to hold the milk. This trough is then subdivided by a series
of plates to effectively form mini-vats. As the belt moves,
the vats also move along, and the same processes that occur
in a batch vessel are carried out on the belt, via the use of
cutting tools, stirrers, and other tools that are incorporated
along the length of the belt. Whey can be drained from the
individual sections, and can be replaced with an exact
amount of hot water or hot whey. This allows the production
of cheeses that require a curd washing and/or cooking step,
such as Gouda, Maasdam, and Edam. However, the
equipment is not suitable for cheeses with a greater need for
cooking time and temperature, such as Cheddar. Gentle
FIGURE 26.6 ALPMA coagulator (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
treatment of the curd and evenness of particle size help to
minimize variability in cheese weight and quality. There are
over 100 coagulators in operation worldwide, producing a
wide range of cheese varieties from fresh curd to those
cooked-curd varieties mentioned earlier. The most popular
size based on milk consumption is 15,000 L/h, but the range
varies from 5,000 to 40,000 L/h.
A third system is known as the ALPMA Bassine line
(Fig. 26.7). The original bassine system was developed by
the French company Servi Doryl, which became part of the
ALPMA Group in 2009. The system operates in a similar
way to the ALPMA Coagulator but instead of creating
“mini-vats” using a belt, many small “bassines” move along
a track system. The milk is coagulated in the bassines and
then cut by a robotic system with a patented cutting harp.
Curd treatment then takes place using different stirring units
depending on the cheese type being made. Cooking and
washing of curd is achieved in a similar manner to the
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 651
Coagulator. The Bassine line is available in capacities of
3,000–12,000 L/h and so is, therefore, suitable for smaller-
production volumes than the Coagulator, or where the
building is not suitable for the length of a Coagulator.
POSTVAT STAGES—DRY-SALT TYPES
Postvat processing options depend largely on whether the
curd undergoes further development and handling as curd
particles, followed by dry salting, and block formation, or
whether the final cheese block is formed immediately,
followed by subsequent brining for salt uptake. As shown in
Fig. 28.1, distinctive processes are involved.
The processes described here apply to hard cheese
varieties, such as Cheddar, Colby, Egmont, and stirred curd.
Dewheying
The vats are emptied by pumping out their contents of curd
and whey. This process is commonly described as running
or draining the vat. Correct pump selection is of vital
importance, as the curd can potentially be damaged,
generating large quantities of fine particles that are lost into
the whey stream. Large, slowly revolving, positive rotary
lobe pumps are a common option, with the Sine pump,
which uses a specially formed impeller, being popular
because of its gentle operation and low curd damage. During
emptying of the vats, the stirrers remain in operation to
ensure mixing of the vat contents.
For the whole cheesemaking process to be effectively
continuous despite the batch vat stage, it is necessary for a
number of vats to be present, for example, eight operating
and emptying in sequence to provide a continuous flow of
curd. Even with this system, there is variation in acidity and
composition between the curd that first leaves the vat and
652 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
the curd that leaves toward the end. This effect can be
minimized on multivat plants by overlapping vat emptying
using dual pumps. The ratio of curd to whey also varies as
the vat is emptied, with a higher proportion of curd at the
beginning. The pump speed is controlled to increase during
vat emptying to provide a uniform flow of curd to the next
stage of the process. Alternatively, some manufacturers use
a curd-finishing tank between the vat and separation of the
curds and whey. These tanks can provide gentle final
agitation, and allow some whey removal that helps provide
a uniform feed to the next stage.
Primary separation of the curd and whey is achieved by
pumping the curd/whey mixture from the cheese vat or
finishing tank over a specially designed dewheying screen.
FIGURE 26.7 ALPMA Bassine line (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
This is normally parabolic in shape, fitted with horizontally
oriented wedge wires, to maximize the efficiency of the
separation process with minimal curd damage. The whey
passes through the screen and the curd is transported to the
next stage. The feed to the screen is designed to provide an
even, gentle flow across its width; this is often achieved by
the use of a weir feed arrangement. An example of the
system used is illustrated at the top of Fig. 26.8, the
Alfomatic cheesemaker. The whey that is removed through
the screen is collected and pumped to a tank prior to separate
processing operations to produce a wide range of products.
Initial processing operations include clarification for the
removal of casein fines, centrifugal separation for the
recovery of fat, and pasteurization or thermization to reduce
the microbiological activity.
Drying (Draining) the Curd
Commercial plants almost universally use a belt system for
this next part of the process. Specially designed slotted
plastic or stainless steel conveyor belts are used. These are
usually fitted with peg-stirring devices mounted above the
belts to agitate the curd to facilitate whey drainage and to
prevent clumping of the curd. As a residence times of 10 min
are common. This belt often forms the first part of a cheese-
texturing belt system. An example of these is the Alfomatic
shown in Fig. 26.8.
Texturing (Cheddaring) or Stirring
For varieties, such as Cheddar, a traditional step in
manufacture has included a cheddaring stage, during which
the curd is allowed to knit together, to flow and stretch, and
to develop a cooked chicken–type structure. In the small
open-vat process, cheddaring is achieved by heaping the
drained curd along the sides of the vat and allowing it to fuse
together. The fused mass is then cut into blocks of 10–20 kg,
and these are turned every 15–39 min over a period of 90–
120 min to encourage flow and stretch to develop the desired
structure. There have been numerous attempts to replace this
highly manual, labor-intensive process with a fully
mechanized system. One such system is the cheddaring
tower, a version of which was originally developed in New
Zealand. An example of such a system is shown in Fig. 26.9.
Essentially the towers are cylindrical holding tubes,
changing to a rectangular discharge section. Incorporated
into their structure is a whey drainage system. Holding times
of 1–2 h can be achieved with a capacity of up to 9000 kg/h.

Large blocks are guillotined from the base of the tower and
fed into a curd mill.
For newer plants, a belt system has become very popular,
typically with two belts running at different speeds to
provide stretch, flow, and inversion of the curd mass, and
also to provide the desired holding time. These belt systems
are totally enclosed in stainless steel housings. This provides
a hygienic environment, and also the facility for inplace
cleaning and maintenance of temperature. The belts are
made of plastic or stainless steel and are generally not
perforated, unlike the draining belts described earlier. The
belts used for the cheddaring holding stage can also be fitted
with peg stirrers above to facilitate the manufacture of
stirred-curd varieties, for example, Cheshire and Egmont,
on the same equipment. Similarly, the speed of the
conveyors can be adjusted to provide the desired residence
times.
FIGURE 26.8 Alfomatic cheesemaker operating principles. (1) Whey screen; (2) whey sump; (3) agitator; (4) conveyors (variable speed); (5)
agitators (optional) for stirred curd; (6) chip mill; (7) dry-salting system (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
A capacity of 16,000 kg/h is possible. Examples of such
equipment are the Alfomatic (Fig. 26.8), the Cheddarmaster
(Fig. 26.10), the Tetra Scherping cheese curd-draining
conveyor (Fig. 26.11), and the EZ Whey draining matting
conveyor (DR Tech Inc., Wisconsin, USA). SPX also offer
variations on the belt system specifically for the
manufacture of soft Mozzarella curd, pizza cheese curd, and
dry-salt versions of European cheeses, such as Gouda,
Edam, and Grana.
Milling (Size Reduction)
Following the texturing or cheddaring stage, the curd mass
fuses into a solid structure. For the incorporation of salt to
occur in the next stage, it is necessary to reduce the solid
mass to curd fingers of approximately 1.5 × 1.5 × 8 cm.
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 653
This is achieved by the use of curd mills, of which there are
a number of varieties. Most operate by using a rotating
cutting tool, which cuts the curd mass in two directions
using a blade and a comb. Prevention of fine particle
generation is an important feature of the design. For stirred-
curd varieties, where little curd fusion has occurred, the mill
still operates to break up any lumps that have formed. The
mill is located at the base of the tower in a cheddaring tower
system, or at the end of a conveyor belt in the more common
belt systems.
Salting and Mellowing
The incorporation of salt into the curd is a vital part of the
cheesemaking process. Salt has a very important role in
flavor enhancement and in the control of microbiology, final
cheese pH, and moisture content. A detailed discussion on
salting is given in Chapter 13. Critical factors include the
application of the correct ratio of salt to curd, even uptake
of the salt, and controlled loss of moisture. The level of salt
required varies according to the cheese type manufactured.
There are two components to the salting process: the
application of the salt (salting) and then the subsequent
mixing, uptake, and associated moisture loss (mellowing).
There has been a range of equipment designs to achieve
satisfactory salting, with variable success. Simpler styles
have included belt systems in which the quantity of curd
being conveyed is measured by means of a fork sensing curd
depth, with dry salt then being air conveyed and distributed
across the belt by a reciprocating boom. The quantity of salt
is provided in proportion to the curd flow and is metered by
a funnel and salt wheel device in a dry area of the plant.
Better control can be achieved by using load cells on the belt
to weigh the curd flow. The use of twin-salting booms is
654 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
another alternative, each applying a proportion of the salt. A
widely used system is the trommel or drum salter, in which
the curd flow is directed over a weighing belt and then into
a rotating drum into which the salt stream is directed. This
provides an accurate measurement and good mixing.
However, for this system to be used in conjunction with a
belt plant, the curd has to be conveyed from the belt to the
salter and returned to the next belt. An example of such a
system is shown in Fig. 26.12.
A variation in this concept involves the use of an auger
conveyor instead of the rotating drum to provide mixing of
the salt and curd as it is conveyed back on to the mellowing
belt.
The mellowing belt provides a holding time of 10– 20
min to allow the applied dry salt to be mixed, dissolved, and
FIGURE 26.9 Cheddaring tower with guillotine and mill at base (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
absorbed by the curd, at the same time as moisture is
expelled. The belts are equipped with peg stirrers to
encourage mixing and moisture loss, and they are also
enclosed to maintain temperature.
Finishing Vats
An alternative to the continuous belt/tower systems is the
use of finishing/salting vats or tables, which are suitable for
stirred-curd varieties. The curd/whey mixture is pumped
from the vat into these batch tanks, which allow whey
drainage, holding time and pH drop, salt addition, and
mellowing all in one vessel. An example is the Damrow
enclosed finishing vat (EFV) shown in Fig. 26.13. Although
no longer manufactured by Tetra Damrow, the image gives
a good example of the design principle. A number of other
 General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 655

suppliers in the US market, such as Kusel Equipment Co.
(Wisconsin, USA), manufacture EFVs, which are designed
for full CIP washing.
Pressing/Block Formation—General Discussion
This process is common to most cheese varieties, the
exceptions being particulate cheeses, such as cottage cheese.
according to the cheese type. For example, close-textured
hard cheeses, such as Cheddar, require the application of
considerable pressure and air removal to form appropriate
blocks. Other varieties, such as Blue, require minimum
compression and pressure conditions to produce an open
texture, enabling air penetration and mold growth. Varieties,
such as Gouda and Edam, require preliminary block

FIGURE 26.10 Cheddarmaster belt system (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)

FIGURE 26.11 Tetra Scherping cheese curd draining conveyor (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
Block formation involves the conversion of granular, formation while submerged below the whey prior to further
particulate curd into a solid block of cheese. The degree of compression. A vital component of block formation during
compression required and the techniques used vary the history of cheesemaking has been the cheese hoop or
656 SECTION | I Cheese Technology

mold. Although its use has been superseded by blockformers salt plants. Therefore, selection and design of modern block
in large-scale, dry-salt cheese production, it is still a vital molds is critical to the quality of the final cheese produced.
component of many other plants and also small-scale, dry-
FIGURE 26.12 Trommel salting system (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
 General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 657

FIGURE 26.13 Damrow enclosed finishing vat (EFV) (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
658 SECTION | I Cheese Technology

FIGURE 26.14 Laude block molds (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Laude bv, The Netherlands.)
The cheese hoop or mold is a specialized container the mold material (polypropylene or polyethylene).
designed to hold and form the curd into the desired shape, ALPMA/Servi has developed cheese molds that can be
permitting the further loss of whey and the application of detected if pieces break off into the cheese (L. Wagner,
pressure and vacuum, if so desired. The molds were personal communication, September 17, 2014).
originally made of wood, with the inner shape being that of
the final cheese. They were cylindrical or rectangular and
had holes drilled through the sides, base, and lid to permit Pressing/Block-forming for Dry-Salted Cheese
whey drainage. They were often lined with cloth (hence the For dry-salted cheeses, the next stage of the process is the
term cheesecloth) to provide a porous barrier between the conversion of the salted chips of curd into a solid block. The
curd and the walls to allow whey drainage. An early option traditional process involved the use of hoops or molds into
was the use of metal, especially for rectangular blocks; which the curd was weighed and then compressed, often
telescopic lids; and bases to permit compression of the overnight, by externally applied pressure using hydraulic
blocks under applied external pressure. This system is still rams, commonly in horizontal gang presses. This system is
used by some smaller-scale operations, with stainless steel still in use in smaller-scale plants, and developments in this
molds and synthetic cloths providing improved hygiene. A area are discussed in more detail under the section, Postvat
major technological development was the introduction of Stages-Hard/Semihard Brine Salted Types. The universal
the plastic mold. These may range from a simple plastic tube system adopted in large-scale dry-salt plants involves the
with appropriate perforations, which may be suitable for a use of blockformers, of which there are a number of
variety, such as Camembert, where no external pressure is varieties. Wincanton Engineering in the United Kingdom
applied, to a highly sophisticated microperforated, grooved patented the original development over 35 years ago.
multimold for pressed varieties, such as Gouda. This
technology has eliminated the need for cheesecloths, as
drainage is via the grooves and the microporous holes.
Hygiene is maintained through an appropriate cleaning
process, which may include ultrasonics. The desired cheese
surface effect may be achieved by selecting an appropriate
surface grooving.
Fig. 26.14 shows an example of modern block molds
commonly used for pressed cheeses, such as Gouda. The
appropriate pressing regime to be applied to the curd
contained in the mold is dependent on the cheese type. There
is a risk in the application of too much pressure initially,
which results in surface closure and poor subsequent whey
removal.
A major advance in block mold design was the
introduction of welded plastic molds, eliminating the use of
metal screws as in earlier types. Laude bv (The Netherlands)
and Servi Doryl (now owned by ALPMA, Germany) have
been at the forefront of developments in this field and are
continually improving the performance of their molds or
developing molds for new applications. Laude bv produces
a wide range of single- and multimolds, of various shapes
and sizes, for the production of pressed cheeses. ALPMA/
Servi Doryl produces molds for different types of cheese, for
example, fresh, soft, semihard, and hard cheese. Many
cheeses with AOC or PDO status are now manufactured
with these modern plastic molds, which have been
developed with the specific cheese process and draining
characteristics in mind. A recent development by
ALPMA/Servi Doryl is the use of “detectable material” in
cheese molds. Previously, any material that broke off a mold
through mechanical influence was not easily detected in the
cheese due to the similarity in density between cheese and
 General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 659

Plant capacity requirements usually mean that several

blockformers are necessary and it is, therefore, important for
product uniformity reasons that even feed is supplied to each
blockformer. This may be achieved by using devices, such
as curd distribution tanks, which provide mixing of the curd
from the mellowing belt and an even distribution of the curd
to the suction tubes feeding the blockformers. An example
of these is shown in Fig. 26.15.

FIGURE 26.15 Curd distribution tank (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
660 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
All blockforming towers operate on a similar principle
of using vacuum to draw curd into the top of the tower. The
curd is then subjected to further vacuum as it progresses
down the tower. The internal sidewalls are perforated to
facilitate whey and air removal, and the height of the towers
(6–10 m) provides compression by gravity. As the curd
travels down the tower, it is converted from individual curd
particles into a fused column. At the base of the column, the
curd is cut by a guillotine into blocks of cheese of a uniform
shape and weight, typically 18–20 kg. Upward pressure is
applied to the block by an elevator platform for a short
period of time before it is ejected from the column. The
operation of such a tower is illustrated in Fig. 26.16. An
entire system is shown in Fig. 26.17. The typical residence
time in the towers is 30 min. Weight control is affected by
adjustments to the platform height in the guillotine section.
A major improvement over the original designs was the
provision of two different vacuum stages as in the Tetra
TwinVac models. This permits the use of a higher vacuum
in the lower column, which is effectively separated from the
upper column by a plug of curd. This permits the use of a
lower transport vacuum in the upper section and a higher
throughput.
Many major equipment suppliers produce blockformers
with variations in detail, producing different shaped and
FIGURE 26.16 Blockformer operating principles (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
sized blocks from 10-kg cylinders to 290-kg blocks. The
type used depends on the product end-use.
Recent developments in blockformers have focused
mainly on improved reliability, accuracy, energy efficiency,
and cleaning efficiency. For example, the integrated
interceptor and improved tower construction in the Tetra
Tebel Blockfomer 6 reduces the amount of cleaning and
maintenance required. Smart control of vacuum pumps (e.g.,
using frequency controllers) can also be used to optimize
energy usage.
Packing of the cheese is important, as it plays a role
during curing and storage, in final cheese shape and
appearance, and in protection from the environment. The
formed cheese blocks are discharged from the pressing
towers into multilayered plastic bags. These are conveyed to
a vacuumsealing chamber where air is removed from the bag
and a heat seal is applied. The gas and water transport
properties of the bag and the level of vacuum applied vary
according to the cheese type. Prevention of moisture loss
and prevention of mold growth are key factors for Cheddar-
type cheeses.
A recent innovation by Tetra Pak is the introduction of
the Formloada automated bag loader, which forms bags
from a roll of material at the base of each tower and presents
them to receive the cheese blocks. The use of material in a
roll format reduces the amount of material handling

FIGURE 26.17 Blockformer system, including curd distribution tank, curd towers, vacuum supply, Formloada bag loaders, and vacuum sealer
(see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
and storage space required, and is claimed to give a
lowerfailure rate and reduced operator attendance. Cryovac
had earlier introduced bag loaders at the base of towers,
which automatically fit cheese bags to the discharge
channels to receive the cheese blocks from the towers. The
same company also supplies gusset stretchers to help present
the bagged cheese in the appropriate form to the vacuum-
sealing stage. These advancements have removed another
repetitive manual operation from the cheesemaking process.
The curd is still warm (typically 33°C) as it exits the
blockformers and is quite plastic. Therefore, the
vacuumsealed block requires the support of a carton while
cooling to maintain its desired shape and finish. Cartoning
operations are normally fully automated with a variety of
carton styles in use, ranging from a shoebox style with a
separate base and lid to a wrap-around, one-piece type.
Ripening and Storage
This is a highly complex topic, which is the subject of
chapters 14–21 in this book (see volume 1 section IV on
Cheese Ripening). Cheese is essentially a complex matrix of
protein, fat, and carbohydrate containing a range of enzymes
and microorganisms. Their activities produce the changes
that convert the young or “green” cheese into the desired
final product, primarily through proteolysis, lipolysis and
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 661
glycolysis. The primary objective of the cheesemaking
process is to produce a material with the desired
characteristics for ongoing changes during curing and
storage. Factors, such as salt content, pH, and moisture
content are of critical importance. The primary controllable
factors after the young cheese has been made are the time
and the temperature of storage. Ripening produces
developments in flavor and changes in texture. From a
technology point of view, several stages can be identified:
initial cooling, curing or ripening, and controlled storage.
The particular regime used depends on the cheese type and
its destination.
Initial Cooling
This serves two purposes. First, a reduction in the
temperature of the cheese solidifies the fat and the cheese
becomes firm and maintains its shape. Second, a rapid drop
in temperature prevents the rapid growth of undesirable
nonstarter lactic acid bacteria, which could otherwise use
residual lactose and produce undesirable gas and flavor
defects. A rapid reduction in temperature to 16°C within 12–
16 h of manufacture is achieved by the use of open rack
stacking of the cheese blocks, which are then conveyed into
a blast chiller, using air at 2–8°C. Open rack stacking is
necessary to permit good air flow and heat transfer. The
rapid chillers operate on a first-in/first-out basis. An
example is shown in Fig. 26.18.
662 SECTION | I Cheese Technology

FIGURE 26.18 Rapid-cooling tunnel (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
Following the rapid-cooling operation, the cheeses are
stacked into the form required for their long-term curing and
storage. This may be a cartonless pallet where 40 or more
blocks are stacked onto a pallet and shrink wrapped. This
format is suitable if the cheese is to be used for manufacture
into processed cheese. Alternatively, the cartons may be
stacked on to a pallet, or just the cheeses in carton bases may
be placed in bulk bins. These are strapped and tension is
applied to help maintain shape and finish. This format is
suitable for end-use in the cheese-cutting trade, where the
large blocks are cut and repacked into consumer packs.
Robots are normally used for these assembly operations. A
typical assembly is shown in Fig. 26.19.
the temperature may be elevated to 15°C for 1 month. If a
slower rate is required, a temperature of 2°C may be used.
Once the desired degree of ripening has been achieved,
transferring the product to reduced-temperature storage can
reduce further change.
Storage
In this stage, the objective is for minimal change in product
characteristics with time. This is primarily achieved by
controlling the temperature. Freezing of the product is an
option if the end-use for the product is the process kettle.

Ripening (Curing)
This involves the transfer of the palletized product to
controlled-temperature storage rooms where the pallets are
assembled onto racks. Typical temperatures are 8–10°C for
the initial period of 35 days or so. Temperature and time
after this stage will depend on the desired end-use for the
product. For example, if a more rapid maturation is required,

Dispatch
The process described thus far is for the production of bulk
blocks of cheese, typically 20 kg in size. This product has
FIGURE 26.19 Robotic stacking of cheese blocks (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
many end-uses, such as being an ingredient for many food
products containing cheese, conversion into grated cheese or
processed cheese, or cutting natural cheese into consumer-
size blocks. The uses of cheese as a food ingredient and as
processed cheese are the subject of separate chapters
(Chapters 29 and 46).
The preparation and packaging of cheese for domestic
consumers involves the use of a wide range of sophisticated
equipment and packaging technology, the detail of which is
beyond the scope of this chapter. Typical steps involve the
cutting of cheese blocks into the appropriately sized smaller
blocks, followed by packaging in appropriate laminated
material, under either vacuum or a modified atmosphere.
POSTVAT STAGES—HARD/SEMIHARD BRINE–
SALTED TYPES
Postvat processing of the cheese curd differs considerably
for cheeses that are essentially formed into their final block
shape on leaving the vat, as these generally require
immersion in brine to achieve salt uptake. There are also
processing differences depending on whether the cheeses
are hard, semihard, or soft and possibly mold ripened. These
differences are summarized in Fig. 28.1.
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 663
Dewheying
For many varieties, partial whey removal occurs during the
vat stage of processing, when the agitators are stopped for a
period, allowing the curd to sink, and a whey removal
screen, probe, or arm is lowered into the vat and the required
amount of whey is drawn off. This may be replaced by hot
water, which serves to cook the curds and also to dilute the
lactose and lactic acid content of the remaining whey.
Further whey removal may also occur in the same fashion
before the curd/whey mixture is pumped from the vat.
Alternatively, some manufacturers use a curd-finishing tank
after the cheese vat. These tanks are used for a second whey
removal step and provide gentle stirring of the curds and
whey to ensure a consistent feed to the prepress step.
Prepressing/Block Formation
The presence of eyes or holes in the cheese is an important
characteristic of several major cheese types, such as Gouda,
Edam, and Emmental.
An important feature of the curd block formed for such
cheese is the absence of air from within the block, and
instead the presence of microscopic whey-filled cavities in
which microorganisms can grow and produce gas, in
particular carbon dioxide, which can ultimately form the
characteristic round eyes (Kosikowski and Mistry, 1997;
Martley and Crow, 1996). For the appropriate curd
characteristics, the curd is formed into blocks below the
surface of the whey prior to curd/whey separation, in
contrast to the procedure with dry-salted cheeses, such as
664 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
Cheddar. This process is known as prepressing. As block
formation occurs prior to salting, an alternative salting
technique, brine salting, also becomes necessary. To reduce
the volume of material to be handled during block
formation, partial whey removal using the vat sieve or
strainer takes place prior to pumping out
FIGURE 26.20 Prepressing vat. (1) Prepressing vat; (2) curd distributors, or (2a) CIP nozzle; (3) unloading device; (4) conveyor (see Color Plate
Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
the curd/whey mixture to the pressing stage. An earlier
development of a mechanized system to achieve the
objective of pressing under the whey involved the use of
prepressing vats, as illustrated in Fig. 26.20. The curd/whey
mixture is pumped into a rectangular vat and perforated
metal or plastic plates are placed above the vat contents, and
then lowered below the whey to the curd layer, which is
supported by a woven plastic belt at the base of the vat. This
layer is then compressed by the application of hydraulic
pressure to the plates and a solid curd mass is formed. The
whey is then removed, and the curd layer is conveyed from
the base of the vat through the now-open end and is cut into
appropriate-sized curd blocks by cutting tools prior to being
placed in a mold for further pressing and formation.
More advanced systems use a semicontinuous,
prepressing, block-forming system of which the Casomatic
equipment produced by Tetra Pak is a widely used example.
A diagram illustrating the working principles is shown in
Fig. 26.21. Buffer tanks are used to store the curd/whey
mixture pumped from the cheese vat. They are essential to
provide an evenly mixed feed to the pressing system. The
curd/whey mixture in the ratio of about 1:4 is then pumped
to the top of the column, which is about 3 m in height. The
column is filled, and the curd settles below the whey to a
height of about 2 m. Whey is removed from the column via
three whey drainage bands, with a controlled rate of removal
being critical to the formation of a block of the correct
density at the base of the column. The curd block is formed
in a dosing chamber and is cut from the column above by
means of a guillotine. The dosing chamber then moves
forward and discharges the formed block into a mold or
hoop for further pressing and formation. Several variations
using the same operating principle are available to produce
blocks of various shapes and sizes from 1 to 20 kg, with
discharge of multiple blocks from one column being
possible. Exchangeable perforated drainage columns within
a common jacket can be used, as in the Casomatic MC
models.
An alternative way of forming a block under whey was
introduced by ALPMA in 2004. The Formatic filler system
(Figs. 26.22 and 26.23) fills and prepresses individual
cheese molds. As the mold is filled, a combined filling/
pressing head moves upward from the bottom of the mold to
make room for the curds and whey. Once the mold is full,
the filling/pressing head then applies downward pressure,
while also removing excess whey. A prepressed block is
created in the mold, which is now ready to move to the
pressing stage. Some advantages of this equipment include:

Flexibility in cheese weight, shape, and speed
of changing between formats.  Filling equipment is
compact, and does not require a large vertical space for
a column.

High filling accuracy.  No mechanical cutting
of pressed curd.  Easy separation of cheeses with
inclusions/flavors.
Cheese types with irregular holes or eyes, also known as
granular, for example, Parmesan, can also be handled with
equipment, such as the Casomatic. Pressing under the whey
is not required, and curd/whey separation can be achieved
by the use of screens or rotating sieves discharging curd into
the column for an initial block formation. Some equipment
can operate using both a drained curd and a curd/whey
mixture. The “EZ Whey” Vertical Filler manufactured by
DR Tech Inc. (Wisconsin, USA) was designed originally for
the production of hard Italian-style cheeses. The units can
be fed with either predrained curd or curds and whey directly
 General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 665

from the vat, and the level of whey above the column of
cheese can be controlled by the operator. In this way, a
variety of different cheeses, some with partly open texture,
can be manufactured.
Pressing
Having formed the curd into the final cheese block by
molding in the prepressing stage, further pressing of the
block is necessary. This provides a further period for
ongoing acid development and pH and texture change, and
assists final whey expulsion, shape formation, and also
surface texture for subsequent rind formation, where
appropriate. Simple vertical pressing systems are suitable
for small-scale operations, where the cheese molds are
loaded into the press and the appropriate pressure regime is
applied by lowering hydraulic rams. For larger-scale

FIGURE 26.21 Casomatic operating principles. (1) Curd/whey mixture inlet; (2) column with sight glass; (3) perforated whey discharge; (4) interceptor;
(5) whey balance tank; (6) cutting and discharge system; (7) mold; (8) pawl conveyor; (9) whey-collecting chute (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy
of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.) operations, trolley presses, tunnel presses, and conveyor
presses are used. With trolley presses, the cheese molds are
placed on a trolley, which is then fed into a tunnel equipped
666 SECTION | I Cheese Technology

with a series of individual vertical rams. These are
subsequently lowered to apply the appropriate pressure to
the batch of cheese. Automatically fed tunnel presses
operate by automatically loading cheese into the tunnel,
followed by the pressing program for the whole batch.
Simultaneous loading and unloading is possible and the
enclosed systems are usually CIP-able.
gradual increase in pressure, as the application of too much
pressure at the start can cause closure of the surface and can
prevent whey removal. A typical program for 10-kg Gouda
cheese is 1 bar (0.1 MPa) for 20 min followed by 2 bar for
40 min.
For cheeses, such as Emmental, where blocks of 30– 100
kg are common, specialized systems are used that

FIGURE 26.22 Formatic operating principles (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)

FIGURE 26.23 A typical Formatic filling line layout (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
The conveyor press is another option, with the cheese
molds being loaded onto a conveyor system, where the
blocks are assembled into groups. Each block or pair of
blocks has an individual hydraulic ram and each group has
its own individual pressing program. Again, simultaneous
loading and unloading of the pressing bays is practiced. An
example of a conveyor pressing system is shown in Fig.
26.24. Pressing times and pressures vary with the cheese
variety and the block size. It is important that there is a
incorporate a mold-filling system that can also complete
pressing, with further external pressing and turning
equipment available to help with cheese quality and
uniformity. In the USA, Cheddar block sizes up to 2000 lb
are produced. In each market, the equipment required is
supplied by local manufacturers.
Once the required pressing operation is completed and
the desired pH drop has been achieved, the cheese blocks
are ejected from the molds and are conveyed to the next
 General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 667

stage of brining. The used molds and lids are returned to the require only a few hours, whereas a 10-kg Gouda may
system via a cleaning process. require 2 days.

FIGURE 26.24 Conveyor pressing system, with Casomatics in foreground (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
Brining Brining systems can be a simple tank in which the cheese
is placed once it has been removed from its mold.
Cheeses that have been formed into blocks under the whey
Alternatively, a more continuous system known as the
have not had the opportunity for salt incorporation. The
serpentine or surface-brining system may be used, where the
application of dry salt to the cheese surface is one technique
cheeses are floated in brine channels to holding pens for the
that is used for some cheeses, such as Blue, but for many
required period. As the surface of the cheese is above the
cheeses, brine salting is simpler, provides greater
brine, periodic spraying of the surface with brine or forced
uniformity, and is less labor intensive. Many cheeses that
dipping of the cheese below the surface is required to
have traditionally been made using brine salting can in fact
achieve an even salt uptake. Another option for brine
be made using the simpler and cheaper dry-salting
application is the APV TrayBrine System from SPX. Here
technology described already for Cheddar-type cheeses.
the cheeses are placed on plastic trays, which are stacked
However, eye development is not usually attempted, with
and connected to a brine distribution system. The brine
the major objective being to produce the appropriate typical
flows down over the cheese surface, is recirculated for the
flavor and texture. There is a detailed discussion of salting
required period, and is then recovered.
in Chapter 13.
A common method of brining for large-scale operations
Brine salting basically involves the immersion of the
is the deep-brining technique, where the cheeses are floated
cheese block into a brine bath. The brine is a solution about
onto shelves on racks, which are then progressively
19%–21% (w/w) of NaCl. It should also contain an
submerged below the brine surface. Ideally, the racks should
appropriate level of CaCl2, for example, 0.2% w/w, to
be emptied and the loading sequence reversed midway
prevent leaching of calcium from the cheese. Its pH should
through the brining process to ensure the first-in/first-out
be close to the cheese pH (typically 5.2–5.3) and its
principle for consistent salt uptake. An example of a deep-
temperature should be 10–14°C. As the brine is used, its salt
brining system is shown in Fig. 26.25.
concentration must be maintained as salt moves into the
In addition to the vital effect of providing salt uptake for
cheese and water/whey moves out, causing dilution. Also
control of the microbiology and flavor of the cheese, brining
the brine will become contaminated with cheese particles,
also provides a rapid-cooling effect, reducing the cheese
whey proteins, and undesirable bacteria. Filtration
temperature to near the brine temperature within several
(including membrane filtration), centrifugal clarification,
hours. This helps control the growth of undesirable bacteria
and pasteurization can be used to maintain brine quality. If
in a similar fashion to the rapid-cooling step used with
properly cared for, the same brine can be used for many
Cheddar production.
years (Bylund, 1995b; Kristensen, 1999).
The time required for adequate salt uptake in the brine
depends on the size of the cheese block and the desired final
salt level. For example, a small 250-g Camembert may
668 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
FIGURE 26.25 Deep-brining system (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
Ripening
Once the cheese has been brined for the required period, it
is floated to the discharge point and removed from the brine
via a conveyor. Its surface may be rinsed with a brine
solution to remove any foreign matter and is then air dried
with a blower or air knife. Thereafter, packing and curing
depend on the intended market. Rindless cheeses, which are
very commonly produced for bulk markets, especially if
they are to be used subsequently as ingredients, are packed
into appropriate laminated plastics bags under vacuum.
They are then put into cartons, stacked on pallets, and
transported to the appropriate curing and storage conditions.
If eye development is required, several stages of temperature
change will be used, for example, for Emmental, 3–4 weeks
at 10°C, followed by 6–7 weeks at 22–25°C for eye
development, and storage/curing at 8°C for several months.
For Gouda, conditions may be several weeks at 10–12°C,
followed by 3–4 weeks at 12–18°C, then several months at
10–12°C (Bylund, 1995b). If eye development is desired, as
gas production is necessary, appropriate-permeable
laminated bags must be used to permit gas transport. If
rinded cheeses are being produced, control of the humidity
in the curing rooms is important (usually about 85%–90%)
to prevent undue moisture loss. Colored wax coatings may
also be applied to provide protection for the cheese. Some
varieties, such as Parmesan and Emmental, require frequent
turning during curing to maintain the desired shape.
Mechanized systems, such as revolving shelf rails, are
available for all the material-handling operations applied to
the final cheeses.
Dispatch
The cheeses have the same multiple end-uses as already
described for dry-salted varieties. However, as the
brinesalting systems tend to be more expensive, these
products are more typically directed at the retail consumer
market, requiring appropriate cutting and packaging.
POSTVAT STAGES—BRINE SALTED, SOFT, MOLD
RIPENED
Cheeses, such as Camembert and Blue fall into this
category. Technological advances and automation have
been applied to these varieties and ultrafiltration has also
had a major impact, as numerous advantages, including
yield improvement, can be obtained. The use of
ultrafiltration is discussed in detail in Chapter 27.
Discussion of these cheeses commences at the vat stage
in Fig. 28.1. Uniformity of milk, starter, and coagulant
activity is of critical importance for the uniformity of
syneresis, which is essential for these varieties (Pointurier
and Law, 2001). The normal operations of coagulation,
cutting, stirring, and acid development occur in the vat. The
milk entering the vat may have been preripened with starter
culture and is likely to include the mold spores for later
development. However, because of the high-moisture
content, which changes rapidly with time due to syneresis,
it is not practical or desirable to use large vats for the
production of Camembert types in particular, as the curd
composition of the material discharged first would be very
different from that 30-min later. Hence, curd formation in a
continuous process or in small batches is necessary, so that
the contents may be discharged rapidly into multimolds
where curd/whey separation (dewheying) occurs. The
development of various systems, such as the Guerin process,
is described in more detail by Bertrand (1987) and Pointurier
and Law (2001). Some earlier systems included the use of
micropans, which produced just enough curd for one mold.
 General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 669

The ALPMA Continuous Coagulator and Bassine systems Variations such as dry salting the cheese by surface
described earlier in this chapter under the section, application may be used for some cheese styles.
Continuous Processes are commonly used for these soft, A feature of these mold-ripened cheeses is that a very
mold-ripened cheeses. open texture may be necessary to allow oxygen penetration
Molding can be achieved by tipping the vats directly into for mold growth. Hence the cheeses are not pressed by the
the molds, often with special chutes used to divide curd application of any external pressure, just gravity is used. For
evenly between trays, or by using specialized filling and cheese, such as Blue, where internal mold growth is desired,
portioning systems. Smaller-scale systems are available as the passage of air is facilitated by spiking holes through the
manual, semiautomatic, or fully automatic fillers, typically cheese with special needles.
used for 20,000–80,000 L/day, A common example of this Smear-ripened cheeses are another type within both the
type of system is the ALPMA AFE filler (Fig. 26.26), which semihard and the soft categories. The key process is the
is used for filling fresh cheeses (such as Twarog), soft application and growth of a smear culture, predominantly
cheeses (Camembert, Brie, and Feta), and semihard cheese Brevibacterium linens, on the surface of the cheese during
(such as Tilsiter). Over 100 AFE fillers are in operation ripening. Various mechanized brushing systems are
around the world. Much larger industrial-size fillers are also available for smear application, which is usually repeated
available, such as the ALPMA “MR” fillers. The ALPMA several times during ripening, where control of humidity and
fillers all use rotating perforated drums to predrain whey temperature is critical.
immediately before filling into molds.
The multimolds that are used to form the cheese may be
in two sections to provide sufficient volume for the initial
fill.
The upper layer can be removed once the initial block
formation has occurred. The filled molds can be
automatically stacked and conveyed to the initial ripening
rooms for further acid development, followed by brining in
tanks for about 30 min, and then ripening for 10 days or so
in high-humidity rooms for mold development. Frequent
turning of the cheese is necessary during the first few days
to ensure an even cheese shape. This can be automated in
larger plants. Final wrapping is done in air-permeable
material before dispatch.

FIGURE 26.26 Manual AFE filler for soft cheese (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
670 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
POSTVAT STAGES—FRESH CHEESES
Cottage cheese falls into the soft/fresh category, but is
unusual in that the final product consists of curd particles
packed in the final container with the appropriate dressing.
Specialized equipment has been developed to mechanize
and automate the production of this highly popular product,
and is available from many suppliers. An example is the
Tetra Damrow Enclosed Cottage Cheese Vat (ECCV3).
Quark, cream cheese, and similar products also fit here
but their manufacture is very different and is not described
in detail (see Chapters 43 and 44). Following the formation
of the coagulum in special ripening vats, the whey is
separated using a specially designed centrifugal separator.
The product is then blended with appropriate additional
components, for example, cream, and then filled directly
into the final container.
POSTVAT STAGES—PASTA FILATA
Pasta filata cheeses are those cheeses for which the curd has
been worked or stretched and molded at an elevated
temperature before cooling. This process imparts a unique
and characteristic fibrous structure that influences both the
ripening and the functional profile of the final cheese.
Mozzarella is probably the best known of the Pasta Filata
cheeses, which are mainly Italian in origin. However, the
category also includes cheeses, such as Provolone,
Scamorza, Caciocavallo, Kashkaval, and Pizza cheese.
Composition, particularly moisture level, and fresh versus
ripened textures are characteristics that define the different
varieties. The increase in popularity of the pizza in its
various forms (from the thin-based traditional Italian pizza,
with few or no toppings except Mozzarella and cooked in a
wood-fired oven, to the American-style thick pan-based
pizza, with a myriad of toppings and cooked rapidly in an
impinger-type oven) has focused attention on low-moisture
Mozzarella or Pizza cheese (see Chapter 40). del Prato
(2001) discusses the different varieties of Pasta Filata
cheeses and the traditional processes and purposebuilt
equipment to make them. However, another manufacturing
option is to use existing equipment and to add on a
cooker/stretcher and a cooling operation at the end of the
curd-making part of the existing process. This was the case
in the development of New Zealand’s low-moisture part
skim (LMPS) Mozzarella industry. The New Zealand
industry adapted its Mozzarella-make procedure so that the
existing cheese vats and curd-handling systems could be
adapted to produce Mozzarella curd for stretching and
subsequent cooling. Hence the Pasta Filata process is simply
added onto the end of the more conventional semihard
cheese process and is, therefore, included as a branch of the
dry salt Cheddar-type process in Fig. 28.1. Dry salting can
also partially or completely replace brining.
Equipment designed to carry out the stretching operation
incorporates two essential components: cooking and
stretching (the mechanical treatment of the curd following
cooking). Most cooking/stretching equipment is sold as a
combined solution from a supplier. However, different
methods can be used for each of the two operations, and are
explained below.
Traditionally, the cooking step involved the transfer of
curd through a hot-water section of a cooker/stretcher. At
this point, the curd is immersed, heated, and worked by
single- or twin-screw augers. The temperature of the water
is determined by the temperature of the curd entering the
stretcher, the curd flow rate, and the target temperature of
the cooked curd. Typical water temperatures vary between
60 and 75°C with cooked curd temperatures varying
between 55 and 65°C.
Mechanical conditioning of the cooked curd is usually
achieved by further working by single- or twin-screw augers
or by the “dipping” arms. The mechanical treatment of the
cooked curd influences the final cheese structure,
composition, and functionality. Moisture can be expelled or
further incorporated. Salt and other ingredients can also be
added at this point.
More recently, “dry” or “waterless” cooker/stretchers
have been developed by a number of manufacturers. These
work in a similar manner to traditional cooking/stretching
equipment; however, in these machines the curd is not
heated using cooking water. Instead, heating may be
provided by direct steam injection (DSI), electromagnetic
energy, heated auger bodies, or a combination of these.
“Dry” cooker/stretchers can provide a number of advantages
over traditional equipment as listed here:

Better temperature control (Nelles et al., 2014).

Reduced losses/increased yield (Nelles et al., 2014;
Smith et al., 2009).

No used cooking water to deal with (Smith et al., 2009).

Easy addition of ingredients, inclusions or flavors from
the start of the process.
Following mechanical working, the curd may be
extruded into a mold and immersed in chilled brine for
cooling and salt uptake. Addition of dry salt between the
stretching and molding steps is also an option. Packaging
and dispatch follow, with shredding being a common option
for pizza use.
Another common use is String cheese, which is
essentially a thin stick of Mozzarella. This is a popular snack
food within the United States and is also used by some pizza
makers to fill the crusts of their “stuffed-crust” pizzas. Each
stick is characterized by the fibrous nature of its texture and
more specifically the lengthwise alignment of the protein
fibers. The sticks are either cut from a continuous “rope” of

extruded mozzarella, or are formed by extruding Mozzarella
into a mold or forming head.
Almac s.r.l. (Modena, Italy), Johnson Industries
International (Wisconsin, USA), Construzioni Meccaniche
E Technologia S.p.A. (Italy, and Gold Peg International
(Australia) are examples of companies that manufacture a
range of Pasta Filata equipment including cooker/stretchers.
Their equipment is described in the following sections.
Almac s.r.l.
Almac s.r.l. has been producing systems for making Pasta
Filata cheese since the 1980s. They manufacture essentially
three standard systems: for the production of high-moisture
Mozzarella, for the production of Pizza cheese (lowmoisture
Mozzarella), and for the production of the ripened Pasta
Filata cheeses (Provolone, Kashkaval, and Kasseri).
Turnkey design starts at curd draining and each system
includes cheddaring (curd ripening), cooking/stretching,
molding, cooling (including prehardening and hardening),
brining, and packaging.
Almac s.r.l. has an extensive range of cooker/stretchers
with various capacities, built to handle a range of curd
textures depending on the type of Pasta Filata cheese to be
made. An example is shown in Fig. 26.27. All the
largercapacity cooker/stretchers use twin screws to convey
the cut curd through the wet cooking section and all use the
“dipping arm” technology to condition the curd following
cooking. All product contact surfaces are coated with a
FIGURE 26.27 Almac cooker/stretcher (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Almac s.r.l., Italy.)
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 671
nonstick agent. A minimum quantity of water is used during
the cooking phase to ensure high yields, and an air double
jacket is used to insulate the cooking water section to give
an improved temperature control.
Almac s.r.l. supplies Mozzarella cooker/stretchers to
customers extensively throughout Europe and also distribute
through North, Central, and South America, Turkey, and the
Middle East.
Johnson Industries International, Inc.
Johnson Industries International (Johnson) was formed in
1999 from the merger of two companies with experience
dating back to the 1960s, and manufactures
cooker/stretchers, molders, salting systems, and string
cheese machines.
Johnson produces “dry” cooker stretchers under the
Aridus range. This includes a cooker that uses
electromagnetic energy (microwaves) to accurately heat the
curd on a moving belt before stretching. Heated augers in
the stretching section can provide further temperature
control, and DSI can also be used for temperature and
moisture adjustment. It is claimed that the increased solids
retention in this type of system can give a product yield of
0.05%–2% by weight, higher than that of traditional
cooking/stretching systems (Nelles et al., 2014).
Johnson also produces traditional single- and dualauger
cooker/stretchers up to 12,000 lb/h (5,443 kg/h). The
672 SECTION | I Cheese Technology

FIGURE 26.28 Supreme dual-auger cooker/stretcher (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Johnson Industries International Inc., USA.)
Supreme range of cooker/stretchers was developed Gold Peg International Pty Ltd.
originally by Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc., which was
Based in Australia, Gold Peg specializes in DSI continuous
purchased by Johnson in 2011. An example is shown in Fig.
cooking systems. A significant amount of development
26.28. In comparison with the Almac design, the Supreme
work has been carried out with the help of the CSIRO. Two
cooker/ stretchers use twin augers on an incline to cook and
different cooking systems allow Gold Peg to cover the
condition the Pasta Filata curd. At the base of the incline,
whole range of Mozzarella production from 100% curd,
curd is cooked in circulating hot water. Curd conditioning
high-moisture Mozzarella, to fully analogue cheeses.
takes place at the top of the incline, where the cooking water
The GPiCs system (Fig. 26.29) is a fully enclosed dry
is encouraged to drain back to the base.
cooker/stretcher, where the heating and stretching steps are
Johnson also manufactures two types of String cheese
carried out in a series of variable speed twin-screw mixing
machine with improved accuracy over the traditional
chambers. This enables the steam condensate to be gently
equipment. The Continuous String machine uses the
mixed into the cheese without overworking and with
“extruded rope” method, with cheese cut to length by knives
minimum losses. An inclined secondary worker is
controlled by photoelectric sensors. The Exact Weight
connected down-stream of the heating and mixing step to
String Cheese Machine uses extrusion and a forming head
complete stretching prior to filling. The equipment is fully
to produce a string with a claimed weight variation of less
CIP-able in 25% less time than a traditional wet cooker, and
than 1 g per 28-g piece of cheese.
start-up and shutdown losses are claimed to be 10% of a
traditional wet cooker (A. Sorley, personal communication,
Construzioni Meccaniche E July 23, 2014). GPiCS units can process from 150 to 5000
kg/h and are in operation in Australia, USA, and Europe.
Technologia S.p.A. Gold Peg also produces the RotaTherm continuous
Construzioni Meccaniche E Technologia S.p.A. (CMT), like cookers, which are combined with other processing
Almac, is an Italian-based company and also produces a equipment to create hybrid systems that enable the
range of Mozzarella equipment including cooker/stretchers production of natural Mozzarella or blends where the fresh
similar to those supplied by Almac. Recently, CMT has curd is replaced partly or fully by dry and/or liquid
introduced a number of innovations, including a novel ingredients. Using this equipment, it is possible to
system for curd draining and maturation prior to cooking, manufacture fully analogue Mozzarella with a cook
and a range of continuous steam cooker/stretchers. These temperature up to 95°C.
cooker/ stretchers feature steam injection in the lateral walls
of the cooking section, as well as inside the “dipping arm”
mixing chamber. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
CMT also produces a wide range of molding equipment
and equipment to make String cheese. In the CMT machine,
the String cheese is molded rather than extruded. CMT
claims certain advantages, including the same fibrous
structures as those obtained by extrusion, but also a more
consistent weight and dimension control.

AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Customer-Focused
Innovation
In line with the modern quality management thinking,
cheese manufacturing has progressed from simply
manufacturing a cheese to be packaged to manufacturing a
FIGURE 26.29 GPiCS Natural Mozzarella Cooking System (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Gold Peg International Pty Ltd.)
cheese in a form that will facilitate use by the final consumer
and be of optimal quality when that consumer wishes to use
the product. Therefore, in addition to new manufacturing
processes that replicate traditional operations, recent
innovations have been developed that add to the
functionality of the cheese.
One of the most significant additions to cheese
manufacturing is that of individually quick frozen (IQF)
technologies. Paralleling the increasing worldwide trend
toward the consumption of pizza has been the demand for
frozen, shredded Mozzarella. Traditionally Mozzarella
requires a maturation period of between 7 and 21 days to
develop optimal organoleptic and baking qualities.
Following maturation, the Mozzarella is then comminuted
and frozen to prevent further ripening. Barz and Cremer
(1993), however, developed a cheese process wherein, by
controlling the final moisture and milk fat content, a
Mozzarella could be produced with optimal characteristics
on the day of manufacture. They report that aging of the
cheese manufactured by their process is actually detrimental
to the baking quality and, therefore, the cheese requires to
either be used within 48 h or more commonly to be IQF
directly following forming. Typically freezing is carried out
via fluidized bed freezing and subsequently packaged and
distributed. Barz and Cremer (1993) state that their entire
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 673
cheese manufacturing process, from milk pasteurization to
shipping, can be conducted in 8 h.
IQF processing of cheese shreds by itself, although
enabling the cheese per se to reach the consumer in the
optimal state, does not enable the cheese to be fully
functional in a pizza application. The act of freezing results
in a slight drying of the outer surface of each shred, which
in turn results in excessive blistering during baking, unless
the cheese is allowed to thaw prior to use. This problem has
been addressed by the addition of a further manufacturing
step in Mozzarella production. Kielsmeier et al. (1991)
reported that a cheese that can be baked directly from being
frozen could be manufactured through the application of an
aqueous coating to the cheese shreds immediately prior to or
post the IQF operation. To ensure that an aqueous coating is
uniformly distributed on the shreds, it is preferable that the
coating is sprayed onto the shreds while they are agitated.
A second functional use of cheese that has increased in
importance over recent years has been the manufacture of
cheese for the sole use as an ingredient for processed cheese.
Manufacturers of young cheese specifically destined for
processed cheese end-use have developed a variety of
additional manufacturing steps to increase the acceptable
shelf life of their product. The standard cheese for
manufacture format has been in the form of barrel cheese,
wherein the curd was pressed while still warm into 500-lb
(227-kg) barrels. The result was a product that took 3–5 days
to cool and necessitated a milling operation by the processed
cheese manufacturer. Meibach et al. (1998) modified this
process by adding a curd cooling (to 4–10°C) and a partial
drying step (to reduce the curd moisture to a range similar to
that of pressed cheese, i.e., 33%–36% w/w) prior to packing.
674 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
The result of this process is that the curd particles can be
packed without knitting together and, thus, can be used
directly by process cheese manufacturers without the need
for a milling operation. The ability to pack curd directly has
also enabled the simplification of supply chains through
bulk packing of curd into very large containers (450–1100
kg). Meibach et al. (1998) also state that it is desirable to
flush the packaging with inert gas to minimize mold growth,
presumably due to the presence of intercurd void spaces,
which are absent in traditional barrel-formed cheese.
Processed cheese formulations generally include young
cheese (for bulk and texture) and mature cheese
(predominantly for flavor), in addition to other ingredients.
To be acceptable for processed cheese manufacture, the
young cheese ideally should have a high intact to nonintact
casein ratio. However, due to residual proteolytic enzymes
from both starter culture and coagulating enzymes, the
amount of nonintact casein gradually increases over time.
The problem of young cheese shelf life has been addressed
in several ways. The process of Meibach et al. (1998),
described earlier, reduces the rate of maturation through the
ability to rapidly cool the curd, but such a process requires
cold storage throughout the product shelf life. Honoré et al.
(2005) developed a process that resulted in an ambient stable
young cheese by drying the cheese to around 22%–23%
moisture. The drying process of Honoré et al. (2005) is
preferably conducted with reduced humidity air at a
temperature between 20 and 50°C using a multistage
fluidized bed dryer with an interstage milling. High-pressure
processing (HPP) has also been reported (Johnston et al.,
2006) to be useful in retarding casein breakdown in cheese;
thus enabling manufacturers to maintain a specific intact to
nonintact casein ratio throughout the shelf life. The
effectiveness of HPP on decreasing enzyme activity is
highly dependent on the process temperature (Huppertz et
al., 2004) and process pressure (Huppertz et al., 2004;
Johnston et al., 2006). While it seems there is a general
effect, the exact impact is cheese specific and is dependent
on all enzymes present from the coagulant, starter culture,
nonstarter lactic acid bacteria, and endogenous to the cheese
milk itself. Huppertz et al. (2004) reported that a pressure of
400 MPa resulted in a minimal loss (0%–5%) in chymosin
activity; whereas, cheese subjected to a pressure of 600 MPa
had residual chymosin activity of around 6%. In contrast,
Huppertz et al. (2004) found that plasmin was highly
resistant to HPP at temperatures of 8 and 20°C. Johnston et
al. (2006) studied the impact of HPP on proteolysis patterns
over time, due to all enzyme systems active in the cheese
under study, and found that HPP was more effective in
reducing the rate of proteolysis of αs1 casein compared to β-
casein.
The incorporation of additional unit operations to cheese
manufacturing looks likely to spread beyond commodity
cheeses to the higher-end, value-added cheese market. For
example, in addition to being effective in reducing enzyme
activity, HPP can also be used to reduce the microbial
loading in cheese and, thus, has potential for improving shelf
life. This trait is of particular importance in fresh milk
cheeses, which due to their high-moisture content and pH,
have a shelf life similar to liquid milk (approximately 7
days). Evert-Arriagada et al. (2014) reported that by treating
packaged fresh cheese using an industrial-scale HPP unit at
500 MPa, the shelf life could be extended to 21 days. Recent
research (Calzada et al., 2014) into the maturation of Brie
has shown that HPP can be used to modify the flavor profile
via an effect on lipolysis and volatile compound production
during maturation.
Reenvisioning Cheese Manufacture
While most innovation has focused on improvements to
existing cheese equipment or addition of unit operations for
the purpose of customizing cheese functionality, there have
also been some innovations that take a holistic view of
cheese manufacture. Perhaps the most significant innovation
that reenvisions cheese manufacture is that of Johnston et al.
(2010). This process benefits from a cross-fertilization of
unit operations traditionally found in the manufacture of
other dairy products. The process of Johnston et al. (2010)
replaces traditional cheese curd formation and whey
separation with in-line curd formation coupled with
continuous in-line cooking for increasing curd firmness and
facilitating whey loss. This is followed by options for
washing the curd followed by dewheying/dewatering by
screening and mechanical separation techniques, such as
decanter centrifugation. A blending step then combines the
curd into a hot (50–75°C) molten mass prior to being
extruded into molds. The blending operation allows for the
incorporation of optional GRAS ingredients, and this point
in the process is also where the fat content of the final cheese
may be adjusted through the addition of cream. An
advantage of this process is that it results in a cleaner whey
stream in terms of fat losses and cost savings due to reduced
preblending equipment sizing costs, particularly for volume
constrained equipment, such as the decanter centrifuge.
A key feature that enables the in-line curd formation of
this process is that the cheese milk is cold renneted, so that
curd formation is uncoupled from renneting and will occur
only when the milk is heated. An added advantage of
starting with cold milk is that the pH of the system can be
adjusted, readily without the risk of incipient precipitation,
by direct acid addition or via the addition of a lactic acid
ferment, thus providing a means of controlling the final
calcium content of the cheese through pH-mediated calcium
solubilization. The final cheese calcium content can also be
controlled through the use of acidified wash water, if that
option can be used. Overall, this process reduces

cheesemanufacturing time and offers cheese manufacturers
the benefits of continuous processing.
A different approach to cheese manufacturing was taken
by Carr et al. (2010), wherein a fully renneted
noncoagulated milk powder is manufactured followed by
reconstitution and cheese formation at a place and point in
time that is convenient to the cheese manufacturer. The key
step in this process is that the ionic calcium concentration of
the process milk stream is reduced to such a level that the
residual charge on the casein micelle, postrenneting, is
sufficient to render the casein micelle colloidally stable
under both industrial evaporator and spray drying
conditions. An intermediate powdered product is thus
produced that is ambient stable throughout global supply
chains. The cheese manufacturer can then make a cheese
merely by blending the powder with sufficient water and
calcium under appropriate thermal conditions to form a
molten cheese mass. The cheese mass can then be placed in
an appropriate mold, cooled, and packed. A major advantage
of this process is that many variations can be easily
incorporated by the powder manufacturer on the wet side of
the process prior to drying, and also by the cheese
manufacturer in the blending operation.
CONCLUSIONS
Cheesemaking is a centuries-old process that has developed
from an art into a science, as the demand for the product and
the scale of production have increased. Conversion from a
cottage industry to the highly complex automated factories
in use today has demanded major developments in
technology. There have been many ingenious approaches to
the technology requirements and the consumer has benefited
by receiving very consistent, safe, nutritious, and palatable
products. More recent technological developments have
focused on removing barriers to product acceptance, by both
the traditional end-use consumer and by intermediate
consumers (application manufacturers). These innovation
drivers have challenged cheese manufacturers to identify all
the consumers/stakeholders throughout the product value
chain, and to fully understand how and why these consumers
use their product. This focus coupled with increases in our
understanding of cheese, our ability to take milk apart into
its various components, and to reassemble them into desired
products will pave the way for future developments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Tetra Pak International S.A., Switzerland,
for permission to use illustrations from the Dairy Processing
Handbook and other sales literature. In particular, Mr. Vally Hoogland
at Tetra Pak CPS, The Netherlands, who was helpful in identifying
recent improvements in Tetra Pak equipment and supplying images.
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 675
Also, ALPMA Alpenland Maschinenbau GmbH, Germany, in
particular Mr. Lars Wagner, for supplying technical information and
images.
The following are also gratefully thanked for the supply and use
of technical sales information and/or personal communication: Almac
s.r.l., Italy; Construzioni Meccaniche E Technologia S.p.A., Italy; DR
Tech Inc., USA; Gold Peg International Pty Ltd., Australia; Invensys
APV Ltd., Denmark, United Kingdom, and New Zealand (prior to
becoming part of SPX); Johnson Industries International Inc., USA;
Laude bv, The Netherlands; Tetra Pak (New Zealand) Ltd.
Permission to use photographs from numerous sites of Fonterra
Cooperative Group Ltd., New Zealand, is gratefully acknowledged, as
is the assistance given by P. Jeffery from Massey University, New
Zealand, with the preparation of the figures.
REFERENCES
Barz, R.L., Cremer, C.P., 1993. Process of making acceptable mozzarella
cheese without aging. US Patent S5,234,700.
Bertrand, F., 1987. The main steps in manufacture. In: Eck, A. (Ed.),
Cheesemaking, Science and Technology. second ed. Technique et
Documentation—Lavoisier, France, pp. 413–443.
Bylund, G., 1995a. Collection and reception of milk. Dairy Processing
Handbook. Tetra Pak Processing Systems, Sweden, pp. 65–71.
Bylund, G., 1995b. Cheese. Dairy Processing Handbook. Tetra Pak
Processing Systems, Sweden, pp. 287–329.
Calzada, J., del Olmo, A., Picon, A., Nuñez, M., 2014. Effect of
highpressure-processing on lipolysis and volatile compounds of Brie
cheese during ripening and refrigerated storage. Int. Dairy J. 39, 232–
239.
Carr, A.J., Coker, C., Kells, B., Elston, P., Ferreira, L., 2010. Process for
preparing concentrated milk protein ingredient and processed cheese made
therefrom. US Patent S7,854,952. del Prato, O.S., 2001. Pasta filata
cheeses. In: Tamime, A.Y., Law, B.A. (Eds.), Mechanisation and
Automation in Dairy Technology. Sheffield Academic Press, England, pp.
266–295.
Evert-Arriagada, K., Hernández-Herrero, M.M., Guamis, B., Trujillo, A.J.,
2014. Commercial application of high-pressure processing for
increasing starter-free fresh cheese shelf-life. LWT Food Sci. Technol.
55, 498–505.
Heap, H.A., 1998. Optimising starter culture performance in New Zealand
cheese plants. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 53, 74–78.
Honoré, C., Fletcher, A., White, N., Archer, R., Mulligan P., 2005.
Particulate cheese curd product. US Patent 20,050,084,564.
Huppertz, T., Fox, P.F., Kelly, A.L., 2004. Susceptibility of plasmin and
chymosin in Cheddar cheese to inactivation by high pressure. J Dairy
Res. 71, 496–499.
Jameson, G.W., 1987. Manufacture of Cheddar cheese from milk
concentrated by ultrafiltration: the development and evaluation of a
process.
Food Technol. Aust. 39, 560–564.
Johnson, M., Law, B.A., 2010. The origins, development and basic
operations of cheesemaking technology. In: Law, B.A., Tamime, A.Y.
(Eds.), Technology of Cheesemaking. Wiley-Blackwell, England, pp.
68–95.
Johnston, K., Carroll, T., Honoré, C., Crow, V., White, N., Chen, P., 2006.
Dairy product and process. US Patent 20,060,134,298.
676 SECTION | I Cheese Technology

Johnston, K.A., Dunlop, F.P., Lawson, M.F., 1991. Effects of speed and
duration of cutting in mechanized Cheddar cheesemaking on curd
particle size and yield. J. Dairy Res. 58, 345–354.
Johnston, K.A., Luckman, M.S., Lilley, H.G., Smale, B.M., 1998. Effect of
various cutting and stirring conditions on curd particle size and losses
of fat to the whey during Cheddar cheese manufacture in OST vats. Int.
Dairy J. 8, 281–288.
Johnston, K., Main, A., Elston, P.D., Munro, P.A., Buwalda, R.J., 2010.
Dairy product and process. US Patent 7,695,745.
Kielsmeier, L.O., Barz, R.L., Allen, W.J., 1991. Method of baking pizza
from coated frozen cheese granules. US Patent 4,997,670.
Kosikowski, F.V., Mistry, V.V., 1997. Cheese with eyes. In: Kosikowski,
F.V. (Ed.), Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods. third ed. LLC, USA,
pp. 226–251.
Kristensen, J.M.B., 1999. Salting of the cheese. Cheese Technology—A
Northern European Approach. International Dairy Books, Denmark,
pp. 137–139.
Law, B.A., 2001. Cheddar cheese production. In: Tamime, A.Y., Law, B.A.
(Eds.), Mechanisation and Automation in Dairy Technology. Sheffield
Academic Press, England, pp. 204–224.
McLeavey, L.J., 1995. Setting and Cutting of Curd in Scherping Cheese
Vats. Dip. Dairy Sci. Tech Thesis, Massey University, Palmerston
North, New Zealand.
Martley, F.G., Crow, V.L., 1996. Open texture in cheese: the contributions
of gas production by microorganisms and cheese manufacturing
practices. J. Dairy Res. 63, 489–507.
Maubois, J.L., 2002. Membrane microfiltration: a tool for a new approach
in dairy technology. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 57, 92–96.
Meibach, R.L., Kyser, D.A., Smith, G.F., Kaganoff, D., Gee, R.D., Nosek,
T.A., Silver, R.S., 1998. Manufacture of particulate natural cheese
without block formation. US Patent 5,773,054.
Muir, D.D., Tamime, A.Y., 2001. Liquid milk. In: Tamime, A.Y., Law,
B.A. (Eds.), Mechanisation and Automation in Dairy Technology.
Sheffield Academic Press, England, pp. 53–93.
Nelles, P.F., Nesheim, G.L., Nesheim, G.L., 2014. Methods and
apparatuses for making pasta filata. US Patent 20,140,170,276.
Pointurier, H., Law, B.A., 2001. Soft fresh cheese and soft ripened cheese.
In: Tamime, A.Y., Law, B.A. (Eds.), Mechanisation and Automation
in Dairy Technology. Sheffield Academic Press, England, pp. 250–
265.
Smith, R.M., Sorley, A.G., Kirkby, M.W., 2009. Method and apparatus to
produce a pasta filata cheese. US Patent 20,090,117,248.