Spady’s sociological theory

Spady was one of the rst researchers to propose a widely recognised theory on
student retention in 1970 (Spady 1970, 77). The basic assumption of this theory is that
student dropout is best explained by a process involving an interaction between the
individual student and the university environment. In this interaction, the student’s
attributes such as attitudes, skills and interests are exposed to in uences, expectations
and demands of the university. The result of this interaction will determine whether
the student will be assimilated in the academic and social system of the university
and subsequently whether the student will be retained in the university. Linked
to this process are variables that promote the academic and social integration of
students in higher education. These variables are family background, academic
potential, normative congruence, grade performance, intellectual development and
peer support. All these variables are further linked to two other variables namely
satisfaction with the university environment and institutional commitment (Spady
1970, 77).

Tinto’s integration theory

According to literature studies done by authors such as Swail (2006, 1 of 4), Draper
(2005, 2 of 20) and McCubbin (2003, 20) Tinto’s theory of social and academic
integration is the most referred to in the area of student retention. In 1975 Tinto drew
upon the work of Spady (1970) who was the rst to apply Durkheim’s theory of
suicide to student retention. This theory is based on the assertion that the likelihood
that an individual will commit suicide is predicted by the level of their integration
into society (Tinto 1975, 91). While in Durkheim’s model of suicide individuals
commit suicide because they are insuf ciently integrated into society, Tinto asserts
that dropout occurs because students are insuf ciently integrated into different
aspects of the university. Tinto further contends that dropout could occur through
lack of integration in either the academic or the social systems of the university
(Tinto 1975, 92). Based on further research, Tinto revised the theory in 1987 by
including the three stages of moving from one community to the other. The rst
stage, separation, refers to the student’s parting with one group to join another one.
During the second stage, which is transition, students deal with the stresses of coping
in a new, unfamiliar environment. In the last stage of incorporation students become
competent in being members of the new environment (McClanahan 2004, 3; Swail,
Redd and Perna 2003, 46). A further revision of this theory in 1993 added other
variables affecting the social and academic integration of students in the university.
These variables are adjustment, dif culty, incongruence, isolation, nances, learning
and external obligations or commitments of the students in the university (Tinto
1993, 45). Tinto further revised the integration theory in 1997 by focusing on the
classroom experience. From this perspective, Tinto asserts that the interaction process
that takes place in the classroom determines the social and academic integration of
students (Tinto 1997, 1 of 4).
Theoretical perspectives on factors affecting the academic performance of students
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Bennett (2003, 127) elaborates on the two aspects of Tinto’s model. The rst
aspect, academic integration, includes factors such as academic performance of
students, intellectual development and whether the student believes that lecturers
are personally committed to teaching and helping students. Social integration in
turn, includes factors such as the student’s self-esteem and the quality of his/her
relationship with fellow students and lecturers. A further elucidation of Tinto’s
model by Berge and Huang (2004, 8), McCubbin (2003, 2) and Seidman (1996, 1
of 6) shows that students’ pre-entry college attributes such as family background,
academic ability, race, sex and prior schooling will determine their academic and
social integration into the university environment, and subsequently their academic
performance.
Bean’s psychological theory
In 1980 Bean (1980, 158) developed the psychological theory of student retention
by asserting that the background characteristics of students must be taken into
consideration in order to understand their integration into a new university
environment. According to this theory, Bean (1980, 183) further contends that the
intentions of students to persist are in uenced by their attitudes and behaviours.
These attitudes and behaviours might affect the degree to which the student is
satis ed with the institution. The level of satisfaction might increase the level of
commitment to the institution. In 1985, Bean and Metzner developed a theory on non-
traditional students. According to Bean and Metzner (1985, 2 of 3), these are older,
part-time and commuter students. The attrition of these students is mostly affected
by the external environment variables such as family responsibilities, nances and
outside encouragements, rather than social integration variables such as university
memberships and friends which tend to affect traditional students. In 1995, Eaton
and Bean (1995, 617) added coping behaviour as a variable into this theory, stating
that students’ ability to adapt to the university environment re ects their ability to
cope, which is related to previous coping skills in other environments.