Direct current

Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of an electric charge. A battery is a prime example of DC power. Direct
current may flow through a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even
through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it
from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for this type of current was galvanic current.[1]
The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they
modify current or voltage.[2][3]
Direct current may be converted from an alternating current supply by use of a rectifier, which
contains electronic elements (usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow current to flow only in
one direction. Direct current may be converted into alternating current via a inverter or a motor-generator set.
Direct current has many uses, from the charging of batteries to large power supplies for electronic systems, motors,
and more. Very large quantities of direct-current power are used in production of aluminum and
other electrochemical processes. It is also used for some railways, especially in urban areas. High-voltage direct
current is used to transmit large amounts of power from remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating
current power grids.

Contents
DC is commonly found in many extra-low voltage applications and some low-voltage applications, especially where
these are powered by batteries or solar power systems (since both can produce only DC).
Most electronic circuits require a DC power supply.
Domestic DC installations usually have different types of sockets, connectors, switches, and fixtures from those
suitable for alternating current. This is mostly due to the lower voltages used, resulting in higher currents to produce
the same amount of power.
It is usually important with a DC appliance to observe polarity, unless the device has a diode bridge to correct for
this.
EMerge Alliance is the open industry association developing standards of DC power distribution in hybrid
houses and commercial buildings.
Automotive[edit]
Most automotive applications use DC. An automotive battery provides power for engine starting, lighting, and
ignition system.
Telecommunication[edit]
Telephone exchange communication equipment uses standard −48 V DC power supply. Other devices may be
powered from the telecommunications DC system using a DC-DC converter to provide any convenient voltage.
Applications using fuel cells (mixing hydrogen and oxygen together with a catalyst to produce electricity and water
as byproducts) also produce only DC.
Light aircraft electrical systems are typically 12 V or 24 V DC similar to automobiles.

Alternating current
Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses direction, in contrast to direct
current (DC) which flows only in one direction. Alternating current is the form in which electric power is delivered to
businesses and residences, and it is the form of electrical energy that consumers typically use when they
plug kitchen appliances, televisions, fans and electric lamps into a wall socket. A common source of DC power is
a battery cell in a flashlight. The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as
when they modify current or voltage.[1][2]
The usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine wave, whose positive half-period
corresponds with positive direction of the current and vice versa. In certain applications, different waveforms are
used, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of
alternating current. These types of alternating current carry information such as sound (audio) or images (video)
sometimes carried by modulation of an AC carrier signal. These currents typically alternate at higher frequencies
than those used in power transmission.

Contents

Mathematics of AC voltages[edit]

A sinusoidal alternating voltage.

1 = Peak, also amplitude,
2 = Peak-to-peak,
3 = Effective value,
4 = Period

A sine wave, over one cycle (360°). The dashed line represents the root mean square (RMS) value at about 0.707

Alternating currents are accompanied (or caused) by alternating voltages. An AC voltage v can be
described mathematically as a function of time by the following equation:

,
Most students of electricity begin their study with what is known as direct current (DC), which is electricity
flowing in a constant direction, and/or possessing a voltage with constant polarity. DC is the kind of
electricity made by a battery (with definite positive and negative terminals), or the kind of charge generated
by rubbing certain types of materials against each other.

Alternating Current vs Direct Current

As useful and as easy to understand as DC is, it is not the only “kind” of electricity in use. Certain sources of
electricity (most notably, rotary electromechanical generators) naturally produce voltages alternating in
polarity, reversing positive and negative over time. Either as a voltage switching polarity or as a current
switching direction back and forth, this “kind” of electricity is known as Alternating Current (AC): Figure
below

Direct vs alternating current

Whereas the familiar battery symbol is used as a generic symbol for any DC voltage source, the circle with
the wavy line inside is the generic symbol for any AC voltage source.
One might wonder why anyone would bother with such a thing as AC. It is true that in some cases AC holds
no practical advantage over DC. In applications where electricity is used to dissipate energy in the form of
heat, the polarity or direction of current is irrelevant, so long as there is enough voltage and current to the
load to produce the desired heat (power dissipation). However, with AC it is possible to build electric
generators, motors and power distribution systems that are far more efficient than DC, and so we find AC
being used predominantly across the world in high power applications. To explain the details of why this is
so, a bit of background knowledge about AC is necessary.

AC/DC Converters
Circuits often require an integrated AC power source as the optimum strategy to reduce size,…

Circuits often require an integrated AC power source as the optimum strategy to reduce
size, cost or due to application specific needs. Understanding the key concepts associated
with conversion and the practical alternatives available is a good start towards a
successful design.
Safety First!
When the AC source is a mains power socket, great care must be taken to ensure an
implementation is safe to use. Without exception, this subsystem should be designed and
implemented by a qualified expert. If possible, use a preapproved off-the-shelf plug pack.
Compliance is Compulsory!
When you plug in anything to a mains plug socket, it must comply with legal certification
standards in the country it will be used in. More than this, it must have been tested and
certified to do so – an expensive process. This is to ensure it is safe, does not interfere
with other people or contribute noise to the AC main power lines.
What is an AC/DC Converter?
Electric power is transported on wires either as a direct current (DC) flowing in one
direction at a non-oscillating constant voltage, or as an alternating current (AC) flowing
backwards and forwards due to an oscillating voltage. AC is the dominant method of
transporting power because it offers several advantages over DC, including lower
distribution costs and simple way of converting between voltage levels thanks to the
invention of the transformer. AC power that is sent at high voltage over long distances and
then converted down to a lower voltage is a more efficient and safer source of power in
homes. Depending on the location, high voltage can range from 4kV (kilo-volts) up to
765kV. As a reminder, AC mains in homes range from 110V to 250V, depending on which
part of the world you live it. In the U.S., the typical AC main line is 120V.
Converters steer an alternating current, as its voltage also alternates, into reactive
impedance elements, such as inductors (L) and capacitors (C), where it is stored and
integrated. This process separates the power associated with the positive and negative
potentials. Filters are used to smooth out the energy stored, resulting in creation of a DC
source for other circuits. This circuit can take many forms but always comprises of the
same essential elements, and may have one or more stages of conversion. The converter
depicted in figure 1 is called a ‘forward converter”, which is a higher efficiency than a
slightly simpler architecture; a ‘flyback converter’. Although not discuss in detail, a flyback
converter differs from a forward converter in that its operation depends upon energy
stored in the airgap of the transformer in the circuit. Apart from this difference, they can
utilize the same essential blocks.

Figure 1: Functional Block Diagram of a Forward Converter AC/DC Power Supply

Input Filtering Block
An input filter is important as it prevents noise produced in the power supply switching
elements from getting back onto the mains power supply. It also prevents noise that may
be on the mains power supply getting into subsequent circuits. The filter passes through
50/60Hz mains frequency, and attenuates higher frequency noise and harmonics that
might be present. As with other parts of an AC to DC converter, reactive elements like
capacitors and inductors perform the important role of frequency – selective suppression.
Capacitors do not pass DC, and can be used in series (as DC blocking ‘high pass filter’
elements), or parallel (to shunt high frequencies to ground preventing them from getting
through to the converter).
The input filtering block will also typically include a voltage dependent resistor, or varistor
to prevent high voltage spikes on the electrical power grid from damaging the power
supply. This is the rectangular box with the diagonal line through it on the input in Figure
1. The most common type of varistor is a metal-oxide varistor (MOV). Any voltage over the
devices ‘clamping voltage’ causes the MOV to become conductive, shunting the high
voltage spike and suppressing the surge.
Rectification
The simplest AC/DC converters comprise of a transformer following the input filtering,
which then passes onto a rectifier to produce DC. In this case, rectification occurs after the
transformer because transformers do not pass DC. However, many AC/DC converters use
more sophisticated, multi-stage conversion topologies as depicted in figure 1 due to
advantages of smaller transformer requirements and lower noise referred back to the
mains power supply.
Rectifiers are implemented using semiconductor devices that conditionally conduct current
in one direction only, like diodes. More sophisticated semiconductor rectifiers include
thyristors. Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) and triode for alternating current (TRIAC) are
analogous to a relay in that a small amount of voltage can control the flow of a larger
voltage and current. The way these work is they only conduct when a controlling ‘gate’ is
triggered by an input signal. By switching the device on or off at the right time as the AC
waveform flows – current is steered to create a DC separation. There are many circuits for
doing this, with signals tapped off the AC waveform used as control signals that set the
phase quadrants thyristors are on or off. This is commutation, and can be either natural (in
the case of a simple diode) or forced, as in the case of devices that are more
sophisticated.
High efficiency power supplies can use active devices like MOSFETs as switches in such
circuits. The reason for using topologies that are more complex is usually for efficiency
improvement, to lower noise or to act as a power control. Diodes have an intrinsic voltage
drop across them when they conduct. This causes power to be dissipated in them, but
other active elements may have much lower drop and therefore lower power loss. SCR
and TRIAC circuits are particularly common in low cost power control circuits like the light
dimmer example below – used to directly steer and control current delivered to the load as
the input mains alternates. Note that these implementations are not galvanic when they do
not have a transformer in the circuit – only useful in circuits that are appropriate like direct
mains connected light control. They are also used in high power industrial and military
power supplies where simplicity and robustness is essential

Figure 2: SCR Based Conversion

Power Factor Correction (PFC)
This is the most complicated aspect of a converter to understand. PFC is an essential
element in improving the efficiency of a converter by correcting the relative phase of
current being drawn to voltage waveform to maintain the optimum power factor. This
reduces the ‘reactive load’ characteristics that the converter may otherwise present to the
mains power supply. This is essential for maintaining high quality, efficient electrical
networks and electrical supply companies can even impose special reactive current tariffs
on customers that have poor power factors. Passive or active PFC refers to whether
active elements or passive elements being used to correct the phase relationships.
Semiconductor PFC can refer to special purpose ICs with integrated controllers tailored to
actively monitor and adjust the PFC circuit, reducing the component count and simplifying
the overall design while obtaining higher performance. They can incorporate other
functions like over/under voltage protection, over current protection, soft start, and fault
detection/response.
The converter depicted in figure 1 is a single stage PFC converter. The capacitor in this
section is used to store the unbalanced energy between the pulsating input power and
relatively constant output power of the stage. See the “Reactive Energy Storage” section
for more details on this. Two stage PFC converters are commonly used as they don’t have
to handle as wide a voltage range across the storage capacitor you get in universal power
supplies, which has a detrimental effect on conversion efficiency. They can also offer
better trade-offs in the capacitor size, and this can help reduce cost.
Power Stage
The power stage controls the power delivered from the primary to the secondary side
through the transformer. It comprises of an active switching device that switches at a high
frequency that can be in the hundreds of kHz. The switch ON/OFF state is controlled by a
pulse width modulation (PWM) input that changes depending upon the amount of power
that needs to be dynamically delivered to the load. This information is obtained by a
feedback path from the secondary side that may be communicated by a number of
techniques that accommodate for the converter’s isolation requirements. The higher
frequency switching results in a smaller transformer requirement, reducing size and cost.
Transformer
A transformer is comprised of wires wound on a common core that couple into each other
by electromagnetic induction. This is important when connecting to high voltage (mains)
sources – referred to as ‘off-line’ conversion as the inductive coupling disconnects the
mains from the subsequent circuit, a much safer scenario than direct connection. This
coupling by an electromagnetic field, rather than a direct copper circuit, called ‘galvanic
isolation’ restricts the maximum energy that can cause electric shock or dangerous
sparking discharge to the stored energy in the transformers magnetic field flux lines. The
ability (related to size and materials) of the transformer to store energy is an important
consideration in converter design as it dictates how well the transformer can provide the
energy to maintain the desired voltage potential under changing load conditions.
Details of transformer theory and operation can be found here.
Figure 1 has a block called ‘Mag Amp Reset’ associated with demagnetizing the
transformer due to a magnetization current inherent in the architecture. Without this, the
remanence of the core material would saturate it in a few cycles of the power stage PWM.
Although too complex to cover in this tutorial, this additional circuit can be very confusing
when reviewing converter circuit diagrams, and it is useful to know why it is required.
There are a number of techniques to perform demagnetization, the simplest being when
the power stage switch is off a demagnetizing current is fed back diode through a
separate auxiliary winding. This circuit restricts the maximum PWM duty cycle to 50%, but
more complex methods can be used to enable higher duty cycles.
Transformers or other galvanic isolation methods (like optocouplers) are frequently used
to communicate information signals between primary and secondary sides. This is needed
to facilitate more intricate control of the conversion process – enabling a primary side
situated control circuit to respond to the state of the secondary side load and dynamically
change how it steers current to get lower noise and higher efficiency.
Output Circuits
As mentioned in the filtering section, electric fields in passive reactive (storage) elements
like capacitors and inductors store energy. When used after the charge steering
rectification, they act as a reservoir of energy during the alternating input power cycle.
This is a vital element in a convertor as this energy storage acts as a source – enabling a
constant output voltage under varying load conditions. Active elements sense the voltage
presented to the load and/or the current flowing into the load, and in a negative feedback
control loop, use this information to adjust the energy pumped into these storage elements
to maintain a constant output voltage level. This pumping process uses active elements to
switch on and off the current flowing into the storage elements, referred to under the broad
concept of regulation.
Regulation
We need a constant voltage presented to a load circuit, irrespective of the dynamic
impedance of the load. Without this, over or under voltage conditions may occur, leading
to spurious circuit behavior or even circuit damage. This is particular true with low voltage
digital electronics where supply voltages must be tightly constrained within a window of a
few percent of a nominal value. Reactive elements do not have any in-built control of this.
The way an AC/DC converter achieves a tightly controlled window of output voltage is by
conditionally controlling the energy stored in the low impedance reactive store source.
The voltage output will change over time as power drains from these elements and may
also have variance caused by the non-ideal characteristics of the devices – like series
resistance or parasitic capacitance. Some kind of dynamic control to recharge this source
is required. This is called regulation. Loads like microprocessors change the power they
demand as they perform different operations, and this exacerbates the need to have an
active dynamic regulation.
Regulation control is a feedback circuit that controls the switching elements. In this case
the switching element is on the primary side of the converter. For a switch to be efficient it
has to be either hard ON (lowest impedance possible) or hard OFF (highest impedance
possible) – as in between states lead to power traveling through the switch being
dissipated and wasted. Semiconductor switches like MOSFETS are non-ideal and exhibit
some impedance, they dissipate energy and this lowers conversion efficiency. There are
only really two ways to control a switch , by varying the duty cycle a switch is on or off,
called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or controlling the frequency of being ON or
OFF. Non-Resonant Mode converters employ hard switching techniques, but Resonant
Modeconvertors employs a more intelligent soft-switching technique. Soft switching
means switching on or off the alternating current waveforms at zero voltage or zero
current points, eliminating switching losses and leading to very high efficiency
architectures. Techniques like synchronous rectification replace the rectification diodes
with active switching elements like MOSFETS. Controlling the switching synchronized to
the input AC waveform enables the MOSFET to conduct with a very low ON resistance
and less voltage drop at the right time – leading to higher efficiency when compared to
diode rectification.
How does the regulation circuit know when to switch? There are two principle methods of
control mode: voltage control and current control. Regulators utilize one or a combination
of both methods to regulate the voltage presented to the load circuit.
Voltage Control Mode
The regulation circuit senses output voltage, compares it to a reference voltage to create an error
function. The error signal modifies the switching ratio to bring the output closer to the desired level. This
is the simplest method of control.

Current Control Mode

Both output voltage and inductor current sensed and the combination used to control the duty cycle.
This inner ‘current sensing loop’ enables faster response time to load change, but is more complex than
voltage control mode.

Further complicating the regulation element, over and above the method of control, the
way a converter acts as a commutation cycle is called
a continuous or discontinuous mode of operation. A continuous mode of operation is one
where the inductor current never falls to zero (if the converter topology has one). This is a
lower output ripple and therefore lower noise mode of operation, but as the inductor is
always conducting, it is always dissipating some energy in its non-ideal series conduction
losses. In discontinuous mode, the inductor current is allowed to go to zero, causing the
load to obtain energy from the storage capacitors. This is a higher efficiency mode of
operation but does potentially have more ripple and poorer regulation control.
Converter Types
As touched on briefly, there are several converter types relating to their topology, including
flyback and buck- flyback architectures. These are common topologies as they incorporate
transformers, have low component count and can be low cost relative to other options.
Flyback converters are a buck-boost converter (step-up/step down) with the inductor
replaced with a transformer. The stored energy inside the transformer is used to
commutate the secondary through an active or passive rectification circuit. The most
common type of flyback converter utilizes discontinuous mode (DCM) – with current
flowing in the transformer getting to zero – as this typically has the simplest control loop
and lowest cost. Continuous current mode (CCM) flyback convertors are required for
higher power levels but result in higher transformer winding losses due to continuous
conducting. Many power supplies switch between modes depending upon the load level.
Quasi resonant (QR) and valley switching/variable frequency variations on the flyback
topology are more complex circuits that optimize when and how switching occurs to
improve efficiency. QR flyback achieve this by recycling energy of non-ideal leakage
inductances, and valley switching reduces spikes caused by overshoot. They are typically
used in low power applications.
In the modern era, almost every household electronics works on Direct Current (DC) but we
get Alternating Current (AC) from power generation plants via transmission lines becuase AC can be
transmistted more efficiently than DC in lower cost. So every appliance which works on DC has and AC to
DC converter circuit. We previously built a 5v cell phone charger which also has a AC-DC converter
circuit in it.

There are mainly two types of converters widely used for AC-DC conversation purpose.
One is the traditional Transformer-based linear converter which uses a simple diode bridge, capacitor,
voltage regulator. Simple Diode Bridge can be constructed either with single semiconductor device like
DB107 or with 4 independent diodes like 1N4007. The other type of converter is SMPS or Switch
mode power supply which uses high-frequency small transformer and a switching regulator to provide
DC output.

In this project, we will discuss traditional Transformer based design which use simple diodes and
capacitor to convert the Alternating current into Direct Current and an optional voltage regulator to
regulate the output DC voltage. The project will be an AC-DC converter using Transformer with an
input voltage of 230V and output of 12V 1A.

Components Required
1.Transformer with 1A 13V Rating
2.4 pcs 1N4007 Diodes
3.A 1000uF Electrolytic capacitor with the 25V rating.
4.Few single strand wires
5.Breadboard
6.LDO or a Linear Voltage Regulator as per specification (Here LM2940 used).
7.A multimeter to measure the voltage.

Circuit Diagram and Explanation

The schematic for this AC-DC converter circuit is simple. The transformer is used to step down the
230V AC to 13V AC.

Four general purpose rectifier diode 1N4007 are used here to retify the AC input. 1N4007 has a peak
repetitive reverse voltage of 1000V with an average rectified forward current of 1A. These four diodes are
used to convert the 13V AC output across the transformer. The diodes are used to make a bridge
converter which is an essential part of the AC to DC conversion circuit. To learn more about Bridge
rectifier circuit, follow the link.
Filter capacitor, C1 is added after the bridge converter to smooth out the output voltage.
The LDO, IC1 is also connected to regulate the output voltage.

Working of the AC to DC Converter Circuit

A step-down transformer is used to convert the high voltage AC to the low voltage AC. The transformer
is PCB mounted and it is a 1-ampere 13-volt transformer. However, during the load, the transformer
voltage drops approximately 12.5-12.7 volt.
The essential part of the circuit is a diode bridge which consists of four diodes. The diode is an electronic
semiconductor device which converts the alternating current to direct current.

The flow of current inside the diode bridge can be seen in the below image.

Here two diodes D2 and D4 block the negative peak of the alternating current and make the current flow
into the one direction. This is a full bridge rectifier that means the diode bridge rectify both the positive and
negative peak of the AC signal.

The large capacitor C1 gets charged during the conversion and smooth out the output voltage. But at the
end result, this is not a regulated voltage output. Here the voltage regulation is done by the LDO,
LM2940, which is IC1 in the schematic.
The LDO, LM2940 is a 3 pin device into TO220 package. LDO stands for low dropout voltage. The pin
diagram can be shown in the below image.

Some voltage regulators have limitations on input voltage which is required to provide guaranteed voltage
regulation across the regulator output. In few linear regulators, it is denoted that it requires minimum 2
volts difference in between input voltage and output voltage, that means for regulated 12 volts output, the
regulator requires at least 14 volts input voltage for guaranteed 12 volts regulated output voltage. In
General, Low Dropout Voltage regulators (LDOs) requires very minimum voltage differences between
input and output. For LM2940 datasheet it is minimum 0.5-volt difference requires in between the input
and the output. We used a fixed voltage series LDO regulator from Texas Instruments. The LM2940,
which has 12 volts output rating.

The output can be perfectly seen in the below image.

Check the complete working in the video given at the end.
Transformer-based AC to DC converter is very common where the high voltage AC to DC conversion is
required. It is most commonly in amplifier systems, various power adaptors, soldering stations,
testing equipment etc.

Limitations of Transformer based AC-DC Converter Circuit

Transformer-based AC to DC conversion is a common choice where DC is required but it has certain
drawbacks.

1.Any situations where the input AC voltage has possibilities to fluctuate or if the AC voltage drops
significantly, the output AC voltage across the transformer also gets dropped. So a 230V AC to 12V DC
converter cannot be powered in 110V AC line. To address this isse, an additional setting is provided for
different input voltage levels.
2.Despite not having a universal input voltage range, it is a costly choice, as the transformer itself costs
more than 60% of the total manufacturing cost of the converter circuit.
3.Another limitation is low conversion efficiency. The transformer gets heat up and the waste unnecessary
energy.
4.The Transformer is heavy stuff which unnecessarily increases the weight of the product.
5.Due to the transformer, the bigger space is required inside the product to fit the converter circuit or at
least the transformer.
To overcome these limitations, SMPS or switch mode power supply is a preferable choice.
Video

Tags
 AC-DC CONVERTER

 DIODE

 RECTIFIER

 TRANSFORMER

 POWER ELECTRONICS






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A good liquid propellant is one with a high specific impulse or, stated another way, one with a high
speed of exhaust gas ejection. This implies a high combustion temperature and exhaust gases with
small molecular weights. However, there is another important factor which must be taken into
consideration: the density of the propellant. Using low density propellants means that larger storage
tanks will be required, thus increasing the mass of the launch vehicle. Storage temperature is also
important. A propellant with a low storage temperature, i.e. a cryogenic, will require thermal
insulation, thus further increasing the mass of the launcher. The toxicity of the propellant is
likewise important. Safety hazards exist when handling, transporting, and storing highly toxic
compounds. Also, some propellants are very corrosive, however, materials that are resistant to
certain propellants have been identified for use in rocket construction.

Liquid propellants used by NASA and in commercial launch vehicles can be classified into three
types: petroleum, cryogenics, and hypergolics.

Petroleum fuels are those refined from crude oil and are a mixture of complex hydrocarbons, i.e.
organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. The petroleum used as rocket fuel is
kerosene, or a type of highly refined kerosene called RP-1 (refined petroleum). It is used in
combination with liquid oxygen as the oxidizer.

RP-1 and liquid oxygen are used as the propellant in the first-stage boosters of the Atlas/Centaur
and Delta launch vehicles. It also powered the first-stages of the Saturn 1B and Saturn V rockets.
RP-1 delivers a specific impulse considerably less than cryogenic fuels.

Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases stored at very low temperatures, namely liquid hydrogen
(LH2) as the fuel and liquid oxygen (LO2) as the oxidizer. LH2 remains liquid at temperatures of -
423 degrees F (-253 degrees C) and LO2 remains in a liquid state at temperatures of -298 degrees F
(-183 degrees C).

Because of the low temperatures of cryogenic propellants, they are difficult to store over long
periods of time. For this reason, they are less desirable for use in military rockets which must be
kept launch ready for months at a time. Also, liquid hydrogen has a very low density (0.59 pounds
per gallon) and, therefore, requires a storage volume many times greater than other fuels. Despite
these drawbacks, the high efficiency of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen makes these problems worth
coping with when reaction time and storability are not too critical. Liquid hydrogen delivers a
specific impulse about 40% higher than other rocket fuels.

Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are used as the propellant in the high efficiency main engines of
the space shuttle. LH2/LO2 also powered the upper stages of the Saturn V and Saturn lB rockets as
well as the second stage of the Atlas/Centaur launch vehicle, the United States' first
LH2/LO2 rocket (1962).
Hypergolic propellants are fuels and oxidizers which ignite spontaneously on contact with each
other and require no ignition source. The easy start and restart capability of hypergolics make them
ideal for spacecraft maneuvering systems. Also, since hypergolics remain liquid at normal
temperatures, they do not pose the storage problems of cryogenic propellants. Hypergolics are
highly toxic and must be handled with extreme care.

Hypergolic fuels commonly include hydrazine, monomethyl hydrazine (MMH) and unsymmetrical
dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH). The oxidizer is typically nitrogen tetroxide (N 2O4) or nitric acid
(HNO3). UDMH is used in many Russian, European, and Chinese rockets while MMH is used in
the orbital maneuvering system (OMS) and reaction control system (RCS) of the Space Shuttle
orbiter. The Titan family of launch vehicles and the second stage of the Delta use a fuel called
Aerozine 50, a mixture of 50% UDMH and 50% hydrazine.

Hydrazine is also frequently used as a mono-propellant in catalytic decomposition engines . In

these engines, a liquid fuel decomposes into hot gas in the presence of a catalyst. The
decomposition of hydrazine produces temperatures of about 1700 degrees F and a specific impulse
of about 230 or 240 seconds.

Solid Propellants

Solid propellant motors are the simplest of all rocket designs. They consist of a casing, usually
steel, filled with a mixture of solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer) which burn at a rapid rate,
expelling hot gases from a nozzle to produce thrust. When ignited, a solid propellant burns from the
center out towards the sides of the casing. The shape of the center channel determines the rate and
pattern of the burn, thus providing a means to control thrust. Unlike liquid propellant engines, solid
propellant motors can not be shut down. Once ignited, they will burn until all the propellant is
exhausted.

There are two families of solids propellants: homogeneous and composite. Both types are dense,
stable at ordinary temperatures, and easily storable.

Homogeneous propellants are either simple base or double base. A simple base propellant consists
of a single compound, usually nitrocellulose, which has both an oxidation capacity and a reduction
capacity. Double base propellants usually consist of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine, to which a
plasticiser is added. Homogeneous propellants do not usually have specific impulses greater than
about 210 seconds under normal conditions. Their main asset is that they do not produce traceable
fumes and are, therefore, commonly used in tactical weapons. They are also often used to perform
subsidiary functions such as jettisoning spent parts or separating one stage from another.

Modern composite propellants are heterogeneous powders (mixtures) which use a crystallized or
finely ground mineral salt as an oxidizer, often ammonium perchlorate, which constitutes between
60% and 90% of the mass of the propellant. The fuel itself is aluminum. The propellant is held
together by a polymeric binder, usually polyurethane or polybutadienes. Additional compounds are
sometimes included, such as a catalyst to help increase the burning rate, or other agents to make the
powder easier to manufacture. The final product is rubberlike substance with the consistency of a
hard rubber eraser.
Solid propellant motors have a variety of uses. Small solids often power the final stage of a launch
vehicle, or attach to payloads to boost them to higher orbits. Medium solids such as the Payload
Assist Module (PAM) and the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) provide the added boost to place satellites
into geosynchronous orbit or on planetary trajectories.

The Titan, Delta, and Space Shuttle launch vehicles use strap-on solid propellant rockets to provide
added thrust at liftoff. The Space Shuttle uses the largest solid rocket motors ever built and flown.
Each booster contains 1,100,000 pounds (499,000 kg) of propellant and can produce up to
3,300,000 pounds (14,680,000 Newtons) of thrust.

Hybrid Propellants

Hybrid propellant engines represent an intermediate group between solid and liquid propellant
engines. One of the substances is solid, usually the fuel, while the other, usually the oxidizer, is
liquid. The liquid is injected into the solid, whose fuel reservoir also serves as the combustion
chamber. The main advantage of such engines is that they have high performance, similar to that of
solid propellants, but the combustion can be moderated, stopped, or even restarted. It is difficult to
make use of this concept for vary large thrusts, and thus, hybrid propellant engines are rarely built.

ROCKET PROPELLANTS Page 2

 Tables of Properties

PROPERTIES OF LIQUID ROCKET PROPELLANTS

Chemical Molecular Melting Boiling

Compound Density
Formula Weight Point Point
Liquid Oxygen O2 32.00 1.141 g/ml -218.8oC -183.0oC
Nitrogen Tetroxide N2O4 92.01 1.45 g/ml -9.3oC 21.15oC
Nitric Acid HNO3 63.01 1.55 g/ml -41.6oC 83oC
Liquid Hydrogen H2 2.016 0.071 g/ml -259.3oC -252.9oC
Hydrazine N2H4 32.05 1.004 g/ml 1.4oC 113.5oC
Methyl Hydrazine CH3NHNH2 46.07 0.866 g/ml -52.4oC 87.5oC
Dimethyl Hydrazine (CH3)2NNH2 60.10 0.791 g/ml -58oC 63.9oC
Dodecane (Kerosene) C12H26 170.34 0.749 g/ml -9.6oC 216.3oC
NOTES:
(1) Chemically, kerosene is a mixture of hydrocarbons; the chemical composition depends on its source, but it usually consists
of about ten different hydrocarbons, each containing from 10 to 16 carbon atoms per molecule; the constituents include n-
dodecane, alkyl benzenes, and naphthalene and its derivatives.
 (2) Nitrogen tetroxide and nitric acid are hypergolic with hydrazine, MMH and UDMH. Oxygen is not hypergolic with any
commonly used fuel.

COMPOSITION OF SOLID ROCKET PROPELLANTS

Propellant Type Composition

Balistite Double Base Nitrocellulose (51.5%), Nitroglycerine (43.0%), Plasticiser (1.0%), Other
(USA) Homogeneous (4.5%)
Cordite Double Base Nitrocellulose (56.5%), Nitroglycerine (28.0%), Plasticiser (4.5%), Other
(Soviet) Homogeneous (11.0%)
Aluminum Powder (16%) as fuel, Ammonium Perchlorate (69.93%) as
SRB oxidizer, Iron Oxidizer Powder (0.07%) as catalyst, Polybutadiene Acrylic
Composite
Propellant Acid Acrylonitrile (12.04%) as rubber-based binder, Epoxy Curing Agent
(1.96%)
NOTE:
The density of solid rocket propellants range from 1.5 to 1.85 g/ml (95-115 lb/cf). SRB propellant has a density of 1.715 g/ml
(107 lb/cf).

SELECTED ROCKETS AND THEIR PROPELLANTS

Rocket Stage Engines Propellant Specific Impulse

0 Rdyne YLR89-NA7 (x2) LO2/RP-1 259sl / 292vac
Atlas/Centaur 1 Rdyne YLR105-NA7 LO2/RP-1 220sl / 309vac
2 P&W RL-10A-3-3 (x2) LO2/LH2 444s vacuum
1 Aerojet LR-87-AJ-5 (x2) N2O4/Aerozine 50 259s sea level
Titan II
2 Aerojet LR-91-AJ-5 N2O4/Aerozine 50 312s vacuum
1 Rdyne F-1 (x5) LO2/RP-1 260s sea level
Saturn V 2 Rdyne J-2 (x5) LO2/LH2 424s vacuum
3 Rdyne J-2 LO2/LH2 424s vacuum
0 Thio SRB (x2) Solid 242sl / 269vac
1 Rdyne SSME (x3) LO2/LH2 455s vacuum
Space Shuttle
OMS Aero OMS (x2) N2O4/MMH 313s vacuum
RCS ---------- N2O4/MMH 260-280s vac

saac Newton stated in his third law of motion that "for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction." It is upon this principle that a rocket operates. Propellants are combined in a combustion
chamber where they chemically react to form hot gases which are then accelerated and ejected at
high velocity through a nozzle, thereby imparting momentum to the engine. The thrust force of a
rocket motor is the reaction experienced by the motor structure due to ejection of the high velocity
matter. This is the same phenomenon which pushes a garden hose backward as water flows from
the nozzle, or makes a gun recoil when fired.
Thrust

Thrust is the force that propels a rocket or spacecraft and is

measured in pounds, kilograms or Newtons. Physically
speaking, it is the result of pressure which is exerted on the
wall of the combustion chamber.

The figure to the right shows a combustion chamber with an

opening, the nozzle, through which gas can escape. The
pressure distribution within the chamber is asymmetric; that is,
inside the chamber the pressure varies little, but near the nozzle
it decreases somewhat. The force due to gas pressure on the
bottom of the chamber is not compensated for from the outside.
The resultant force F due to the internal and external pressure
difference, the thrust, is opposite to the direction of the gas jet.
It pushes the chamber upwards.

To create high speed exhaust gases, the necessary high

temperatures and pressures of combustion are obtained by
using a very energetic fuel and by having the molecular weight
of the exhaust gases as low as possible. It is also necessary to reduce the pressure of the gas as
much as possible inside the nozzle by creating a large section ratio. The section ratio, or expansion
ratio, is defined as the area of the exit Ae divided by the area of the throat At.

The thrust F is the resultant of the forces due to the pressures exerted on the inner and outer walls
by the combustion gases and the surrounding atmosphere, taking the boundary between the inner
and outer surfaces as the cross section of the exit of the nozzle. As we shall see in the next section,
applying the principle of the conservation of momentum gives
F = q x Ve + (Pe - Pa) x Ae
where q is the rate of the ejected mass flow, Pa the pressure of the ambient atmosphere, Pe the
pressure of the exhaust gases and Ve their ejection speed. Thrust is specified either at sea level or in
a vacuum.

Now may be a good time to review the section on Units of Weights & Measures before preceeding.

Conservation of Momentum

The linear momentum (p), or simply momentum, of a particle is the product of its mass and its
velocity. That is,
(2.1) p = m x v
Newton expressed his second law of motion in terms of momentum, which can be stated as "the
resultant of the forces acting on a particle is equal to the rate of change of the linear momentum of
the particle". In symbolic form this becomes
(2.2) F = dp / dt
which is equivalent to the expression F=ma.

If we have a system of particles, the total momentum P of the system is the sum of the momenta of
the individual particles. When the resultant external force acting on a system is zero, the total linear
momentum of the system remains constant. This is called the principle of conservation of linear
momentum. Let's now see how this principle is applied to rocket mechanics.

Consider a rocket drifting in gravity free space. The rocket's engine is fired for time t and,
during this period, ejects gases at a constant rate and at a constant speed relative to the rocket
(exhaust velocity). Assume there are no external forces, such as gravity or air resistance.

The figure below-left (a) shows the situation at time t. The rocket and fuel have a total mass M and
the combination is moving with velocity v as seen from a particular frame of reference. At a
time t later the configuration has changed to that shown below-right (b). A mass M has
been ejected from the rocket and is moving with velocity u as seen by the observer. The rocket is
reduced to mass M- M and the velocity v of the rocket is changed to v+ v.

Because there are no external forces, dP/dt=0. We can write, for the time interval t

(2.3) 0 = P / t = (P2 - P1) / t

where P2 is the final system momentum, figure (b), and P1 is the initial system momentum, figure
(a). We write

(2.4) 0 = {[(M - M) x (v + v) + ( M x u)] - [M x v]} / t

If we let t approach zero, v/ t approaches dv/dt, the acceleration of the body. The
quantity M is the mass ejected in t; this leads to a decrease in the mass M of the original
body. Since dM/dt, the change in mass of the body with time, is negative in this case, in the limit
the quantity M/ t is replaced by -dM/dt. The quantity u-(v+ v) is Vrel, the relative
velocity of the ejected mass with respect to the rocket. With these changes, equation (2.4) can be
written as
M x (dv/dt) = (u - v) x (dM/dt), or

(2.5) M x (dv/dt) = Vrel x (dM/dt)

The right-hand term depends on the characteristics of the rocket and, like the left-hand term, has the
dimensions of a force. This force is called the thrust, and is the reaction force exerted on the rocket
by the mass that leaves it. The rocket designer can make the thrust as large as possible by designing
the rocket to eject mass as rapidly as possible (dM/dt large) and with the highest possible relative
speed (Vrellarge).
Click here for example problem #2.1
(use your browser's "back" function to return)

In rocketry, the basic thrust equation is written as

(2.6) F = q x Ve + (Pe - Pa) x Ae
where q is the rate of the ejected mass flow, Ve is the exhaust gas ejection speed, Pe is the pressure
of the exhaust gases at the nozzle exit, Pa is the pressure of the ambient atmosphere, and Ae is the
area of the nozzle exit. The product qVe, which we derived above (Vrel x dM/dt), is called the
momentum, or velocity, thrust. The product (Pe-Pa)Ae, called the pressure thrust, is the result of
unbalanced pressure forces at the nozzle exit. As we shall see latter, maximum thrust occurs
when Pe=Pa. Equation (2.6) then becomes F=qVe and the nozzle is said to be adapted.

Impulse & Momentum

In the preceding section we saw that Newton's second law may be expressed in the form
F = dp/dt
Multiplying both sides by dt and integrating from a time t1 to a time t2, we write
F x dt = dp

F dt = p2 - p1, or

(2.7) p1 + F dt = p2
The integral is a vector known as the linear impulse, or simply the impulse, of the force F during
the time interval considered. The equation expresses that, when a particle is acted upon by a
force F during a given time interval, the final momentum p2 of the particle may be obtained by
adding its initial momentum p1 and the impulse of the force F during the interval of time.

When several forces act on a particle, the impulse of each of the forces must be considered. When a
problem involves a system of particles, we may add vectorially the momenta of all the particles and
the impulses of all the forces involved. When can then write

(2.8) P1 + F dt = P2

For a time interval t, we may write equation (2.8) in the form

(2.9) P1 + (F x t) = P2
Let us now see how we can apply the principle of impulse and momentum to rocket mechanics.

Consider a rocket of initial mass M which it launched vertically at time t=0. The fuel is consumed
at a constant rate q and is expelled at a constant speed Ve relative to the rocket. At time t, the mass
of the rocket shell and remaining fuel is M-qt, and the velocity is v. During the time interval t, a
mass of fuel q t is expelled. Denoting by u the absolute velocity of the expelled fuel, we apply
the principle of impulse and momentum between time t and time t+ t. Please note, our
derivation neglects the effect of air resistance.

We write

(2.10) (M - qt) x v - g x (M - qt) x t = (M - qt - q t) x (v + v) + q t

x u

We divide through by t and replace u-(v+ v) with Ve, the velocity of the expelled mass
relative to the rocket. As t approaches zero, we obtain
(2.11) -g x (M - qt) = (M - qt) x (dv/dt) - (q x Ve)
Separating variables and integrating from t=0, v=0 to t=t, v=v, we obtain

(2.12) dv = [(q x Ve) / (M - qt) - g ] dt

which equals
(2.13) v = Ve x LOG[ M / (M - qt) ] - g x t
Click here for example problem #2.2

Integrating the above equation from t=0 to t=t gives the distance traveled by the rocket during the
burn. We obtain
(2.14) d = Ve x { t + t x LOG[ M / (M - qt) ] + M x LOG[ (M - qt) / M ] / q } - g x t2
/ 2
Click here for example problem #2.3

The term -gt in equation (2.13) is the result of the earth's gravity pulling on the rocket. It should be
pointed out that in practice the value of g decreases with increasing altitude, however,
letting g equal the acceleration of gravity at ground level (32.2 ft/s2 or 9.81 m/s2) yields a close
approximation. Also note, -gt is directed vertically downward. If a rocket's trajectory is at an angle
other than vertical, -gt should be replaced by -gtsin(ta), where ta is the tilt angle, i.e. the angle
between the earth's surface and the rocket's thrust vector. For a rocket drifting in gravity-free space
or in earth orbit, -gtsin(ta)=0 and can thus be omitted. Equation (2.13) then becomes
(2.15) v = Ve x LOG[ M / (M - qt) ]

For many spacecraft maneuvers it is necessary to calculate the duration of an engine burn required
to achieve a specific change in velocity, v. Rearranging variables in the preceding equation
yields

(2.16) t = M x [ 1 - ( 1 / EXP[ V / Ve ] ) ] / q
Click here for example problem #2.4

As stated earlier, the equations derived in this section neglect the effect of air resistance. Drag
forces can have a significant influence on a rocket moving through an atmosphere.