CBCT2203 Basic Concepts of IT - Vaug19 (RS & MREP) PDF

CBCT2203
Basic Concepts of Information Technology
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

CBCT2203
BASIC CONCEPTS
OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
Marini Abu Bakar
Dr Sufian Idris
Nor Ieyza Jailani
Roziah Latih
Majumin Hanum
Mohd Zahari Awang

Project Directors: Prof Dr Widad Othman
Prof Dr Siti Aishah Hashim Ali
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Marini Abu Bakar

Dr Sufian Idris
Nor Ieyza Jailani
Roziah Latih
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Majumin Hanum
Mohd Zahari Awang
Translator: Mohd Zahari Awang
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, July 2007

Second Edition, December 2013 (rs)
Third Edition, August 2019 (MREP)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2019, CBCT2203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxvi
Topic 1 Introduction to Information Technology 1

1.1 Information Era 2
1.2 What is Information Technology? 4
1.2.1 A Brief History of Computing 7
1.2.2 Computer Classification 8
1.3 Principles of Information Technology 10
1.4 Functions and Benefits of Information Technology 11
1.5 Careers and Information Technology 13
1.6 Information Technology in Malaysia 14
1.6.1 Government Bodies in the Information and 14
Communication Technologies (ICT) Sector
1.6.2 MSC Malaysia 16
1.6.3 Digital Governance 16
Summary 17
Key Terms 18
References 19
Topic 2 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 20

2.1 What is the Central Processing Unit (CPU)? 21
2.1.1 Control Unit (CU) 22
2.1.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 22
2.2 Microprocessor Chip 23
2.2.1 Microprocessor Classification 23
2.2.2 Personal Computer and Mobile Device
Microprocessors 24
2.3 Memory 24
2.3.1 Random Access Memory (RAM) 27
2.3.2 Read Only Memory (ROM) 28
2.3.3 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor 28
(CMOS)
2.4 Data Representation 29

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.5 System Unit 30

2.5.1 Power Supply 30
2.5.2 Motherboard 30
2.5.3 ROM Chip 31
2.5.4 Slot and Expansion Board 32
2.5.5 Port 33
2.6 System Clock 34
2.7 Bus Line 35
Summary 36
Key Terms 37
Topic 3 Input and Output 38

3.1 Input and Output 38
3.2 Input Methods 39
3.2.1 Keyboard 41
3.2.2 Terminal 43
3.2.3 Pointing Device 44
3.2.4 Scanning Device 47
3.2.5 Other Input Devices 50
3.3 Input Control 53
3.4 Output Methods 54
3.5 Output Devices 55
3.5.1 Printer 56
3.5.2 Monitor 58
3.5.3 Plotter 60
3.5.4 Voice Output Device 61
Summary 62
Key Terms 63
Topic 4 Secondary Storage 64

4.1 The Basics of Storage 64
4.2 Magnetic Storage Devices 67
4.2.1 Magnetic Tape 67
4.2.2 Hard Disk 69
4.2.3 Optical Storage 71
4.2.4 Flash Memory Storage 72
4.2.5 Cloud Storage 73
4.2.6 Other Types of Storage 74
4.3 Data Organisation Hierarchy 76
4.4 Upgrading the Performance of Hard Disks 77
Summary 80
Key Terms 80

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 Computer Software 81

5.1 Software 82
5.2 System Software 83
5.3 Operating System (OS) 85
5.4 Functions of OS 87
5.5 Features of OS 91
5.5.1 Multitasking 91
5.5.2 Multi-user 92
5.5.3 Multi-processing 92
5.5.4 Batch Processing 93
5.5.5 Virtual Memory 93
5.6 Types of Operating Systems 94
5.6.1 Personal and Server OS 95
5.6.2 Mobile and Embedded OS 96
5.7 Application Software 98
5.8 Word Processing Software 100
5.9 Spreadsheet Software 104
5.10 Database Software 107
5.10.1 Database Management System Organisation 110
5.11 Document Processing Software 111
5.12 Graphics Software 112
5.13 Groupware Software 116
5.14 Desktop Publishing Software 116
5.15 Multimedia Software 117
Summary 118
Key Terms 119
Topic 6 Programming Language 120

6.1 Programming Language 120
6.2 Why Do We Need to Know Programming Languages? 122
6.3 Programming Language Generations and Examples 123
6.4 Approach: Classifications of Programming Languages 128
6.4.1 Imperative Language 129
6.4.2 Object-oriented Language 129
6.4.3 Logic-based Language 130
6.4.4 Function-based Language 131
6.4.5 Script 132
6.4.6 Visual Language 132
6.5 Common Programming Languages 132
6.6 Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter 134
Summary 135
Key Terms 137

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 The Internet 138

7.1 Definition of Internet 139
7.2 History of the Internet 141
7.2.1 How the Internet Began 141
7.2.2 The Internet as a Phenomenon 142
7.3 Internet Evolution 145
7.3.1 Development of the Internet 145
7.3.2 Internet Timeline 147
7.4 Internet Addressing 149
7.5 Internet Applications 152
7.6 Searching for Information Over the Internet 155
7.6.1 Search Engine 157
7.6.2 Portals 158
7.6.3 Other Methods 160
7.7 Internet Laws 161
7.8 Internet Today and the Future 162
Summary 164
Key Terms 165
Topic 8 Software on the Internet 166

8.1 Internet Software 167
8.2 Shareware and Freeware 167
8.3 Open Source Software 169
8.4 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 173
8.5 Telnet 174
8.6 E-Mail 175
8.6.1 E-Mail Discussion 177
8.6.2 Ethics of E-Mail Discussion 177
8.6.3 Smiley 178
8.6.4 Acronyms 181
8.6.5 E-Mail Signature 182
8.6.6 Using E-Mails Effectively 183
8.7 Usenet 184
8.8 The Internet Phenomenon 186
Summary 188
Key Terms 189
Reference 190

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 9 Communication 191

9.1 Important Elements of Communication 192
9.1.1 Coder and Decoder 193
9.1.2 Message Understanding 194
9.1.3 Error Detector 194
9.1.4 Security 195
9.2 Basics of Data Communication 197
9.2.1 Analogue Signals 197
9.2.2 Digital Signals 199
9.3 Mode of Data Transmission 200
9.3.1 Asynchronous Transmission 201
9.3.2 Synchronous Transmission 202
9.4 Data Flow Direction 203
9.4.1 Simplex 203
9.4.2 Half-Duplex 204
9.4.3 Full-Duplex 205
9.5 Rate of Data Transmission 206
9.6 Data Transmission Media 207
9.6.1 Twisted Pair Cable 208
9.6.2 Coaxial Cable 209
9.6.3 Fibre Optic Cable 210
9.6.4 Microwave System 210
9.6.5 Satellite System 212
9.6.6 Infrared 213
9.6.7 Radio 214
9.6.8 Telephone Network 215
Summary 215
Key Terms 216

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 10 Ethics, Privacy and Digital Security 217

10.1 Ethics 218
10.1.1 Information Accuracy 219
10.1.2 Intellectual Property Rights 220
10.1.3 Codes of Conduct 220
10.1.4 Green Computing 222
10.2 Information Privacy 224
10.2.1 Cookie 225
10.2.2 Privacy Law 226
10.3 Digital Security 227
10.3.1 Disaster Recovery 228
10.3.2 Cyber Criminals 229
10.4 Cyber Crime 229
10.4.1 Internet and Network Attacks 230
10.4.2 Unauthorised Access and Use 231
10.4.3 Software Piracy 232
10.4.4 Information Theft 232
Summary 233
Key Terms 234

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the
course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order
to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide from time to
time as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important
study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
CBCT2203 Basic Concepts of Information Technology is one of the courses offered
at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and
should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners who are enrolled in the Bachelor of
Information Technology programme. It aims to impart to learners the knowledge
of information technology (IT) in general and its application in computer science
in particular.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 4
Study the module 64
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 6
Online participation 15
Revision 16
Assignment(s) and Examination(s) 15
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the applications of IT including its components such as computer

systems, hardware and software, networking, and the Internet;
2. Apply appropriate IT to specific professional or work situations that require

its usage; and
3. Propose solutions for general IT and Internet-related issues in daily life based
on the knowledge of existing technologies in the market.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as follows:
Topic 1 is an overview of IT which focuses on the principles of IT, background of

its development as well as its functions and benefits. Other aspects includes the
users of IT and related careers in IT as well as the development of this sector in
Malaysia.
Topic 2 mainly covers the components of IT hardware such as the central

processing unit (CPU) of a computer, microprocessors, memory modules and
others. Besides that, data representation, coding schemes and system tools are also
discussed.
Topic 3 explains the input and output (I/O) processes of computers through the
discussions of various input and output devices such as keyboard, printer,
scanning devices, mouse, visual display units and audio I/O units, among others.
Topic 4 introduces a component known as secondary storage. This topic describes

the various types of secondary storage available in the market and includes a
comparison between them.
Topic 5 focuses on software, which comprises the system software, application

software and programming languages. This topic distinguishes and explains the
roles and purposes of the software systems as well as provide examples of the
types of software commonly used today.
Topic 6 delves deeper into the software by discussing programming languages,

which are the tools used in the development of software, also known as computer
programs. A program is essentially a set of instructions for a computer to follow
in order to process data. Developing this set of instructions involves a process
known as programming.
Topic 7 reviews the history and the development of the Internet. In this topic, we
shall take a look at the elements that contribute to the successful proliferation of
the Internet especially the World Wide Web, the accomplishments of the
technology and the activities that we can carry out online today.
Topic 8 specifically discusses software associated with the Internet. Popular

software applications include the e-mail and web-based scripting languages
(a type of programming tool), and a range of software tools which are usually
available free of charge. Data communication protocols and the concept of open
source will also be briefly touched upon.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 9 continues the discussion on communication by going into more detail

about the technical aspects of data transmission and information exchange
through network systems. Signalling techniques, methods of control and media
types are among the areas covered.
Topic 10 wraps up the module with a reflection on the impacts of IT ă how it has
revolutionalised industries, the paradigm shifts that has affected the way we work,
play and live and the new ethical problems that arises such as issues of computer
security, personal privacy, ergonomics and environmental sustainability.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently
refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your
understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,
journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References section), at the
end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or
refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed and to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course on IT. While there are no specific prerequisites,
learners are expected to have a basic knowledge in operating a computer system
and using productivity software (such as word processing, spreadsheet and
browsing the Internet) in order to carry out the activities and complete the
assignments.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
REFERENCES
Main Reference
Vermaat M., Sebok, S. L., Freund, S. M., Campbell, J. T., & Frydenberg, M. (2017).
Discovering computers: Technology in a world of computers, mobile devices
and the Internet (Enchanced, Shelly Cashman Series). Boston, MA: Cengage
Learning.
Additional References
Abdul Razak Hamdan, & Mohd Zakree Ahmad Nazri. (2004). Teknologi
maklumat dan komunikasi. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Capron, H. L., & Johnson, J. A. (2004). Computers: Tools for an information age
(8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Comer, D. E. (2007). The Internet book: Everything you need to know about
computer networking and how the Internet works (4th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Lehnert, W. G., & Kopec, R. (2008). Web 101 (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
Addison-Wesley.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising
e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

Topic  Introduction
to Information
1 Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. State six differences between information era and previous eras;
2. Define information technology (IT);
3. Identify the five components of IT;
4. Discuss the brief history of computers; and
5. Distinguish between the classifications of computers.
 INTRODUCTION
Information technology (IT) which has been around for more than half a century
had its beginnings in a laboratory. Now, IT is being taught in schools and is
considered as one of the major resources for business organisations. IT is still being
used in the latest IT and information and communication technology (ICT) gadgets
such as smartphones and tablets (refer to Figure 1.1).

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Figure 1.1: Examples of a tablet (left) and a smart phone

Source: http://jailbreakhow.net
In this topic, you will be introduced to the IT era. You will be able to familiarise
yourself with the concept of IT and its characteristics. Other important issues
discussed include the principles, functions and benefits of IT. Towards the end of
this topic, the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia) and cyber
laws will also be presented.
1.1 INFORMATION ERA

The 21st century has ushered in the information era, where computerised systems
are being used, with rapid pace, in almost all fields ranging from medical and
space exploration to education as well as banking and manufacturing sectors. The
demand by the various fields has increased the usage and development of many
types of complex systems. Prior to the information era, there were the industrial
and agricultural eras (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Descriptions of the Agricultural, Industrial and Information Eras
Era Description
Agricultural Era Cultivation of land, breeding of animals and plants, providing

food, clothing and other items for comfort and living.
Industrial Era Work processes simplified through mechanisation and

automation, while the number of factory workers continues to
grow. Many inventions were introduced such as machines,
telephones and many more.
Information Era Most workers are involved in the creation, distribution and use of
information.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY  3
Different types of technologies were introduced in the agricultural, industrial and

information eras. For example, the technologies in the industrial era (for machinery
such as bulldozers and cranes) are meant to increase the physical capability while
the technologies in the information era (such as computers) are meant to enhance
workersÊ productivity. Furthermore, the information era connects people through
communication tools that uses IT. Despite being in the information era, both the
agricultural and industrial activities are still relevant and important.
There are six features that differentiate the information era from the agricultural
and industrial eras (Senn, 1998) as shown in the following:
(a) Emergence of an Information-based Society

In an informative society, more workers are manipulating information,
rather than working in the combined fields of agriculture and
manufacturing.
(b) The Success of Business and Management Jobs Depends on IT

For example, the banking business depends very much on IT through the
simplification of daily transactions, enabling fast and efficient transactions.
(c) Work Processes are Changed and Transformed to Upgrade Productivity

For example, in the agricultural era, tractors and ploughs were used to speed
up work in the farms. However, in the information era, knowledge gained in
agricultural research plays an important role in determining how and when
to grow and how to look after crops.
(d) IT Provides the Basis for Optimisation

Efficient use of IT not only speeds up routine activities but also allows
opportunities for companies to study and re-organise work processes to
optimise the use of resources and to raise productivity, for example, in
business process re-engineering.
(e) Success in IT Depends on the Effectiveness in IT Usage

For example, in the agricultural era, farmers need to know the how to take
care of buffaloes, cows and land. The industrial era requires industry
workers to know and be able to deal with machines effectively. Finally, the
information era requires workers to understand and apply IT to increase
productivity as well as to improve product and service quality.
(f) IT is Embedded or Integrated into Many Products and Services

In the tourism industry, IT is used in ticketing, airports, hotels and rest
houses, car rentals and others. Indirectly, IT provides added value to
products and services. The added value takes the form of quality, reliability,
skills, attractiveness and other characteristics that fulfil customersÊ needs.

ACTIVITY 1.1
1. According to Alvin Tofler (http://calculemus.org/lect/07pol-

gosp/arch/proby-dawne/materialy/waves.htm), we are now in
the third wave, which is known as the information wave. Discuss
in groups on what information era is on the myINSPIRE online
forum.
2. From the three eras that you have read in Subtopic 1.1, which era
do you think Malaysia is currently in? Justify your answer.
1.2 WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?

Before going deeper into this subject, it would be good to be able to differentiate
between data, information and knowledge (see Table 1.2).
Table 1.2: Definitions of Data, Information and Knowledge
Element Definition
Data The basic facts or raw facts which consist of texts, diagrams, graphics,
images, audio and video clips, which are devoid of context or, in
essence, „meaningless‰.
Examples include discrete elements such as categories, names,

numbers, postcodes and mathematical notations such as pi ().
Information Data that has been „processed‰ in order to be „meaningful‰ to users.
Examples include linked elements such as concepts, simple stories,

ideas, paragraphs, sentences and equations such as C = Ûd.
Knowledge Consists of information that has been arranged and processed to convey
understanding, experience as well as expertise which can be used to
solve problems.
Organised information such as complex stories, facts, chapters,

structures and interpretations are considered knowledge. For example,
to wrap a ribbon around a cake require information about the
circumference of the cake. Thus, we need data on its diameter to
calculate C = Ûd, where the result of that calculation leads to
knowledge on the length of the required ribbon.

According to Table 1.2, „data‰ that has been refined, formatted and summarised
are transformed into „information‰. Information that has been interpreted,
decided and acted upon is converted into „knowledge‰. With knowledge, users
can make the best decisions and take appropriate actions.
Another element is „wisdom‰, which comes after knowledge. While the previous
three elements of data, information and knowledge can be attained from computer
processing, wisdom can only be achieved by humans through accumulated
experiences. Knowledge and experience are needed to make sensible decisions or
judgements, also known as evaluated understanding.
In general, IT is the main player in the information era. The technology is used to
access, store and distribute information, especially information in digital form. IT
refers to the use and deployment of various items in the creation, storage and
distribution of information. Table 1.3 contains some definitions of IT.
Table 1.3: Definitions of Information Technology
Source Definition
Behan and Holmes IT is a term to explain the technology that enables us to record,
(1990) store, process, retrieve, send and receive information.
Martin, Brown, IT consists of all forms of technology involved in the collection,

DeHayes, Hoffer manipulation, communication, presentation and utilisation of
and Perkins (1998) data (which is transformed into information).
Senn (1998) IT contains three components, which are computer,

communication and expertise. A combination of the three
components creates opportunities for people and organisations
to become more productive, effective and generally successful
without being separated.
Reynolds (2010) IT includes all tools that capture, store, process, exchange and use
information.
As evidenced in Table 1.3, we can define IT as a broad-based technology that is

required to support information systems. IT supports activities including creation,
storage, manipulation and communication of information, together with their
related methodology, management and applications. The core of IT comprises
microelectronic components, that is, the microprocessor chip, which processes
data, information, images, sounds and graphics. It has given birth to modern
computing. Besides the microprocessor technology, other innovations include
those that involve storage, data capture and communication technologies.

Today, computers are connected via telecommunication networks, transcending

even the national borders. As such, IT has been taken for granted as a combination
of computers and communications. In order to have a complete IT system, five
components of IT as shown in Figure 1.2 must come together.
Figure 1.2: Five components of information technology
The following describes each of the five components of IT:
(a) Data
A collection of raw facts and figures that are used by programs to produce
useful information. This data can be organised into databases or file systems.
(b) Software
Computer programs such as application software (word processor,
spreadsheet, graphic design package, database and so forth) and system
software (operating system, communication software and so forth).
(c) Hardware
Hardware consists of the computer and its components, input hardware
(such as keyboard and mouse), processing hardware (such as processor and
memory), output hardware (such as monitor and printer), storage hardware
(such as disk drive) and communication devices (such as modem).

(d) People
Information systems are programmed by humans. They in turn are also the
users of IT. Therefore, the success or failure of an IT system also depends on
how effectively it is developed and used.
(e) Procedures
These are policies that define how and by whom IT is used. Procedures
include actions that are used by people when processing data into
information such as operating the computer, data entry, communication,
maintenance, back up, recovery and troubleshooting.
1.2.1 A Brief History of Computing

The history of computing can be traced back to many thousands of years ago ă
the use of abacus in China. This device computes using sliding beads arranged on
a rack. In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator called the
Pascaline. Charles BabbageÊs difference engine, which was an automatic
calculator, was built in 1812 and later in 1890, Hermann Hollerith used punched
cards to read and store data.
The history of computer is best explained in term of generations. The first

generation was introduced just over half a century ago and we are currently in the
fifth generation. Table 1.4 describes the five generations of computers.
Table 1.4: Five Generations of Computers
Generation Years Hardware Software
1st 1953ă1958 Vacuum tubes None
2nd 1959ă1964 Transistors Compilers and I/O control
3rd 1965ă1970 Integrated circuits Operating systems and

communications
4th 1971ănow Microprocessors Virtual machines
5th Mid 1990să Magnetic bubble, laser Interactive languages and

the future holographic and convenient simulation
distributed system
Adapted from Gaines (1984)

In the early years of computer technology, computers were used only by scientists
and engineers for research and development. Later, computers were used by
businesses and governmental organisations. Computers were used to support the
running of businesses, large and small. Today, computers are being used by
professionals, students and in the homes.
In general, microchips have become more powerful, have bigger memory capacity
and other hardware components have also increased tremendously, without much
increase in their physical sizes. As a result, computers have become smaller and
cheaper but with bigger capacity and more capability.
1.2.2 Computer Classification

In the field of IT, there are various types of computers that you can use, depending
on the job that you want to do. There are small computers as well as very large
ones. The computers are categorised to catering to the different types of jobs based
on the processing power, speed, cost, security and various other criteria. You will
see many of these terms used in the following topics.
There has never been a rigid definition of the various classes of computers. Indeed,
their functions and capabilities keep on expanding and as such, the number of
classes is even debatable. However, there is a broad spectrum of computing
hardware ranging from supercomputers to microcomputers, with no clear line that
divides the classes. In general, computers decrease in size and cost over time as
you go from the large supercomputers and mainframes to the small
microcomputers while computing speed and power increase exponentially. The
four traditional classifications are shown in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5: Classification of Computers
Description Microcomputer Minicomputer Mainframe Supercomputer
Type of Jobs To perform a For scientific To handle all For advanced

variety of tasks laboratories, kinds of scientific
including research problems research such
research, institutions, whether as nuclear
communication, engineering scientific or physics.
banking, plants and commercial,
learning places where i.e. performing
institutions and processing complex
libraries. automation is mathematical
required. calculations.
Speed Microseconds Under 100 Under 70 Under 15

nanoseconds nanoseconds nanoseconds
Cost Cheapest Medium Expensive Most expensive
Comparable Fits on top of a Small filing Large filing Roomful of

Size small desk cabinet cabinet large filing
cabinet
Number of 1 10ă100 100ă500 500ăthousands

Users
Characteristics Uses a More powerful More powerful Largest, fastest,

microprocessor than a than a most powerful
to process data. microcomputer minicomputer. and most
For example, but smaller A mainframe expensive. A
desktop, laptop and less also has large supercomputer
and personal powerful than storage also generates a
digital assistant. a mainframe. capacity but it lot of heat, thus
is less it requires a
powerful than complex
a cooling system.
supercomputer
and also less
expensive.
Example

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Differentiate the terms „data‰, „information‰ and „knowledge.

Then give one example for each term.
2. Briefly explain the history of computing.
ACTIVITY 1.2
As an open and distance learner, which type of computer as classified in

Table 1.5 is suitable for you? Explain.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
We can appreciate how IT helps organisations and people. We have heard and
read how IT can increase the profitability of companies and businesses.
Individuals have also gained a lot by using the computer for work and for
entertainment. On the other hand, we also know the bad effects of IT such as the
intentional creation of malicious software known as computer viruses that have
caused computer system failures, affecting many organisations and individual
users.
Certainly, the main objective of using IT is to help people and organisations to

solve problems and to initiate creativity, thereby, enabling them to work faster and
more effectively. IT can facilitate users in their daily activities. As such, IT frees
people from routine work, enables them to focus their attention on solving
problems and improves their daily lives. Table 1.6 describes eight IT principles.

Table 1.6: Eight Information Technology Principles
Principle Description
Reliable It is impossible to say that an IT system works 100 per cent all the
time. Sometimes, it works 99 per cent of the time and 1 per cent it
does not work. However, it is important that reliability does not go
below a certain threshold.
Secure The environment in which the IT system operates must be secure

from unauthorised access or malicious destruction.
Flexible People are able to use the IT system anywhere and anytime.
Foster innovation Creativity in developing new software and hardware for the new
era such as early warning systems for bad weather.
Responsive IT system is able to provide a range of services.
Easy and All the tools and facilities should be easy to learn and use.
transparent
Consistent The IT environment must be consistent and internationally

interoperability accepted so that information can be exchanged readily.
Affordable People should be able to afford the IT systems that they intend to
use.
1.4 FUNCTIONS AND BENEFITS OF

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
According to Senn (1998), IT performs six functions of information works ă
collecting, processing, generating, storing, retrieving and delivering. In most cases,
two or more functions are done simultaneously. Table 1.7 illustrates the functions,
definitions and examples of IT.

Table 1.7: Six Functions of Information Technology
Function Definition Example
Collecting Collecting records of activities to be Reading voter information, reading

used later. electricity meters.
Processing The process of changing, analysing, Counting votes, processing of

calculating and synthesising all electricity bills, word processing,
forms of data or information. processing of taxes.
Generating Assembling information into Electricity bills, tables, graphs,

useful forms whether as text, audio charts on discs, tapes, CD-ROM
or image. files.
Storing The computing process of storing Income tax records, society

data and information to be used membership records, traffic offence
later. records.
Retrieving Locating data and obtaining them Faxes, e-mails, voice mails, reports.
again.
Delivering Taking, sending or presenting to E-mails, voice mails.

another user(s).
Table 1.8: Four Benefits of Information Technology
Benefit Description
Speed A relative value ă computers can perform within seconds, at speeds that
are much faster than humans.
Consistency Computers are efficient in doing repetitive jobs consistently, i.e.

producing the same results for the same jobs.
Accuracy Computers work very accurately ă tracking even small differences.
Reliability With their speed, consistency and accuracy, we can trust and rely on
computers to produce the same results again and again.

With four benefits to be gained from using IT as listed in Table 1.8, we cannot
ignore the opportunities offered by it. In general, there are two categories of
opportunities:
(a) Helping People

For example, assisting special people (the disabled), increasing human
productivity and helping people towards having better lives.
(b) Helping to Solve Problems

For example, assisting in the process of problem identification, exploring
alternative solutions and implementing the solution with success.
IT has been used in various fields with the objective of solving problems and
helping people. Hence, IT users should be aware of the following three basic
responsibilities:
(a) Knowing the capabilities and limitations of IT;
(b) Using IT ethically and correctly; and
(c) Ensuring data and information security against various threats.
1.5 CAREERS AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
IT is closely linked with most careers today. In general, two categories that are
related to IT and careers are:
(a) Information Technology as a Career

Job opportunities in the field of IT involve technical knowledge and skills in
IT. Among careers in IT are system analyst, IT officer, network administrator,
network specialist, software engineer, knowledge engineer, programmer,
data processing manager, project manager, computer system consultant,
system integrator, system administrator, chief information officer, system
engineer and website manager. They are called IT professionals. Sometimes,
they are also considered as important players behind the computer ă those
who develop and maintain software and IT tools.

(b) Information Technology Users

IT users are generally known as end users. End users are involved in the use
of IT but they are not required to have technical knowledge of IT. Indeed,
they know better about the use of a particular software or specific hardware.
For example, doctors use computers to access patient information but they
do not need know how the system is developed. In general, users can be
divided into three types ă novice users, semi-skilled users and skilled users.
IT applications are created for them to use.
Both IT professionals and IT users need to communicate with each other with
regard to the increasing use of IT, for creating new ideas and for getting the desired
benefits.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
State six examples of careers in the field of information technology.
1.6 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN

MALAYSIA
The development and utilisation of IT is crucial to MalaysiaÊs plan to become a
fully developed nation. Several initiatives have been effected towards achieving
this status and they will be discussed in this subtopic.
1.6.1 Government Bodies in the Information and

Communication Technologies (ICT) Sector
The Malaysian Government formed a number of bodies to oversee and ensure that
the countryÊs Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) sector remains
competitive as a manufacturer and exporter of ICT products as well as to venture
into new areas such as the provision of ICT services, for example, e-commerce,
big-data analytics and mobile app technologies. Some of the important
organisations are listed in Table 1.9.

Table 1.9: Government and Industry Bodies in the ICT Sector
Symbol Organisation Name Overview
Malaysia MDEC is a government-owned

Digital Economy institution that is responsible for the
Corporation management of the Multimedia Super
(MDEC) Corridor, also known as MSC Malaysia.
www.mdec.my
Malaysian MCMC is the regulatory body that is

Communications entrusted with the role of promoting and
and Multimedia regulating communications and
Commission multimedia laws in Malaysia.
(MCMC)
www.skmm.gov.my
Ministry of Energy, Known as the Ministry of Science,

Science, Technology and Innovation prior to
Technology, 2018, MESTECC mainly focuses on
Environment and research and development, forging close
Climate Change collaboration with the industry,
(MESTECC) promoting the commercialisation of new
technologies in the marketplace and
increasing industrial productivity
through the application of science and
technology.
www.mestecc.gov.my
Malaysian Global MaGIC supports entrepreneurship

Innovation and development through creativity and
Creativity Centre innovation by enabling dynamic
(MaGIC) programmes and capacity-building
initiatives in collaboration with other
government agencies, corporate entities
and community groups.
www.mymagic.my
National ICT With a membership of over 800

Association of companies involved in the delivery of a
Malaysia or wide range of ICT products and services,
Persatuan Industri PIKOM represents the interest of the ICT
Komputer dan commercial sector. Collectively, its
Multimedia members command some 80 per cent of
Malaysia (PIKOM) the total IT trade in Malaysia.
www.pikom.org.my

1.6.2 MSC Malaysia

MSC Malaysia (formerly known as Multimedia Super Corridor) is a national
initiative to develop areas spanning Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya with high-speed
backbone communications networks to Japan, the US, Europe and ASEAN
countries. The main aim of this strategy is to spur the development of high-tech
businesses and industries that will provide competitive advantages to Malaysia in
the knowledge-based economy.
Essentially, the MSC Malaysia areas will serve as a platform for the ICT industry
and local companies to cluster together to develop ICT solutions such as enterprise
software, data warehousing, high-end specialised applications and e-commerce
operations. For example, Cyberjaya was a greenfield project that has been
purposefully planned and developed to be an „intelligent city‰, complete with the
latest ICT infrastructure and a modern university (Multimedia University) to
support multimedia industries, research and development centres, and to be used
by multinational corporations as their operation headquarters.
Foreign and local companies operating in MSC Malaysia are awarded MSC
Malaysia Status based on the relevance of their ICT businesses to the development
objectives of the government. The MSC initiative have thus far resulted in the
establishment of over 3,000 MSC Malaysia Status companies, creating jobs for
more than 16,000 knowledge workers.
1.6.3 Digital Governance

Digital or e-governance is where the government takes advantage of digital data
and high speed networks to optimise, transform and create government services
for all. The services are provided by the state or federal government. In other
words, the delivery of public services to the citizens, other individuals and
organisations which uses IT applications.
ICT affects e-governance processes in three different ways:
(a) Innovation
The use of ICT brought about a new and innovative way for government
services to be delivered to the people. For example, checking the status of an
application for business licenses, passports and work permits (after office
hours or during weekends when the office is closed) and instant access to
information on websites of ministries and other public institutions.

(b) Process Support

ICT is used as a complement to the existing processes in government
agencies. For example, the use of Internet and emails in reaching out, sharing
of information and connecting with the constituents.
(c) Process Automation

ICT is used in valuable ways that saves time when performing repetitive
tasks, thereby improving efficiency of governance. For example, filing of
income tax returns, e-voting and others.
ACTIVITY 1.3
A number of government departments and government-linked

organisations have developed their own websites and info kiosks. This
shows a rise in the realisation of the concept of information distribution
via the Internet.
Find seven examples of various government department websites or info

kiosks that are available over the Internet and write a brief synopsis for
each one.
 Information technology is defined as a broad-based technology that is required

to support information systems.
 The six differences between the information era and the previous eras (Senn,
1998) are the emergence of an information-based society, the success of
businesses and management jobs depends on IT, work processes are changed
and transformed to upgrade productivity, IT provides the basis for
optimisation, the success of IT depends on the effectiveness in using it and IT
is embedded or integrated into many products and services.
 The five components of IT are data, software, hardware, people and

procedures.
 The history of the development of computing can be basically summarised into

five generations of computers.

 In general, computers can be classified into the four classifications, which are
microcomputer, mainframe, minicomputer and supercomputer.
 The eight IT principles relate to being reliable, secure, flexible, fosters

innovation, responsive, easy and transparent, consistent interoperability and
affordable.
 There are six main IT functions, namely collecting, processing, generating,

storing, retrieving and delivering information. Four major benefits of IT in our
daily lives include the speed, consistency, accuracy and reliability of IT.
 Latest developments and opportunities in Malaysia created by the

advancement of IT should not be ignored.
Classification Information technology (IT)

Communication Malaysia Digital Economy
Corporation (MDEC)
Computer
Malaysian Global Innovation and
Digital governance Creativity Centre (MaGIC)
Information and communication MSC Malaysia
technology (ICT)
National ICT Association of Malaysia
Information era (PIKOM)

Behan, K., & Holmes, D. (1990). Understanding information technology: Text,

readings, and cases (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gaines, B. R. (1984). Perspective on fifth generation computing. Oxford Surveys in

Information Technology, 1, 1ă53.
Martin, E. W., Brown, C. V., DeHayes, D. W., Hoffer, J. A., & Perkins, W. C. (1998).
Managing information technology: What managers need to know (3rd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Reynolds, G. W. (2010). Information technology for managers. Boston, MA:

Cengage Learning.
Senn, J. A. (1998). Information technology in business: Principles, practices, and

opportunities (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Topic  Central
Processing
2 Unit (CPU)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain what Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory are;
2. Define data representation and coding scheme; and
3. State the various tools and hardware in the system unit.
 INTRODUCTION
A computer system is the combination of hardware and software. Hardware is the
physical manifestation of the computer while software consists of the programs
that command the hardware.
In this topic, we will discuss the most important hardware component, which is
the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU or processor is the centre of all
activities responsible for changing raw data into the required information in the
computer. Next, we will move to the most important computer hardware ă the
memory. This is the hardware component that works closely with the CPU. While
the CPU performs the complex processing, memory lends itself for storing data,
intermediate data and results for the CPU. Besides the processed data, the program
codes are also stored in the memory. The processor and the memory work hand-
in-hand while the computer is activated. Towards the end of this topic, the system
unit and the system clock will also be presented.

TOPIC 2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)  21
2.1 WHAT IS THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

(CPU)?
The CPU or also called the processor, interprets and carries out basic instructions
that control the operations of computers, smart devices or any machine in which it
is installed in. The processor significantly impacts overall computing power and
manages most of the computerÊs operations. It is a collection of complex electrical
circuits containing thousands or millions of transistors, which are placed or installed
over an integrated circuit. The integrated circuit is also called a chip, or microchip,
because all the transistors are designed or placed on a very small silicon chip.
The function of a CPU is to execute the stored software instructions, turning data
into information. These instructions are executed in „machine language‰.
Figure 2.1 illustrates how other devices, which are connected to the computer,
communicate with the processor to carry out a task. When a user runs an
application, its instructions (which are coded in a program) are transferred from a
storage device to memory. Data needed by programs and applications enters the
memory from either an input device or a storage device. The control unit interprets
and executes instructions in memory, and the arithmetic logic unit performs
calculations on the data in memory. The resulting information is stored in the
memory, from which it can be sent to an output device for immediate access by
the user or a storage device for future access, as needed.
Figure 2.1: Most devices connected to the computer

communicate with the processor to carry out a task

22  TOPIC 2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
There are two sections in a CPU, which are the Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU). Let us learn about these two sections.
2.1.1 Control Unit (CU)

The control unit of the processor can be compared to the brain in a human.
It informs the entire computer on how to execute program instructions. The three
functions of the control unit are shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Functions of the control unit
In other words, the control unit manages the taking of an instruction, decodes the
instruction to know its aim, instructs the arithmetic logic unit to execute the
instruction, and then directs storing of the results to the memory (primary storage),
register or cache.
2.1.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) executes two types of operations, namely basic
arithmetic operation and logical operation, as shown in Figure 2.3:
Figure 2.3: Functions of Arithmetic Logic Unit

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. State two sections of the CPU.
2. Explain the functions of the control unit.
3. What are two types of operations carried out in the arithmatic logic
unit?
ACTIVITY 2.1
In every computer, the CPU is like the „brain‰ of a computer. Explain

why the CPU is compared to the brain. Post your answer on the
myINSPIRE and compare with your coursemates.
2.2 MICROPROCESSOR CHIP

The CPU or processor can be present in various forms and is placed on a
motherboard. In a personal computer (PC), a processor is a microprocessor chip;
in bigger systems such as mainframes and supercomputers, a few circuit boards
are used. For smart devices such as mobile phones, the processor is integrated onto
a single chipset, referred to as System-on-a-Chip (SoC).
2.2.1 Microprocessor Classification

The microprocessor chip can be classified into several types, with the main
classifications being:
(a) Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) Chip

Microprocessors that are commonly used are the complex instruction set
computing chip. This technology was popularised by Intel and has become
the basis of its microprocessors. This chip design has been widely used and
many programs have been written specifically for this type of chip.
(b) Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) Chip

This type of computer chip uses the approach of reduced instruction set
computing, which involves less instruction. Its design is simpler and cheaper
than the complex instruction set computing chip. This chip is mostly used in
high-powered microcomputers.

2.2.2 Personal Computer and Mobile Device

Microprocessors
The leading manufacturers of personal computer processor chips are Intel and
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). AMD manufactures Intel-compatible
processors, which have an internal design similar to Intel processors, perform the
same functions and can be as powerful, but are often much cheaper. IntelÊs desktop
CPUs include Celeron, Pentium and Core series. AMDÊs desktop processors
include Sempron, Athlon and Phenom. These manufacturers often identify their
processor chips by a model name or model number such as Intel Core i9-9900K
processor.
Processor chips include technologies to improve processing performance

(for example, to improve performance of media and 3D graphics). Some also
include the technology to track computer hardware and software, diagnose and
resolve computer problems, and secure computers from external threats.
Processors for mobile computers also include the technology to optimise and
extend the battery life and integrate wireless capabilities. Smaller mobile devices
often use more compact processors that consume less power, yet offer high
performance.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
State two examples of microprocessor chips manufactured by Intel and

AMD, and their uses.
2.3 MEMORY
The memory is separated from the CPU but is normally integrated with it and is
accessed by it. Data and instructions need to be present inside the memory before
it is being accessed by the CPU. The memory simply holds the data and
instructions temporarily as long as the program being used is operational.
In general, the storage space for the memory can be used in five different forms for
the following:
(a) Storing the operating system and other system software programs that act as
interfaces between hardware and application programs, and controlling
computer resources;

(b) Storing application programs like word processors, spreadsheets and

databases;
(c) Storing data temporarily, that is, data received from input devices or
secondary storage to be processed or to be sent to output devices or
secondary storage after processing;
(d) Storing data required during processing inside an area of storage work; and
(e) Providing additional storage space to programs or data, if required. If the

computer has excessive storage space for memory, the excess space will not
be used but it can or is ready to be used. The total memory utilisation changes
during processing.
Figure 2.4 illustrates how the memory communicates with the processor.
A computer processes and stores data as a series of electronic bits. These bits
transfer internally within the circuitry of the computer along electrical channels.
Each channel, called a bus, allows the various devices, both inside and attached to
the system unit, to communicate with one another. Just as vehicles travel on a
highway to move from one destination to another, bits travel on a bus.
In the Figure 2.4 model, all the bits of data are connected to the same system bus.
When a node in the bus (like the CPU) wants to read or write something to the
memory, it puts the address of the memory block to write onto the address bus
and data to the data bus, then raises the appropriate signal on the control bus like
R (read) or W (write) to inform other devices. When one of the other nodes notices
that the address belongs to it, it will capture the address and execute the
instruction, in this case getting the data out and putting it on the data bus for the
relevant node to read back.

Figure 2.4: Methods of how the memory communicates with the processor
There are three types of memory chips, which are random access memory (RAM),
read only memory (ROM) and complementary metal oxide semiconductor
(CMOS). Figure 2.5 shows examples of these memory chips.
Figure 2.5: Examples of the three types of memory chips
SELF-CHECK 2.3
There are many types of memory inside a computer. What are the main
functions of memory?

2.3.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)

The RAM stores the programs and the data being processed by the CPU. It is a
temporary storage because as soon as the electrical switch is turned off, all that has
been saved in the random access memory will be lost. However, there is a new
type of random access memory that can store programs and data permanently.
Flash RAM or flash memory chip can store data even when there is an electrical
failure. This type of memory is more expensive than the normal random access
memory and is mostly used in portable computers. The capability or content of the
random access memory is measured in bytes. Four units of measurement that are
normally used to describe memory capability are as shown in Table 2.1:
Table 2.1: Memory Capacity
Unit Capacity (Bytes)
Kilobyte (KB) 1,024

Megabyte (MB) 1,024,000
Gigabyte (GB) 1,024,000,000
Terabyte (TB) 1,024,000,000,000
Two types of random access memory chips that are normally used are:
(a) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Memory that holds data in a dynamic manner. Data is not stored
continuously. Instead, the computer will refresh the data hundreds of times
every second. It is normally used in personal computers.
(b) Static RAM (SRAM)

Memory that holds data continuously, for as long as there is electricity,
without any refresh process. It is faster than DRAM but its design is more
complex.
ACTIVITY 2.2
To learn more about computer memory, visit:
http://www.howstuffworks.com/computer-memory.htm
Share what you have learnt on the myINSPIRE online forum.

2.3.2 Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is where a program that controls the basic operations of the computer is
loaded in at the factory. Program stored in the ROM chip does not evaporate and
cannot be changed by users. „Read only‰ means that the CPU can read or access
the program written inside the ROM chip but it cannot write, encode or change
any data or instruction inside the ROM. There are four types of commonly used
ROM (see Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Four Types of ROM
Type Function
Programmable ROM (PROM) Program that can only read memory.
Erasable Programmable ROM The content of which can be erased by using the ultra-
(EPROM) violet ray method.
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM that can be erased by electricity,

Programmable ROM the content of which can be changed or programmed
(EEPROM) electronically.
Flash Memory Also known as flash ROM ă Flash memory can be

erased and programmed electronically.
2.3.3 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

(CMOS)
The CMOS chip provides flexibility and expandability to the computer system.
It contains important information that is required every time the computer system
is turned on. This chip provides information such as the total random access
memory size, types of keyboard, mouse, monitor and disc drive. It uses battery
power and its content remains permanent even after the electricity supply is
disconnected. Its content changes according to changes inside the computer
system, for example, the addition of a new hardware and random access memory.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
What do you know about flash memory? State the differences and
similarities between flash memory and ROM or RAM.

2.4 DATA REPRESENTATION

The computer considers all data, numbers, alphabets and symbols as numbers.
Even the computer instructions are also in numerical form (machine language).
The numbering systems used by computers are the binary numbers, hexadecimal
numbers and octal numbers as shown in Table 2.3. Computers use binary digits ă
zero (0) and one (1) ă normally called bit, to represent data.
Table 2.3: Numbering System Symbols
Numbering System Number of Symbol Symbols Used
Binary 2 0, 1
Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
There are three binary coding schemes ă the most popular one uses eight bits to
form one byte. These codes are ASCII, EBCDIC and Unicode, as explained in
Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Coding Schemes
Code Definition
American Standard These codes represent text in computers, communication

Code for Information equipment and other devices that use text.
Interchange (ASCII)
Extended Binary Coded An 8-bit character encoding that is usually used in the IBM
Decimal Interchange mainframe operating systems and the IBM computer.
Code (EBCDIC)
Unicode A 16-bit code invented to cater for the need of the

international languages like Chinese and Japanese.
When a key is depressed on the keyboard, the character is changed automatically

to a series of electronic pulses that can be recognised by the system. For example,
when the key A is pressed, it will cause an electronic signal to be transmitted to
the microcomputerÊs system unit. The system unit will then change the signal into
ASCII code, which is, 0100 0001. Before execution, all instructions and data need
to be converted into binary form. For example, 3 + 5 requires 24 bits with the use
of ASCII coding scheme.

SELF-CHECK 2.5
We know that people interact by using language. How do computers

interact? Explain.
2.5 SYSTEM UNIT

The system unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory chips,
ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and related circuits
are placed) and other electrical components are located. It is also called the „system
cabinet‰ for the mainframes or the „system board‰ for the microcomputers. Even
though the system unit also includes hard disks, floppy disks, CD-ROM and
others, we are not going to discuss these devices, as they are located outside the
CPU. We are only going to focus on the following sections.
2.5.1 Power Supply

The power supply plays the role of changing electrical current from alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC). Normally, there is a fan to cool down the
transformer and other components. If the electrical power is not uniform (for
example, there is high and low voltage or power surge), this may spoil the main
board, hard disks and others. Hence, it would be better to install a special
equipment like uninterrupted power supply (UPS), voltage regulator and so on.
2.5.2 Motherboard
The motherboard (also known as system board, mainboard, logic board and planar
board) is a communication network for the entire computer system. Every
component of the system unit is connected directly to the motherboard.
It functions as a data bus that enables various components to communicate with
each other. External devices like the keyboard, mouse and monitor cannot
communicate with the system unit without the motherboard.
The motherboard is a thin circuit board that is filled up with sockets and electronic
components including various types of chips. One chip contains a very small
circuit board embedded in a stamp size piece of silicon. This chip is also known as
the silicon chip, semiconductor or integrated circuit. The chips are packaged and
inserted into the sockets of the motherboard. These electronic components and
chips are fixed to the system board as illustrated in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Components of motherboard
2.5.3 ROM Chip

The ROM chip contains a program that has been developed and „burnt‰ into the
chip at the factory. It is the program that is required to start operating the computer
ă such as hardware checking, basic input/output system (BIOS) and so on. It is
usually called the BIOS chip, and is partly hardware and partly software.
The BIOS provides a service enabling software to communicate with the input and
output devices. The ROM BIOS contains specific instructions. When a computer is
switched on, the BIOS will perform power-on self-test (POST) such as diagnostic
tests for the CPU and memory. It will then test communications with the hardware
such as the keyboard, disk drive and others. Finally, the BIOS will boot up the
operating system and submit control to the operating system.

2.5.4 Slot and Expansion Board

Many computers are of the open architecture, where we can open up and add on
new devices, and then expand its capability. Expansion means adding more
memory, devices or software. This is made possible through the expansion slot
and the expansion board.
The expansion slot is a socket on the main board, which enables an expansion card
to be installed. An expansion card, or expansion board, or adapter, or simply called
card, is actually a circuit board that can add more memory, input/output device
control or software to a computer.
An expansion card is inserted into the slot inside the system unit. A port on the
card enables cabling to be connected from the added card to the device outside the
system unit. We will see the various functions of the boards or cards as shown in
Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Functions of Boards or Cards
Board or Card Function
Network Adapter Connects one computer to other computers. This is a

Card communication network in which users can share data,
programs and hardware. This card normally connects the system
unit to a cable that connects other devices in the network. The
network adapter card is inserted into the slot inside the system
unit.
Small Computer Most computers have limited expansion slots. The SCSI card uses
System Interface only one slot but it can connect up to seven devices to the system
(SCSI) Card unit. This card is used to connect devices like the printer, hard
disc drive and CD-ROM to the system unit.
TV Adjuster Card The TV board that contains the TV and video adjuster can change
the TV signals to a format that can be displayed on the monitor.
PC Card Due to the size and limitations of the PC, an additional board the
size of a credit card has been created. This card can easily be
slotted in and changed from the outside of portable computers.
This is called the personal computer card or the Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association.
Memory Expansion It is useful for increasing memory and associating with other
computers. It enables the addition of random access memory
chips.

Display Adapter Enables various colour video displays for single or multiple
Card monitors to be used.
Control Card Enables the CPU to work with various software devices such as
the disk control card.
Accelerator Card Increases the speed of computers.
Emulator Card Enables computers to emulate other devices such as the

terminals.
Fax Modem Card Receives fax/data/information via telephone lines.
Graphic Adapter Enables computers to use a certain graphic standard.
Sound Card Translates data into sound output.
Voice Card Enables voice output.
2.5.5 Port
The port is a connecting socket located outside the system unit. The port enables
software devices or input/output devices to be plugged in for connection to the
computer so that they can communicate with the computer system. A cable can be
used to connect input/output devices to the system unit through the port as shown
in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: Different types of ports

There are various types of ports and their functions are as shown in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6: Various Types of Ports and Their Functions
Type of Port Function
Parallel Port It is used for connecting external devices, which sends or receives
data in big amounts at a short distance. This port normally sends
simultaneously 8-bit data via eight parallel wires. A parallel port
is used to connect a printer to the system unit.
Serial Port It connects the mouse, keyboard, modem and other devices to the
system unit. Serial port sends data one bit at a time and is suitable
for sending information at long distance.
Accelerated It is used for connecting to the monitor and can support high-
Graphic Port speed graphics and other video inputs.
(AGP)
Universal Serial It is forecasted to replace serial and parallel ports. It is fast and
Bus (USB) Port one USB port can connect a few devices to the system unit.
Electrical Wire The latest port that is faster than the USB port, and is used to
Port connect high-speed printers and video cameras to the system
unit.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
1. What are the functions of the graphic adapter card? Give examples.
2. What is a motherboard? Explain the contents of the motherboard

that is in your PC.
2.6 SYSTEM CLOCK

The system clock is a circuit chip, which generates electronic pulses at a fixed rate
to synchronise or control timing activities of processing. The control unit is very
dependent on the system clock for doing its jobs. The system clock controls the
speed of operation inside the computer. This speed is measured in megahertz
(MHz). One megahertz is equal to one million cycles per second. The faster the
clock speeds, the faster the computerÊs ability to process information.

2.7 BUS LINE

The bus line is also known as data bus or simply „bus‰, which connects the CPU
components with each other. It also connects the CPU to various other components
on the motherboard. The bus is a data passage way along which bits move; this
data passage way is similar to the highway. The more lanes it has, the faster the
traffic moves. Similarly, the bigger the bus capacity is, the faster the speed of
computer execution. Figure 2.8 shows the bus line on the CPU.
Figure 2.8: Bus line
When a microprocessor chip changes, the bus line also changes. Most of the
devices like the expansion board will work with one type of bus only.
ACTIVITY 2.3
In a group, discuss how data moves inside the computer. Post your
conclusion on the myINSPIRE online forum.

 CPU is divided into two sections or units, which are the control unit (CU) and
arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
 What the control unit of the processor is to the computer can be thought of as
the equivalent of the brain to the body. It informs the entire computer on how
to execute program instructions.
 ALU executes two types of operations, which are arithmetic operation and
logical operation.
 The CPU and memory is interdependent. However, the memory is not part of
the CPU.
 The RAM stores the programs and data being processed by the CPU.
 The ROM chip contains a program that is loaded in the factory. The chip does
not evaporate and cannot be changed by users.
 The system unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory
chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and
related circuits are placed) and other electrical components are located.
 The system clock is a circuit chip, which generates electronic pulses at a fixed
rate to synchronise or control timing activities of processing.
 The bus line is also known as data bus or simply „bus‰, which connects the
CPU components with each other.

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) Hardware

Bus line Motherboard
Central processing unit (CPU) Random access memory (RAM)
Complementary metal oxide Read only memory (ROM)
semiconductor (CMOS)
Software
Control unit
Static random access memory (SRAM)
Dynamic random access memory
(DRAM)

Topic  Input and
Output
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain various input methods and devices;
2. Explain various output methods and devices; and
3. Identify different types of input and output devices.
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you have been introduced to the processor and memory, two
most important components of computer hardware. To enable the processor to
process data and the memory to store them, data needs to be brought into the
computer. After processing, the resulted information needs to be taken out of the
computer. These two jobs of taking in the data and taking out the information are
done by the input/output unit of the computer system.
In this topic, you will learn about various input and output methods. The keyboard
is the most popular input device used. Besides the keyboard, there are many other
latest input and output (I/O) devices that are available in the market. They will
also be discussed here.
3.1 INPUT AND OUTPUT

Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is to enable data to be
carried from users to the computer. Input may be required to answer questions
and it needs processing. Output is like a link between computer processing and
people. Output to be produced is determined by the analysis of user needs.
I/O devices are also referred to as peripherals. We are going to see how I/O
devices work.
TOPIC 3 INPUT AND OUTPUT  39
ACTIVITY 3.1
Think of the various methods that we can interact with a computer.

Discuss with your coursemates, the pros and cons of each method and
share your conclusions in the myINSPIRE online forum.
3.2 INPUT METHODS

Various types of source documents require various input methods and devices
(refer to Figure 3.1). Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by the
machine (computer) and transferred as input, directly into the computer. Indirect
data entry requires various media and processing of the data source before the
actual computer processing.
Figure 3.1: Examples of input devices

40  TOPIC 3 INPUT AND OUTPUT
In general, there are three approaches to data entry, as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Three Approaches to Data Entry
Approach Description
Offline data entry After data has been entered, it will be changed into a suitable
form and will be verified. Data will be corrected if there are
errors. All data that has been confirmed as correct will be
processed. This method is less often used now and this is also
referred to as batch method.
Online data entry Similar to offline data entry, the difference is that the data
entered is directly examined and corrected. After all the data
has been entered, processing will then be done on them.
Interactive data entry Similar to online data entry, except that the data is examined
every time it is entered and processing on the data is done
immediately. There is no need to wait for all data to be
entered first before processing.
Input devices take data and programs that can be read or understood by humans,
and convert them into a form that can be processed by the computer. This new
form consists of electronic signals of „0‰ and „1‰, which can be read by machines
as explained in the Topic 2 Subtopic 2.4 on data representation.
There are two types of input method:
(a) Entry via Keyboard

Data is transferred as input into the computer via a keyboard that resembles
the keyboard of a typewriter but contains a few additional keys. For this type
of entry, users read the original document, called source document. The
contents of this document will be entered via keyboard.
(b) Direct Entry

Data is already in a machine-readable form and simultaneously entered into
the computer, without using keyboard.
An example of an input device that uses both types of entries (entry via keyboard
and direct entry) is the point-of-sale (POS) terminal. It is a kind of electronic cash
register that is widely used in business.

3.2.1 Keyboard
The most popular input device is the keyboard, which comprises the keyboard for
data entry and a terminal for displaying what has been entered (see Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: A keyboard
The keyboard contains a buffer and a control key. Whatever is typed is stored
inside the buffer (which can store more than one symbol) and later, scanned by the
computer processor after receiving interrupt signals from the control key. There
are various forms, styles, sizes, arrangements, touch or feel and the number of
keys. The following describes the characteristics common to most keyboards:
(a) Number of Keys

Normally there are 101 keys, however, it also depends on the types of
computers, especially types of microcomputers, whether desktop or
handheld. Handheld computers provide fewer numbers of keys because of
their small size.
(b) Group/Type of Keys

There are three types of keys, as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Types of Keys on the Keyboard
Type of Keys Description
Alphanumeric Consists of numbers and alphabets, similar to the typewriter.
Cursor Cursor is a symbol on the display screen, which shows the site of
Movement data to be entered. It is also called „arrow‰.
Numeric Also called numeric keypad, these are separate keys for numbers
(0ă9), which have been arranged like a calculator. Sometimes, there
are two objectives, depending on the Num Lock key, i.e. cursor or
numeric movements.

(c) Functions
Keys that are labelled as F and normally F1−F12 have their functions defined
by the software.
(d) Special Objectives

Normally called additional keys, these are keys which have specific tasks
such as Backspace, Delete, Insert, Escape, Home, Pause, Print Screen and
others.
(e) Arrangement
Arrangements of alphanumeric keys, which normally follows the QWERTY
order because the first five keys at the top line for alphanumeric letters are
Q, W, E, R, T and Y. A new arrangement is the DVORAK order. This new
arrangement of keys is made following the use of keys, that is, the keys that
are always used will be placed at an easily accessible location. As such, vowel
letters A, E, I, O and U are normally placed on the left while D, H, N, S and
T on the right. The next five keys that are most often used are placed on the
top line and so on.
(f) Touch/Feel
Nowadays, the softness of pressing the keys and the sound emitted can be
controlled by the software.
(g) Styles (and Size or Shape)

These are designed according to its inventor, to be user-friendly and more
ergonomic. Ergonomics is a study of how to make something user-friendly,
less danger-prone or less uncomfortable to users.
(h) Physical versus Virtual

Nowadays, mobility is the top concern for everyone. Most people want to be
able to move hassle free. With this concern in mind, the virtual projection
keyboard was designed and developed. Virtual keyboard works by
projecting the keyboard image on a surface (for example, a table top as shown
in Figure 3.3). The right keystroke is captured when the user presses an area
covered by the image of the key.

Figure 3.3: Virtual keyboard
3.2.2 Terminal
The terminal is a device that connects you to a mainframe or other types of
computers called a host computer or server. There are three types of terminals as
shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Three Types of Terminals
Terminal Description
Dumb Terminals Used to input and to receive data, but cannot process data by
themselves. They are used only to access information from the
computer and are often found at airline companies, post offices and
road transport department offices.
Intelligent They have a processing unit, memory and secondary storage like a
Terminals magnetic disk. Basically, an intelligent terminal is a microcomputer
with the communication software and modem or other
communication connectivity. This connects the terminals to a bigger
computer or the Internet.
Terminals Also known as network computers, they are cheaper alternatives to

intelligent terminals. Most network terminals do not have a hard
disk drive and must rely on the host computer or the server for their
system and application software.

3.2.3 Pointing Device

Pointing is a natural human activity. Examples of devices that utilise this method
is shown in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Examples of pointing devices
(a) Mouse
Move (roll) to direct a pointer/cursor/icon on the screen. As your move a
mouse, the pointer on the screen also moves, this makes the vertical and
horizontal coordinates (position) of the mouse cursor changes. By checking
the coordinate, a computer can determine the cursorÊs position and displays
the cursor on the screen. It is considered to be the most user-friendly device.
There are three types of the mouse as described in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Three Types of Mouse
Mouse Description
Trackball Mouse It uses balls to move and also known as a mechanical mouse.
Optical Mouse It uses light and requires a mouse pad that can reflect the light.
This mouse contains a section called photo-detector. It functions
like the ball mouse and is normally used on a high-powered
computer like a server.
Wireless Mouse It communicates with the computer by emitting infrared signals or

low-intensity radio signals (see Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5: Wireless mouse
(b) Touch Pad

This has a small flat, rectangular pointing device that is sensitive to finger
touch, pressure and motion for moving the icons cursor.
(c) Touch Screen

It is a monitor screen that is overlaid with a plastic layer. At the back of the
layer, there is an invisible, criss-crossing infrared light. This arrangement
enables a user to choose either an action or instruction on the screen by using
fingers. The touch screen is easier to use, especially when someone requires
information immediately. It is usually used at automatic teller machines,
information kiosks, selected restaurants and petrol stations.
(d) Light Pen

It is a pen or a device like a pen, which is light sensitive and connected via a
cable to a computer. The location (or choice) is identified by pressing its
button against a specific position on the screen. It is normally used for
drawing images and selection of menu.

(e) Digital Board

It is a device that can be used to plot or copy certain drawing or picture. The
item to be copied is placed on a digital tablet. Then, a specific stylus
connected to the computer is used to plot the material. As the stylus moves
from one location to another, the computer records the locations from the
digital tablet. When the material has been plotted, the image can be displayed
on screen, printed on paper or stored in a computer system for future use.
Digitisers are normally used by designers, architects and engineers.
(f) Pen-based System

This uses a pen to enter handwritings or marks into the computer containing
software to identify and digitise handwritings and also hand drawings.
There are four types of pen-based systems as explained in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Types of Pen-based Systems
Pen-based System Description
Recognition of Signal Movement A system that can recognise various reading

or Electronic Checking marks, letters and printed numbers.
Handwriting Saved as a Sketch/ Handwriting is saved as a brief and not as a type-

Brief written text.
Handwriting Changed to Type- A system that can be trained to recognise clear and
written Text with Training good handwriting.
Handwriting Changed to Type- This system is the most difficult and complex.
written Text without Training
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. How do computers receive data from the mouse?
2. State two types of pointing devices.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Normally, data is entered into the computer via keyboard. Do you know
of other methods that are used to enter data? List and explain how the
methods work.

3.2.4 Scanning Device

Scanning devices translate images, texts, drawings, pictures and similar items into
a digital form for direct entry to the computer. Images that have been processed
can be displayed on the screen, saved on the storage device and sent to other
computers. There are two technologies ă optical recognition and magnetic
recognition (see Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Recognition technologies
(a) Optical Recognition

This technology device, also known as the optical reader, uses light to scan
images. Examples of optical recognition devices are illustrated in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Optical recognition
(i) Optical Mark Reader

An optical mark reader is used as a device that reads pencil marks in
UPSR and PMR examinations and can be used for marking the multiple
choice questions (MCQ) of Section A, OUM final examinations.
(ii) Fax Machine

A fax machine (see Figure 3.8) is used for scanning images and sending
them electronically via telephone line to a destination (fax machine).
There are two types:
● Dedicated fax machine or simply known as fax machine; and
● Fax modem, which is installed in a computer to enable electronic

documents to be sent directly to its receiver (either fax machine or
computer). It is faster but cannot scan non-electronic documents.

Figure 3.8: A fax machine
(iii) Barcode Reader

It is used for reading input in bar form, that is, marks that resemble
vertically-shaped zebra stripes.
(iv) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

An optical character reader is used for reading specific pre-printed
characters (in specific font), for example the OCR-A font (the one
perfected by ANSI).
(v) Optical Handwriting Reader

An optical handwriting reader is used for reading handwriting,
however, its capability is still limited.
(vi) Imaging System

It is an image-scanning device that converts all texts, drawings, pictures
and others into digital form. Imaging system technology has created
imaging industries by combining the use of scanners, cameras and
other devices.
(b) Magnetic Recognition

This uses magnetic methods to scan magnetic writing. The technological
device used is the magnetic ink character reader (MICR). The MICR reads
the number (in strange form) that is printed using magnetic ink. The MICR
is often used in cheques to facilitate sorting, as done by the central bank of
Malaysia and other banks.

(c) Voice Recognition Device

It converts human voice/speech into digital codes. Human voice is
transferred through a microphone that is connected to a computer. When this
input device is combined with sound cards and appropriate software, a
sound recognition system is formed. This system enables a user to operate a
microcomputer to develop documents by giving orders using the human
voice. It has the potential to be used as a security method.
(d) Smart and Optical Card

The smart card refers to the multi-purpose card or the MyKad, which is
distributed by the National Registration Department, as well as credit and
debit cards distributed by various commercial banks such as Maybank and
CIMB bank. The use of the optical card is still restricted despite its ability to
store information of up to 2,000 pages as compared to smart cards (able to
store information up to 30 pages, depending on the capability of the
microprocessor) and magnetic cards (able to store information of up to half
a page).
3.2.5 Other Input Devices

There are other input devices that can receive input in the form of audio, video,
electronic pictures, senses and human biology. Most of these tools enable the use
of multimedia and some are used for security objectives such as the concept of
biometry. We can see various other input devices in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: Other input devices
(a) Audio Input Device

It is used to record or play analogue music into digital form. It can generally
receive various forms of sound as input, whereas a sound recognition device
can receive only one type of audio input, that is, sound input. There are two
methods of digitising the audio:
(i) Audio Board ă The board that changes analogue sound to digital sound
and saves it for future use; and
(ii) Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) Board ă It emits digital

music, which normally uses the musical instrument digital interface
keyboard.

(b) Video Input Device

Enables video pictures to be converted into digital form through a specific
card. There are two types of video card:
(i) Frame Capture ă Can digitise one frame at a time only; and
(ii) Full Movement ă Can convert at the rate of 30 frames per second.
The main problem here is storage, not the input. Nowadays, digital video
cameras are available in the market, where the output is in digital form.
Digital video recorders will facilitate multimedia presentation or a form of
new broadcasting on the Internet, that is, web television.
(c) Electronic/Digital Camera

It is similar to the traditional camera except that images are recorded digitally
in the camera or inside the camera memory and not on film. You can snap a
picture, look at it and place it on the website within a few minutes.
Figure 3.10: A digital camera
(d) Sensor
These are input devices that collect data in specific forms directly from the
environment and send them to the computer. Sensors can be used to track
data such as speed, weight, temperature, image, shape, light, air pollution
and so forth. Have you ever weighed yourself using an audio enabled
weighing scale at the supermarket? That is one example of using a sensing
device to measure your weight as well as your height.

SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. Name five input devices and describe how they work.
2. What is the difference between offline data entry and interactive

data entry?
3. State two examples of optical recognition and magnetic recognition

technologies.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Discuss with a coursemate what is the most common type of input device
used today. In addition, discuss why there are various types of input
devices.
Share the conclusions of your discussion in the myINSPIRE online forum.
3.3 INPUT CONTROL

There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent them
from becoming „garbage in garbage out‰ (GIGO). Input control is a collection of
manual and computer control methods that have been designed to ensure all input
data are accurate when they are entered into the computer.
ACTIVITY 3.4
How do we know the data we have entered into the computer is correct?
Discuss with your coursemates.

3.4 OUTPUT METHODS

Output can take various forms such as screen output, printed paper, cathode ray,
signals, voice, microfilm and many others. In general, there are two types of output
(see Figure 3.11).
Figure 3.11: Two types of output
Besides soft copies and hard copies, decisions on output largely depend on a
number of factors such as:
(a) Frequency of output required ă Always, regular, upon request or

unpredictable;
(b) Cost involved;
(c) How much output to be produced;
(d) How fast the information is required; and
(e) Situation of the users.
ACTIVITY 3.5
How do we view the processing results after the data has been processed
by the computer? Try to figure out how the results are displayed and
discuss it with your coursemates.

3.5 OUTPUT DEVICES

Data entered needs to be processed by the computer so that it is in a machine
readable form until the output device converts them into a form that can be read
by humans. Output devices which are used together with microcomputers are the
monitor, printer, plotter and voice output device. We can see examples of output
devices in Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12: Output devices

3.5.1 Printer
The image displayed on the monitor is often referred to as soft copy. Information
that is produced on paper, whether from printer or plotter is called a hard copy
(see Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13: A printer
Three popular types of printers which are often used together with
microcomputers are as follows:
(a) Ink Jet Printer

Sends out droplets of ink at high speed onto the surface of paper. This
process not only produces high quality images but also allows printing to
happen in various colours. An ink jet printer is a printer that is reliable, quiet
and cheap.
(b) Laser Printer

Utilises the emission of a laser beam onto the drum and is transferred onto
paper by using the toner (as used in the photocopy machine). There is a laser
printer that is classified as a postscript printer. PostScript is a printer
language, often called Page Description Language (PDL), which has been
accepted as the standard for laser printer.
(c) Thermal Printer

Uses heat element to produce images on heat-sensitive paper. Originally, this
printer is used in scientific laboratories to record data. This printer is used
specifically to produce output that is almost similar to photographs.

(d) 3-D Printer

One of the latest invention for printers is the 3D printer. 3D printer, as its
name suggests, is able to print solid objects. Solid objects that can be printed
include toys, prosthetics, clothing and prototypes (see Figure 3.14). The
material used for printing is normally plastic substance that is used to create
the 3D object. Other than plastic, steel and wax can also be used based on the
required model to be produced.
Figure 3.14: A 3D printer
The measure of printer speed depends on the type of printer or the method of
printing, whether on the basis of characters, lines or pages. The speed is characters
per second, lines per minute or pages per minute. Most printer models are desktop
printers which are difficult to move around (depending on size). The use of laptop
computers leads to portable printers.
Among the criteria in choosing printers are image quality, speed, level of noise and
cost of operation such as ink cost and spare parts.

SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. What are the factors that influence the speed of a printer?
2. Describe two types of printers that are popular now.
3.5.2 Monitor
Monitors are used for output as well as for input. There are two types of monitors
ă cathode ray tube (see Figure 3.15) and flat panel display (see Figure 3.16).
(a) Cathode Ray Tube

It is a vacuum tube that is used as a display screen for the computer or video
display terminal. The technology is the same as the television. The cathode
ray tube is an output device commonly used together with the computer.
The smallest unit on the screen is called a pixel (picture element).
Figure 3.15: A cathode ray tube monitor

(b) Flat Panel Display

It is lighter, thinner and uses less power compared to cathode ray tube. This
panel is made of two pieces of glass/plastic that have activated materials
among them.
Figure 3.16: A flat panel display monitor
The clarity of a monitor is determined by the resolution which is measured in

pixels. A pixel is a dot or „picture element‰ that forms an image on the monitor.
For certain monitor size, higher resolution (more pixels) leads to clearer image.
For certain degree of clarity, bigger monitor requires higher resolution.
A number of standards have been developed in determining the degree of

computer resolutions. Four standards that are commonly used now are shown in
Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Computer Resolution Standards
Standard Definition
Super Video Graphics Minimum resolution of 800  600 pixels.
Array (SVGA)
Extended Graphics Resolution up to 1,024  768 pixels; popular standard now.
Array (XGA)
Super Extended Resolution of 1,280  1,024 pixels.
Graphics Array (SXGA)
Ultra Extended The latest and highest standard; its use is continuously
Graphics Array growing, especially for high level engineering designs and
(UXGA) for graphical fine arts.

3.5.3 Plotter
Plotters are used specifically for producing bar charts, maps, architectural
drawings and three-dimensional illustrations. A plotter can produce multi-
coloured documents of high quality and also documents bigger than that
produced by other printers. There are four types of plotters as follows:
(a) Pen Plotter

It moves pens or pencils on the paper draft. This plotter is very cheap and
easy to maintain, however, it is slow and less capable of producing
voluminous images and shaded images.
(b) Electrostatic Plotter

It uses electrostatic charge that is faster than a pen plotter or an ink jet plotter.
An electrostatic plotter is used for applications that require voluminous
output of high quality such as those in advertising and graphic arts design.
(c) Ink Jet Plotter

It produces art lines and multi-coloured output by emitting droplets of ink
onto the paper surface. Its best characteristics are speed, high quality output
and operating quietly. Its main weakness is the possibility of its jet getting
blocked and this will require more maintenance.
(d) Direct Imaging Plotter or Thermal Plotter

It produces an image by using heat-sensitive paper and pin heated by
electricity. Its cost is almost the same as the electrostatic plotter. It is reliable
and suitable for voluminous amount of work. Its main weakness is the need
for expensive paper. In addition, it normally produces an output of two
colours only. It is suitable for map-making applications.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
1. What is a plotter used for? Elaborate.
2. State the differences between a cathode ray tube monitor and a flat
panel display monitor.

ACTIVITY 3.6
In your opinion, what is the difference between a printer and a plotter?

Post your answer and compare with your coursemates on myINSPIRE.
3.5.4 Voice Output Device

There are two types of technologies, namely voice output as shown in Figure 3.17
(speech coding and synthesising) and sound output as shown in Figure 3.18
(frequency modulation synthesising and virtual acoustic).
Figure 3.17: Voice output

Figure 3.18: Sound output
 Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is to enable data to
be carried from users to computer.
 Output is like a link between computer processing and people.
 Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by a machine (computer) and
transferred as input directly into the computer.
 Indirect data entry requires various media and the processing of the data
source before the actual computer processing.
 There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent it
from becoming garbage in garbage out.

 Output can take various forms such as screen output, printed paper, signals,
voice, microfilm and others.
 Output devices which are used together with microcomputers are the monitor,
printer, plotter and voice output device.
Acoustic Output devices

Data entry Plotter
Garbage in garbage out (GIGO) Pointing device
Hard copy Point-of-sale (POS)
Input devices Printer
Keyboard Scanning device
Magnetic recognition Soft copy
Monitor Terminal
Optical recognition

Topic  Secondary
Storage
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe five advantages of secondary storage;
2. Explain two types of magnetic storage;
3. Identify four types of optical storage; and
4. Identify other types of storage devices.
 INTRODUCTION
After discussing about input and output in the previous topic, we shall now move
on to another computer component device ă secondary storage. You will be
introduced to various types of secondary storage in the market together with their
comparisons.
4.1 THE BASICS OF STORAGE

Storage in a computer holds data and information to be retrieved for future use.
Users normally store digital photos, videos, audios and documents. As a student,
the capacity of a computer to store your learning materials such as digital notes
and assignment works is very crucial. Besides the usage by users, the computer
itself does need storage to store its system and application software.
While primary storage holds data temporarily, secondary storage does otherwise.
Secondary storage is the physical material on which a computer stores data,
instructions and information. A storage device has been designed to store data and
instructions in a permanent form and to retrieve them back. The process of

TOPIC 4 SECONDARY STORAGE  65
transferring data, instructions and information from computer memory to a

secondary storage is called Writing. Reading, on the other hand, is the process of
transferring these items from storage medium into memory.
Figure 4.1 shows some common types of secondary storage which are widely used
today. It is also a method of storing data, information and instructions outside the
computer.
Figure 4.1: Variety of secondary storage devices
On the latest technological development, primary storage is moving towards a

large capacity using small micro electrical circuits while secondary storage is
moving towards a large capacity using magnetic and optical media. Examples of
secondary storage are hard disks, solid state drives, memory cards, universal serial
bus (USB) flash drives, optical disks, smart cards, magnetic strip cards and
microfilm. Cloud storage is another latest storage option in which the storage
media is not visible to the users.

66  TOPIC 4 SECONDARY STORAGE
Capacity of a storage medium refers to the number of bytes (characters) that can
be held by a storage medium. Table 4.1 shows the capacity of a storage medium.
Table 4.1: Storage Capacity
Approximate
Storage Term Exact Number of Bytes
Number of Bytes
Kilobyte (KB) 1 thousand 210 or 1,024

Megabyte (MB) 1 million 220 or 1,048,576
Gigabyte (GB) 1 billion 230 or 1,073,741,824
Terabyte (TB) 1 trillion 240 or 1,099,511,627,776
Petabyte (PB) 1 quadrillion 250 or 1,125,899,906,842,624
Exabyte (EB) 1 quintillion 260 or 1,152,921,504,606,846,976
Zettabyte (ZB) 1 sextillion 270 or 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
Yottabyte (YB) 1 septillion 280 or 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176
Storage requirements among users vary greatly. While enterprise users require a
very large storage capacity such as 20 to 40PB (petabytes), home users may only
need 1 to 2TB (terabytes) of storage capacity. As the capacity differs among storage
medium, the speed of transferring data to and from the storage also differs.
The speed of storage devices and memory is defined by access time. Access time
measures the amount of time it takes to locate the required data on a storage
medium.
The five advantages of secondary storage are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Five Advantages of Secondary Storage
Characteristic Advantage
Size Can accommodate large amounts of data.

Data stored can reach gigabyte (GB) or terabyte (TB).
Reliability It can be considered safe.
Comfort Data can be accessed immediately.
Economic Storage costs can be reduced.
Lifetime It is permanent and can be used for archiving.

Some storage has a lifespan of up to 100 years.

ACTIVITY 4.1
Explain why we need storage inside a computer.
4.2 MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

A magnetic storage device refers to equipment which uses a magnetic head to read
and write data. It gets the data to and from a magnetisable medium. The medium
may be a plastic tape coated with fine particles of a metal. The two magnetic
storage devices are magnetic tape and hard disk.
4.2.1 Magnetic Tape

A magnetic tape is a secondary storage medium whereby its data is stored inside
the tape roll. To be specific, a magnetic tape is a thin plastic tape that has been
covered with materials, which can be magnetised. Data on the tape is represented
by magnetic particles which are digital data in discrete forms of „0‰ and „1‰.
A tape contains a number of tracks or channels which are normally used to store
data. Usually, there are seven or nine tracks. Data on the tape will be deleted before
new data is written on it. The number of tracks on the tape depends on the number
of read/write heads that are present on the tape drive unit.
As the tape is in roll form, data will be stored serially. Every tape column (seven
or nine tracks) will represent one character. For data that is stored serially,
the storage method used is serpentine where data is stored one by one along one
or two tracks at one time. Data will be written from the beginning to the end of the
track concerned, and this will continue onto the part that has not yet been used as
graphically explained in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Diagram of a magnetic tape
Besides that, there is also data that is stored in parallel. For the parallel type, data
will be written block by block or record by record. Every block of data will be
separated by a space, which is called inter-block gap. For record by record, the
space is called inter-record gap. The space is required because the tape cannot stop
immediately after it has been rolled. Normally, the use of tape is only 35ă70
per cent, depending on the blocking factor.
A magnetic tape drive is measured by how much data can be stored on the
magnetic tape as well as the speed of the tape passing through the read/write
head. The combination of these two determines the rate of transfer or the number
of characters per second that can be sent to the primary storage. Tape density is
measured by character per inch or bit per inch. Data density varies from 800 to
7,000bpi. The tape length is normally 600m, 366m or 731m.
Therefore, a tape of 366m with 6,250bpi can store up to 180MB of data. The size of
data that can be stored is normally between 40MB to 5GB. The drive that can
upgrade its maximum loading is digital audio tape (DAT). A digital audio tape
drive consists of two read heads and two write heads which read/write one type
of magnetic pole only. Data on the tape will be accessed and written serially.
There are two types of magnetic tape ă magnetic tape unit for large computers and
tape cartridge unit for personal computers. Currently, most tapes are used for safe
storage and copy storage because they are portable and cheap. Storage size of a
normal magnetic tape is between 20 and 40GB.
The disadvantage of a magnetic tape is the slow rate of serial data access. Its
advantages include low cost (cheap), portable and long lasting.

SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. State two advantages of secondary storage.
2. Various types of storage are available in the market. State three

types of magnetic storage which are commonly available for
consumers to choose from.
4.2.2 Hard Disk

A hard disk, also called a hard disk drive, is a storage device that contains one or
more inflexible, circular, thick and strong metallic platters, which use magnetic
particles to store data, instructions and information. The disk is enclosed in an
airtight, sealed case to protect it. A hard disk that is mounted inside the system
unit of a computer is called an internal hard disk (refer Figure 4.3). It is not as
portable as the external hard disk.
Figure 4.3: Internal hard disk
The hard disk can store and access data faster and has a higher capacity. The hard
disk is a very sensitive device. Its read/write head floats on the disk surface at a
distance of less than 0.03 micrometre. This very close gap would not even fit a
small bacteria and therefore, it is possible for dusts, atoms of smoke, human hair
and fingerprints to cause destruction to the read-write head. This damage can
cause some or all the data on the hard disk to be destroyed as well.

An external hard disk is a separate hard disk that connects with a cable to a USB
port on the system unit or communicates wirelessly. Meanwhile, a removable hard
disk is a hard disk that you insert and remove from a drive. Compared to internal
hard disk, external and removable hard disks (Figure 4.4) are better in terms of:
(a) Transporting a large number of files;
(b) Storing large audio and video files easily;
(c) Securing the data; and
(d) Adding storage space to a notebook and desktop computer, without having
to open the system unit.
Figure 4.4: External and removable hard disk
ACTIVITY 4.2
How does it look like in a hard disk drive? Visit the following link to
discover the components of a hard disk drive:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdmLvl1n82U
Can you briefly explain the components?

4.2.3 Optical Storage

An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of data.
This device uses the principle of light rather than the magnetic principle of storing
data. The emission of a laser beam determines the data to be written or read.
During the writing of data onto the surface of an optical device, a high-powered
laser beam is used to form microscopic holes (pits) on the disc. Each pit represents
data „0‰ while part of the disc without a pit represents data „1‰. During the
reading of the optical disc, a low-powered laser beam is directed on the disc
surface. A reflection of the laser beam depends on the holes on the surface. If there
are holes, the reflection of the beam disperses and cannot be detected by the light
detector. This portrays the „0‰ state. If there is no hole or if the surface is flat (land),
a reflection of the beam focuses and can be detected by the light detector. This
portrays the „1‰ state.
There are four optical disc technologies used by computers as shown at Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Types of Optical Storage
Optical Storage Description
Compact Disc- It is similar to the music compact disc (CD) in the market. Read
Read Only only means it cannot be written or erased by users. A user can
Memory only access data that has been written by the writer. CD-ROM is
(CD-ROM) also used for distributing databases, application software
packages and large references.
Compact Disc- It is so called write once, read many (WORM). CD-R means a
Recordable compact disc that is recordable, a disc that enables us to record
(CD-R) data or information. We can only write once onto the disc. It is
appropriate for use as multimedia storage and for archival.
A special drive is required for recording data onto CD-R.
Compact Disc- It is also known as erasable optical disc, as can be seen in Figure
Rewriteable 4.5. This disc is similar to the other CD-R except that its surface is
(CD-RW) altered whenever data is recorded. Since it can be altered, CD-RW
is normally used in building and editing multimedia
presentations.
Digital Versatile An all-digital disc with a type of storage which is almost the same
Disc (DVD) as the CD-ROM. It has the ability to store 135 minutes of video
data in digital form. It can also be used as storage for computers.
The DVD drive can read a CD-ROM but the CD-ROM drive
cannot read a DVD. Each DVD can store as much as 17GB of data.

Figure 4.5: Compact Disc-Rewriteable
4.2.4 Flash Memory Storage

Flash memory storage is a type of solid-state media which consists entirely of
electronic components such as integrated circuits. It contains no moving parts.
Flash memory storage is more durable and shock resistant compared to other types
of media such as magnetic hard disks or optical disks, due to lack of moving parts.
Examples of flash memory storage are solid-state drive, memory card and USB
flash drive (see Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6: Flash Memory Storage
(a) Solid-state drive (SSD) is a storage device that uses flash memory to store
data, instructions and information. It is used in all types of computers and
portable devices.
Solid state drive is better than magnetic hard disk in terms of the following:
(i) Access time is 80 times faster than hard disk;
(ii) Transfer rate is faster;
(iii) Generates less heat and consumes less power; and
(iv) Lasts three to five years longer than a hard disk lifespan.
(b) Memory cards allow users to easily transport the digital content of their
camera, audio or video player and other devices to a computer or vice versa.
A memory card is a removable flash memory device that you normally insert
and remove from a slot in a computer, mobile device or card reader/writer.
(c) USB flash drive is a flash memory storage device that plugs into a USB port
on a computer or mobile device. It is one of the most popular portable storage
nowadays, due to its size and weight. It is small and light, with a storage
capacity ranging from 8GB to 256GB.
4.2.5 Cloud Storage

Cloud storage is an Internet service that provides hard disk storage to computer
users. The types of services offered by cloud storage providers vary.
Unlike other types of storage, cloud storage is preferred to:
(a) Access files from any device that has Internet access;
(b) Share files with other users; and
(c) Store offsite backups of data.
Some of the widely used cloud storage providers are shown in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7: Cloud storage providers

4.2.6 Other Types of Storage

Besides the types of storage that we have discussed, there are other options
available for storing data, instructions and information for specific uses. They
include magnetic stripe cards and smart cards, microfilm and microfiche.
(a) A magnetic stripe card is a card with a stripe of material that can be
magnetised to store information on the card (see Figure 4.8). Information
stored in the stripe normally includes your name, account number and the
cardÊs expiration date. A magnetic stripe card reader reads the information
stored on the stripe. Examples of magnetic stripe cards include club
membership cards, petrol loyalty cards and bank automated teller machine
(ATM) cards.
Figure 4.8: Magnetic stripe card (left) and smart card
(b) A smart card stores data on a thin integrated circuit embedded in the card
(see Figure 4.8). Smart card contains a processor and has input, process,
output and storage capabilities. When a smart card is inserted into a
specialised card reader, the information on the card is read, and if necessary,
updated. Examples of smart cards include MyKad, credit card and mobile
subscriber identification module (SIM) card.
(c) Microfilm and microfiche (see Figure 4.9) store microscopic images of
documents on roll or sheet film. A computer output microfilm recorder is the
device that records the images on the film. Microfilm and microfiche are
normally used in libraries to store back issues of newspapers and magazines.
The use of microfilm and microfiche greatly reduces the number of papers.
They are inexpensive and have the longest lifespan amongst all storage
media.

Figure 4.9: Microfilm (left) and microfiche
(d) RFID is a technology that uses radio signals to communicate, with a tag
placed in or attached to an object or a person. The RFID tag consists of an
antenna and a memory chip that contains the information to be transmitted
via radio waves. A RFID reader reads the radio signals and transfers the
information to a computer or computing device.
ACTIVITY 4.3
What is the history of computer storage? Visit the following link:
http://www.zetta.net/history-of-computer-storage
Note down the main points. Compare your notes with your coursemates.

4.3 DATA ORGANISATION HIERARCHY

Data is stored in secondary storage based on hierarchy. We can also see how much
capacity various storage types have as illustrated in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Comparison of Storage Types, Costs and Capacities
Type of Cost/Storage Device

Cost per GB Lifespan
Storage Size Capacity
* Hard disk RM180/1TB 18 sen 3ă5 years 500GBă6TB
CD-R RM0.60/700MB 86 sen 100 years 700MB
CD-RW RM3/700MB RM4.28 100 years 700MB
DVD+R RM1/4.7GB 21 sen 100 years 4.7ă8.5GB
DVD+RW RM4/4.7GB 85 sen 100 years 4.7ă8.5GB
** Magnetic RM300/15TB 2 sen 5ă10 years 100GBă30TB

tape
USB flash RM20/32GB 94 sen 5ă10 years 8GBă1TB

drive
Note:
 Based on average cost of typical or common size for each storage type available in
the market.
 * Non-SSD type hard disk.
 ** Magnetic tape quoted is based on Linear Tape-Open (Ultrium) cartridge
technology.
Adapted from https://www.lazada.com.my/
Data organisation hierarchy is divided into five levels, which are:
(a) Bit
It is represented by „0‰ and „1‰ and operated with hardware.
(b) Character/Byte
A byte is formed by eight bits. A character is formed by a group of bits but is
not necessarily made up of eight bits. Rather, it depends on the type of coding
system such as ASCII and EBCDIC. Examples are the characters A, B, D, U
and L.

(c) Field
It is a unit of data that is made up of one or more characters. This is the lowest
logical level of the data unit. Examples of fields are:
(i) Name ă It is fixed at 40 characters, for example, MOHD AKIL; and
(ii) Identity Card (IC) Number ă It is fixed at eight characters (old IC) and
12 digits/characters (new IC), for example, 740820-03-1233.
(d) Record
It is a collection of several related fields. It can also explain a certain event,
that is, a number of related fields of a certain event is combined together
logically to form a record. An example of a student personal record is made
up of several fields of student personal information, for example:
(i) Registration number: 7192
(ii) Name: Mohd Najmuddin bin Kamal
(iii) Faculty: Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia
Communications
(iv) IC number: 780402-11-1438
(v) State/Place of birth: Johor
(vi) Current address: First College, Open University Malaysia
(e) File
It is a collection of several related records. An example of this is the student
personal file, containing several studentsÊ personal records.
4.4 UPGRADING THE PERFORMANCE OF

HARD DISKS
Three ways to upgrade the performance of hard disks are racking the disk,
redundant arrays of independent disks (RAID) and compressing/decompressing
the files.
(a) Racking the Disk
This can upgrade the performance of a hard disk by predicting the data that
are wanted. This is a combination of hardware and software. While the
processor is quiet, data which is always used will be read from the hard disk
into the cache memory. When the data is required, it will be accessed directly
from this memory. The rate of transfer from memory is faster than that of the
hard disk. The result is that the system performance normally goes up by
30 per cent.
(b) Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks (RAID)

This increases the performance by having more external storage. A collection
of cheap hard disks is arranged by using a special network and software. This
group of disks is considered like a large hard disk. However, it performs
better than a single disk of the same capacity. RAID duplicates the data,
instructions and information to improve data reliability.
Figure 4.10: RAID can make disk volumes more reliable and performs faster
(c) Compressing/Decompressing Files

This procedure is required to remove excessive spaces from the computer
files that have reduced total available storage space. This procedure is
important because:
(i) It will save time while sending files through the network;
(ii) It will reduce the size of the file storage; and
(iii) It serves the purpose of archiving.

Data files that have been compressed need to be decompressed before they can be
used. This technique is called „data decompression‰. Normally data that has been
compressed has a special suffix such as .zip, .tgz, .Z, .gz, .lha, .arc, .zoo, and .rar.
Compression and decompression techniques are called „codec‰. Sometimes, this
process is also called „zip‰ and „unzip‰.
The two main techniques of data compression are shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Two Main Techniques of Data Compression
Technique Details
Lossless Data compression is done by preserving all input data. In other words,
Technique all input data will be used in the compression process. This enables
data that have been decompressed to be the same as the input data.
This technique only repackages the data for storage or transmission

purpose. Examples of software products that use this technique are
WinZip, Stacker, Superstor and DriveSpace. Graphic image in graphic
interchange format (.gif) is in the form of lossless compression.
Lossy This is a compression technique that removes data permanently

Technique during the compression process but users will not feel any loss. Data
lost is not important and can be regenerated by using special
functions. Examples include removing some colours or minor sounds
that will not felt by users.
These colours and sounds are overshadowed by a clearer colour or

sound.
Data in the joint photographic experts group (.jpeg), mpeg level 3

(.mp3) and moving picture experts group (.mpeg) formats are in the
lossy format.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. State the five levels of data organisation hierarchy.
2. Name three types of flash memory storage.
3. Explain two data compression techniques.

 Secondary storage is a storage device that has been designed to store data and
instructions in a permanent form.
 Secondary storage has five advantages which are size, reliability, comfort,
economic and lifetime.
 There are two types of magnetic storage, namely magnetic tape and hard disk.
Ć A magnetic tape is a secondary storage medium whereby its data is stored in

the tape roll.
Ć The hard disk uses a thick and strong metallic plate. The hard disk can store
and access data faster and has a higher capacity.
Ć An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of
data. This device uses the principle of light rather than the magnetic principle
of storing data.
Ć Three ways to upgrade the performance of hard disks are racking the disk,
redundant arrays of independent disks (RAID) and compressing/
decompressing the files.
Bit Lossless
Compact disc-read only memory Lossy
(CD-ROM)
Magnetic storage
Compact disc-recordable (CD-R)
Optical storage
Compact disc-rewriteable (CD-RW)
Racking the disk
Compressing/decompressing
Record
Digital versatile disc (DVD)
Redundant arrays of independent
Field disks (RAID)
File Secondary storage
Hard disk Write once, read many (WORM)

Topic  Computer
Software
5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the four categories of system software;
2. Discuss the functions and features of operating system;
3. Explain the types of operating system; and
4. Discuss four categories of advanced application software.
 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier topics, you have been told that a computer system is made up of
hardware and software. Hardware is the physical manifestation of the computer
while software consists of the programs that command the hardware. Computer
software can be divided into system software and application software. Both
software can be divided further into several categories as illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Each of the categories will be explained in greater detail in later parts of this topic.
Figure 5.1: Computer software

82  TOPIC 5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
5.1 SOFTWARE
For most people, when they think about computers, they normally think about the
hardware such as keyboard, monitor, processor and others. They do not realise the
presence and importance of the software. Computer software is actually a set of
planned instructions and step-by-step action that is required to convert data into
information and making the computer useful.
In general, software can be categorised into system software and application

software. The system software is also rarely talked about but its discussions
normally revolve around a subset of system software known as the operating
system (OS). The OS is the basic software found in all computers.
Computer software is developed by using a programming language. There are

many types of programming languages such as the imperative language, object-
oriented language, logic-based language and function-based language. Each
language has its own strengths in solving certain problems. There are several
generations of programming languages beginning with the machine language to
the natural language. Popular programming languages include C, C++, Java and
several others. These will be discussed in this topic together with examples.
Application software is used by many people to solve specific problems such as

providing documents, generating reports, making presentations and performing
calculations. Computers require instructions from humans to perform certain
tasks. Currently, there are various types of application software in the market. The
most often used are word processing, spreadsheet, databases and graphic
software.
Figure 5.2 illustrates the relationship between the computer hardware, OS and
application software.

TOPIC 5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE  83
Figure 5.2: Relationship between computer hardware, OS and application software
5.2 SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software can be likened to a set of instructions or standard operating
procedures that tell the computer how to do its job. It is used to start the computer
and continues to run in the background while the user is using the application
software. Its background tasks include coordinating the hardware components
and application software and managing peripherals that enable users to interact
directly with the computer.

System software operates through the complexities of the computer hardware.

Among the main roles of system software is to inform the computer on how to
translate data and instructions, how to operate computer devices such as printer
and disk drives, and various other hardware. The roles of the system software can
generally be divided into four categories, as explained in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: System Software Categories and Roles
System Software Role
Operating System The program that operates microcomputers. It coordinates

resources, provides interfaces between the user and the
computer, and runs the applications.
Utility Program Perform special tasks that are related to the management of
computer resources and files. It includes programs that help
users to identify problems on the hardware, searching for lost
files and making copies of data. In other words, a utility
program functions as a virus scanner, hard disk formatter,
compression software and copy-making software.
Device Driver The program that is specially designed to allow input and
output devices to communicate with other computer systems.
Language Translator Translates program instructions that have been written by a

programmer into a language that is understood and
processed by the computer. (Language translators will be
explained in greater detail in the programming language
section.) Language translators include compilers, translators
and assemblers.
Of the four system software, the OS is particularly significant as it contains

instructions for important operations such as multitasking, multi-user,
multiprocessor and so forth. There are many operating systems in the market and
each has its own strengths and weaknesses. Windows is a personal computer (PC)
OS that is the most popular and has been built by Microsoft Corporation. UNIX is
mostly used in the server system. Linux contains various features of UNIX and is
becoming more popular because it is a free and reliable OS. Let us learn more about
operating systems in the next subtopic.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What are the main uses of system software? Explain.

5.3 OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

Every computer system, whether large or small, has an OS and every OS has three
basic functions as illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Three basic functions of OS
The resources managed by an OS include mouse, printer, keyboard, storage device

and memory. User-interfaces are provided by the OS to enable users to interact
with the application programs and hardware. The OS loads and runs the
applications such as word processing.
The OS manages and controls all processing activities in the computer.

It determines how the random access memory (RAM) is allocated to the programs,
determines the importance of the needed tasks and controls the flow of
information to and from the processor. An OS is a complex computer program that
is very important to the computer. For example, Windows 2000 OS is said to have
30 million lines of program code, built by over 5,000 programmers in more than
three years with a cost of nearly RM3.8 billion. The Linux OS has almost 2.5 million
lines of program code and was built by 150 programmers.
The OS enables a computer to perform various types of tasks.

The OS also enables a computer to perform more than one task simultaneously.
It enables the computer to identify the processor (central processing unit), main
memory (RAM), keyboard, video displays, disc drive and others. The OS also
provides facilities for users to communicate with the computer and acts as enabler
in running the application software.
The OS normally contains a number of basic programs. An important program

inside the OS is called supervisor. This program is also known as monitor,
executive, kernel or command processor. For example, the supervisor program in
the Windows range of OS is win.32.dll and in Linux it is vmlinux.
The OS is normally stored in the hard disk. When a computer is switched on,
it will first perform the „power-on self-test‰ or POST procedure. Then, the basic
input-output system (BIOS) program inside the read-only memory (better known
as ROM) will search for the OS to boot up the system. The BIOS will search for the
OS on the master boot record (MBR) sector in the hard disk drive. If there is no OS
on the hard disk, the BIOS will search for it on alternate boot devices connected to
the computer such as a bootable universal serial bus flash drive. Not so long ago,
perhaps even up to recent times, PCs come installed with a floppy disc drive,
which is the default location where the BIOS will search for the MBR.
The MBR sector contains information on the OS of the computer. After reading
data from MBR and finding the supervisor program, the BIOS will load the
supervisor program into the RAM. Then, the basic input-output system will pass
on the computer management job to the supervisor program. Now, the computer
is under the control of the OS and can accept commands from users.
Part of the OS will remain in the RAM for as long as the computer is on. This
portion will always be in the main memory and is said to be resident (permanent)
and is made up of the supervisor program. The supervisor program will control
the overall OS and will load other OS programs from the hard disk into the RAM
as and when they are required. The OS programs that are located in the hard disk
is non-resident.
The OS forms the core that enables the computer to function. It works behind the
scene and becomes the intermediary for requests from users and programs.
It manages and drives computer hardware, and reads and writes data from and
onto the disc drive. When a user works on an application program, the supervisor
program will load the software into the main memory before the program is
executed.

When a user uses the computer, the main memory has the supervisor program,
the application software and the data or information being processed. Thus,
a larger RAM size in a the computer will enable it to function faster and in a
comfortable manner. If a computer does not contain enough RAM to run the
software, then the computer will run slowly or it may „hang‰, which is a situation
characterised by the computer being non-responsive to any kind of user prompt
besides turning it off.
5.4 FUNCTIONS OF OS
In general, the functions of an OS are as follows:
(a) Provide Interface for Users

An OS allows users to interact with the system or applications through its
user interface. This user interface helps the user to control data entered,
instructs the computer to perform tasks and to determine what output is
required, for example, how the information will be displayed on the screen.
There are two types of interfaces, namely command-line interface and

graphical user interface (GUI). By using the command-line interface, users
need to type a command like the one shown in Figure 5.4. Example of an OS
using a command-line is the MS-DOS which was very popular in the 1980s.
Figure 5.4: Command-line interface

For example, look at the following command-line:
C:\> copy c:\myfile a:\yourfile
This command-line directs the computer to copy a file from the hard disk (C:)
to the floppy disc (A:). You will need to use a clear command when using the
command-line. This command-line also shows that you need to inform the
computer where to find MYFILE and where to copy YOURFILE to. If you
forget important information or use a wrong format, an error message will
be displayed on the screen.
In general, the command-line interface is more suitable for skilled users who
have been using computers for a long time and can remember the required
commands. The UNIX and Linux OSes also use the command-line. This
interface is also called the character user interface. Normally, the OS based
on the character user interface has one other layer that acts as a translator of
the commands to the supervisor program. This layer is called shell. Examples
of shell for Linux is C shell (csh) and born again shell (bash).
Currently, the number of computers using command-line interface is

decreasing. However, it is still used in the mainframe system and server
system that uses the UNIX platform. The OS trend is moving towards a user-
friendly environment and becoming graphic-oriented, known as GUI. GUI
depends on software-based graphics, which enable texts to be integrated
with graphic images.
Among the components inside the GUI are icons, dialogue box and menu.
Examples of software that uses GUIs are Windows, Macintosh and BeOS.
GUI users interact with the OS and other software packages by using
pointing devices like the mouse and keyboard to enter instructions.
Users do not have to type every line of command; users only need to select
from the screen displays. Users use the mouse to manipulate icons, dialogue
box and menu. In GUI, an icon is a graphic image that represents a processing
activity. For example, a user may select „Recycle Bin‰ icon to delete a file
from storage.

The GUI was first introduced in 1983 in Macintosh computers. The GUI
simplifies a lot of procedures for users. Users do not have to memorise and
enter difficult instructions (see Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5: Examples of OS GUI on a variety of computers and mobile devices
A GUI designed for touch input is sometimes called the touch user interface.
Some OSes for desktop and laptop as well as mobile devices such as tablet
and smartphones have a touch user interface.
(b) Manage Hardware

It includes input components (mouse, keyboard, scanner), output
components (printer, screen, audio, video), secondary storage (hard disk)
and main memory. The OS coordinates and performs according to the
program and the required hardware.
(c) Manage Hard Disk File System

The OS manages the movement of data from input component (keyboard) to
output component (monitor) and from secondary storage to main memory,
apart from the main memory to secondary storage.

(d) Manage the Processing or Running of Other Software

The OS assumes the execution of one program as one process. If a user uses
three programs simultaneously (for example, producing graphics using
Adobe Illustrator, surfing the Internet using Google Chrome and listening to
music on the Internet using Spotify), hence, there are three different
processes being executed in the computer.
The OS is responsible for ensuring that the three processes execute well and
do not cause the computer to hang. This ability in using the three programs
simultaneously is known as „multitasking‰. An important characteristic of
the OS in managing multitasking is robustness. This means that if one
program fails, it does not cause the computer or other processes to hang.
OSes that have the robust characteristic are UNIX, Linux and BeOS.
The other main functions of the OS are as follows:
(a) Helps the interaction between computers and users;
(b) Helps communication between computer components;
(c) Reduces the time required for executing the userÊs instructions;
(d) Optimises the use of computer system resources;
(e) Reaches all files in the disc storage;
(f) Ensures the safety of the computer system; and
(g) Examines all system activities and gives warnings to users on all matters.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. State the advantages of the GUI over the command-line interface.
2. State two methods of opening files using GUI.
3. Explain at least three main functions of the OS.

5.5 FEATURES OF OS
Every OS has its own features. Even the ability of every system is different. Among
the main features of an OS are multitasking, multi-user, multi-processing, batch
processing and virtual memory as shown in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6: Features of OS
5.5.1 Multitasking
Multitasking is the ability of a computer system to perform more than one

task at one time (simultaneously).
If an OS allows only one task to be performed at one time, such a system is called
single tasking. Multitasking enables a user to perform a new task without having
to exit from the task currently being performed and can even use the result of the
second task inside the first task. For example, a user can produce a chart in a
spreadsheet software while using a word processing software and later, insert the
chart into the document being typed.
Multitasking is divided into two types:
(a) Cooperative Multitasking

Program written to enable it to ask the OS at regular intervals whether there
is another program that needs to use the processor. If there is another
program in need of the processor, this program will release the processor.
Examples of OSes using cooperative multitasking are Macintosh and
Windows XP.

(b) Pre-emptive Multitasking

OS that serves one process, which consists of each program being executed.
The OS will maintain a list of processes being executed. This way, the OS
determines the priority of executing each program. The OS has the power to
interrupt, change priority and determine how long to serve each process
before executing other processes. It can also halt the process currently being
executed and replace it with a more important process every time.
Users normally do not see the tangible differences between these two types
of multi-tasking. Tangible differences may be seen in real-time applications.
Pre-emptive multitasking is more robust and stable than cooperative multitasking.
5.5.2 Multi-user
If an OS is capable of accepting more than one user to access the computer at

one time, it is called a multi-user system.
Sometimes, multitasking is also referred to as „time-sharing‰. Normally, a multi-

user OS allows multitasking as well. Every user gets an equal slice of time.
Examples of OSes that have the multi-user capability are UNIX, Windows 8 and
Linux.
5.5.3 Multi-processing
Multi-processing refers to an OS that is capable of handling more than one

processor simultaneously.
The use of more than one processor is suitable for scientific computers because
computers of this type perform a lot of calculations and processing. As such,
scientific computers require OSes that can manage more than one processor.
Examples of multi-processor type of OS are UNIX (Solaris), Linux, BeOS and
Windows 8. Table 5.2 illustrates four OSes and their maximum number of
processors.

Table 5.2: Comparison of OSes with its Maximum Number of Processors
Operating System Maximum Number of Processors
BeOS 8
Solaris 64
Linux 16
IRIX 128
5.5.4 Batch Processing
Batch processing refers to the processing mode of an OS.
During the early computer era, data processing was done using the batch mode.
This means that data and programs are prepared on batch mode for processing.
Users cannot enter data during the running of the program. Data and programs
are collected and prepared first, then later, entered one by one for processing by
the computer. Batch processing is still being used now in the mainframe system
environment. Nowadays, the interactive processing type of OS is very popular,
whereby users can enter the data while the programs is being executed.
5.5.5 Virtual Memory

Usually the OS will load the application software into the RAM to run the
application software. If the RAM size is small or if the software size is large, the
software may not fit in and cannot be run. To overcome this problem, the OS uses
the concept of virtual memory. With this method, the OS will use the secondary
storage (hard disk) as part of the main memory.
In this method, the OS loads a portion of the application software into the main
memory and another portion into the virtual memory. When this happens, the
running of computers will slow down because access to secondary storage is
slower than the main memory.
For example, users often find computers running slowly when two or three
software programs run simultaneously. This is because the OS needs to transfer
data from the main memory (RAM) to the secondary storage (hard disk) and vice
versa. This process of data transfer is slow and often involves some noise
signifying that the computer is accessing the hard disk.
The process of transferring data from the virtual memory to the main memory
and from the main memory to the virtual memory is called „swap‰.
Swap space, also referred to as page, on the hard disk is the storage size that is
used as the virtual memory (see illustration in Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7: Page swapping
5.6 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

We have discovered the functions and features of the various OSes in previous
subtopics. However, we need to realise that there is no single OS that fits all types
of computers. TodayÊs computers could exist in different forms ranging from as
small as mobile phones right up to huge servers. Therefore, different OS is
required to make all those computers perform.
In general, OSes can be divided into four types (see Table 5.3).

Table 5.3: Types of Operating Systems
Operating System Description
Personal OS It is also called desktop OS and is installed in a single computer.
Server OS It is commonly referred as network OS and is designed for

network server that allows multiple user access to a network as
well as resources.
Mobile OS It is designed for mobile devices such as mobile phones,

smartphones and tablets.
Embedded OS It is installed in other types of computers such as cash registers,

kiosks and most consumer electronics.
We will now take a look into the details of each category of OS in the following
subtopics.
5.6.1 Personal and Server OS

There are various types of personal and server OSes which are available today.
The most widely used are described in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Personal and Server OSes
Operating System Description
Disk Operating It was the dominant OS during the 1980s and early 1990s.
System (DOS) Initially, disk OS only supported command-line interface and
later, newer versions of disk operating system allows menu-
driven interface. There are two forms of disk OS, namely
PC-DOS created for IBM personal computers and MS-DOS
created for IBM-compatible personal computers.
Windows Windows was developed by Microsoft in the mid-1980s. It was

the first operating system which provided GUI and for many
years, this OS holds nearly 90 per cent of market share. There
are many versions of Windows OS such as Windows 98,
Windows Me, Windows XP, Windows NT, Windows 7,
Windows 8, Windows 10 and many more. The latest version of
Windows offers features that use tiles to access apps, contain
desktop interface, support input method via touch, mouse and
keyboard, applications (e-mail, calendar and browser), photo
and files are able to sync with OneDrive, MicrosoftÊs cloud
server.

Mac OS It was developed by Apple Corporation and is a proprietary OS

for Apple computers, which is based on UNIX. The OS puts
heavy emphasis on new „digital lifestyle‰ applications such as
the iLife suite, enhanced business applications via iWork and
integrated home entertainment through FrontRow media
centre. The latest version of Mac OS is the OS X Mountain Lion.
UNIX It was developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s to

cater for mid-range servers. As a multitasking and multi-user
OS, computers ranging from microcomputers to mainframe can
run on it. However, UNIX is harder to install, maintain and
upgrade than most other commonly used OS. Thus, it is more
expensive and requires higher level of technical knowledge.
Hewlett-Packard UNIX (HP-UX) is one of the examples of UNIX
OS.
Linux Linus Torvalds developed Linux in 1991, which is based on

UNIX. Linux is an open source OS that allows the public to
modify and improve the codes. Linux is preferred by
individuals and organisations due to lower cost. Among the
popular Linux OS are Ubuntu, Fedora and Elementary.
Chrome OS Chrome OS was introduced by Google. It is a Linux-based OS

which is designed to work primarily with web applications.
Cromebook is a specialised laptop that runs Chrome OS while
Chromebox was designed for desktop. The computers that run
with Chrome OS work mostly with web apps. As such, they do
not require much internal storage capacity as do other desktop
OSes.
5.6.2 Mobile and Embedded OS

What makes mobile and embedded OS different from the OS used for personal
and server is that this type of OS was specifically and specially designed for
particular mobile devices depending on its specific usage. This is because the OS
for mobile or embedded systems needs to consider several aspects such as
capabilities of the mobile device in accepting touch input or whether its display
can rotate automatically as the device is moved from portrait to landscape
orientation, the interface used and the applications that can run on that device.
Table 5.5 describes nine popular OSes that are used for mobile and embedded
computer systems.

Table 5.5: Mobile and Embedded Operating Systems
Operating
Description
System
Windows It was designed by Microsoft for consumer and industrial devices such
Embedded as digital photo frame, cash register, automated teller machine and
global positioning system devices.
Windows As it was also developed by Microsoft, the elements of Windows were

Mobile also incorporated in it but with more emphasis on mobile devices
functionalities. Its standard features include Internet Explorer Mobile as
the default web browser, Windows Media Player as the default media
player (used for playing digital media) and Microsoft Office Mobile
(mobile version of Microsoft Office) as the default office suite.
Windows It is the successor of Windows Mobile which incorporates a new user

Phone interface featuring its Modern design language. The software integrates
with third party and Microsoft services. However, development on this
platform has been discontinued indefinitely.
Android It is a Linux-based OS which was developed by Google and it is an open

platform OS. It supports multitasking and is capable of allowing mobile
applications to take full advantage of the mobile device features it has to
offer. It can be installed in both smartphones and tablets.
iOS It is the OS that was developed by Apple to run on its proprietary mobile
devices, namely iPod, iPhone and iPad. iOS is derived from OS X.
Blackberry It was designed specifically for Blackberry devices. Like other OSes,
OS it also supports multitasking, e-mail communication, web browsing,
music management, video recording and calendar tools.
Palm OS It was originally designed for Palm devices. In 2009, Palm web OS was
and Palm released, which was based on Linux as well. This version was targeted
Web OS at new Palm devices and incorporated contact and calendar
synchronisation as well as web browsing.
Symbian It was widely used in Nokia phones and offered various functionalities,
namely multithreading and multitasking, web browsing, e-mail,
handwriting recognition, synchronisation and a range of other mobile
applications. Developer can customise user interfaces to meet the needs
of end-users via its flexible user interface framework.
Embedded It is an alternative OS that is used for other types of mobile devices such
Linux as global positioning system and portable digital media players. It is
available in various versions from different companies.

5.7 APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software contains programs that are developed to fulfil specific needs
of certain users. Application software is divided into two sections, namely basic
application software and advanced application software. The basic application
software consists of software used to increase productivity of users while the
advanced application software consists of software targeted at specific objectives
and requires a little expertise to operate. With the help of computers, various
operations can now be performed that were previously done only by those with
expertise and training.
If the system software is considered as „behind the scene‰ programs, the application
software is considered as programs for performing beneficial work such as typing,
calculations and drawings. Basic application software is also called „general
purpose‰ application program. Its objective is to increase the productivity of users
by helping them to perform normal tasks. They can be referred to as productivity
packages. Examples include word processing, spreadsheet, database management,
batch software, groupware software, communications and desktop accessories.
Application software can exist in a variety of forms, depending on the needs and
requirements of individuals, groups or organisations. Table 5.6 describes the forms
of seven application software:
Table 5.6: Forms of Application Software
Application
Description
Software
Packaged Software is developed and sold for profit. As it is mass produced and
software or copyrighted, this means it caters for a wide variety of users. Examples
commercial include Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop and Norton Antivirus.
software
Custom Software that performs specific functions for any business or industry.
software This software is required when there is no available packaged software
that can meet such specific requirements. As a result, the company
needs to find or hire developers to develop a tailor-made software to
fulfil its business needs. Some examples are e-procurement system and
e-recruitment system.
Shareware Software is distributed and available to try for free. Although it

requires no cost during the trial period, it is still copyrighted. In order
to use this software for a longer period of time, users need to pay
certain fees to the developer. Popular examples of shareware are
WinZip and WinRAR.

Freeware Software is distributed to be used for free. As it is also copyrighted,

users do not have access to source codes in order to make any
modifications. QuickTime Player and Yahoo! Messenger are examples
of freeware.
Public IT is a free software and can be used, copied, modified and distributed
domain to others without any restrictions. The public owns it, therefore, the
software software is not copyrighted. Pine and Lynx are examples of public
domain software.
Web Software is hosted on a server to allow users to access and interact from
application any computer via the Internet connection.
Open source Software that has no copyright restrictions. Thus, it can be used,
software modified and redistributed freely. It can also be downloaded from the
Internet without any cost. Examples are Blender and Moodle.
Advanced application software consists of specific purpose programs and requires

some expertise to operate. The four categories of software as shown in Figure 5.8
are specific in nature and can be further categorised.
Figure 5.8: Four categories of advanced application software
(a) Business Software

Assists people to ensure their day-to-day business can run effectively and
efficiently. It comprises programs like word processing, spreadsheet,
database, presentation, personal information manager, business software
suites, project management and accounting. Examples are Microsoft Word,
Microsoft Excel, Oracle Database, Apple Keynote and Oracle Primavera.

(b) Graphics and Multimedia Software

Offers the capabilities of handling and working with complex graphics and
multimedia. It covers computer-aided design, desktop publishing, paint/
image editing, photo editing, video and audio editing, multimedia
authoring, and web page authoring. Examples include Autodesk AutoCAD,
Adobe Illustrator and Adobe Dreamweaver.
(c) Home, Personal and Educational Software

Offers functionalities for personal use as well as for educational purpose.
Personal finance, photo editing, reference, home design, self-learning and
video editing are among the usage of home, personal and educational
software. Examples are Microsoft Windows Movie Maker, Broderbund
Instant Architect and Intuit Quicken.
(d) Communication Software

Allows users to share information and communicate with each other
effectively via various media. It offers capabilities such as web browsing,
e-mailing, instant messaging, chatting, blogging and video/audio
conferencing. Examples include Mozilla Firefox, Skype, Yahoo! Messenger
and Microsoft Outlook.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
What is the difference between basic application software and advanced

application software? Explain.
5.8 WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE

Those who are involved in business make use of the word processor to prepare
information in the form of documents such as memos, reports, letters, minutes of
meetings and whatever is required to be typed. Users in the house environment
can type assignments, letters, journals, a log of cinema titles and many others.
A word processing software enables you to create, edit, format, store and print
texts and graphics in one document.

Since you can save memos or documents that you have typed into the disc, you
can access them at other times to modify them, reprint or do whatever you want
with them. Parts of existing documents that do not change do not need to be
re-typed and the entire document that has been checked can be reprinted as new.
An assignment that is often done by computer users is to prepare information in
the form of documents. Word processing software is the software that is mostly
used by users. Five important activities of word processing are as illustrated in
Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9: Five activities of word processing
The concept of word processing in personal computers is based on the concept of

„what you see is what you get‰ (WYSIWYG) and it is pronounced as „wihzeewig‰.
What is seen on the screen ă font, graphic and others ă is how a certain document
will be produced by printers. Font refers to the type, size and shape of the
characters. Most word processors contain additional features to upgrade their
capabilities. These features are tools like spell-checker, grammar-checker,
thesaurus, macro, sorting and underlining of ideas.
Activities that can be done during word processing are editing of document,
search and replace, merging of e-mails, document footing and heading, footnotes,
mathematical functions, index generator, content generator as well as document
import and export. You can search any word quickly in a document by using the
search command in a word processor. A replace command can replace one word

with another. Besides that, the correct spelling of a word can be verified by the
spell-checker program. The grammar-checker will identify the use of inaccurate
sentences, incorrect grammar or sentences that are too long. The earliest word
processing software was Wordstar. Examples of currently and widely used word
processing software are WordPerfect, Ami Pro and Microsoft Word.
With the addition of more features into word processing packages, word
processing has crossed the boundary into desktop publishing. Desktop publishing
packages are normally better than word processing packages in fulfilling the needs
of high level publishing, specifically on the choice of characters and reproduction
of colours. Many magazines and newspapers today depend on desktop publishing
software. Businesses use them to produce newspapers that look professional,
reports and leaflets that can improve communications, and to provide better
pictures to the outside world.
When a document is being edited by a user, the word processing software will
load a copy of the document from the secondary storage (hard disk) into main
memory (RAM). All editing activities will be done on this copy in the main
memory. This is because data access from the main memory is faster than data
access from the secondary memory. When the user completes the editing, he can
save the document again into the secondary storage to replace the older copy.
Documents produced by commercial word processing software like WordPerfect

and Microsoft Word are in a certain format and not in the form of texts or American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). For example, Microsoft Word
uses its own format to store documents. Therefore, Microsoft Word document is
not portable because the document cannot be used on platforms other than
Windows.
Portable document format (PDF) is a document format that is portable.
This can cause problems in a mixed environment where OSes like UNIX, OS/2,
BeOS, Windows and Linux exist in one place. A number of methods can be used
to produce a form of document that is portable. Among the methods are producing
document in PDF, postscript (ps) format or in markup languages like Standardised
Markup Language (SGML), Extensible Markup Language (XML) or TeX.

Users can use this format to produce portable documents between different OSes.
All forms of documents like those from spreadsheet, power point presentation,
word processing and graphics can be converted into PDF format by using Adobe
Distiller software. The PDF documents produced have the hypertext capability,
can be printed and displayed on the computer but they cannot be edited. The PDF
format was introduced by Adobe Inc. Most articles that are freely available on the
Internet are in postscript or PDF format.
Documents with postscript or PDF format can be displayed using Ghostview

software which can be obtained freely at http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~gost. Adobe
gives out for free the PDF display software, Adobe Acrobat at
http://www.adobe.com. Users can also use the postscript format. Actually,
postscript is a page description language and is mostly used in laser printers to
produce high quality printing.
An example of a document in postscript format is shown in Figure 5.10. This

document will produce another document stating Selamat datang ke OUM if
printed by a printer with postscript capability.
Figure 5.10: Example of postscript format
Users can also produce portable documents in a markup language like Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML), Standardised Markup Language and Extensible
Markup Language. The main objective of producing documents in a markup
language is to separate the information from the document format. This concept is
the same concept as separating a program from the data in the database. This way,
the document format can be modified easily without involving the information
that is present in the document.

Standardised Markup Language is an international standard for producing

electronic documents that are platform-free and hardware-free. This means that
documents in Standardised Markup Language can be used in UNIX, Windows,
Linux and other platforms without being changed. Documents in Standardised
Markup Language form can also be changed into various types of format like PDF,
CD-ROM, postscript, databases, information system, hypertext or whatever
format that is required. It was initially introduced in the 1960s. Hypertext Markup
Language is a subset of Standardised Markup Language for use over the Internet.
Extensible Markup Language was introduced to overcome the weakness of
Hypertext Markup Language. Extensible Markup Language is the superset of
Hypertext Markup Language and a subset of Standardised Markup Language.
Users can also use TeX software to produce portable documents from documents
in the form of TeX markup language. A document based on TeX can be processed
to produce another document in the form of PDF, postscript and device
independent (DVI). TeX is mostly used in producing mathematical and scientific
documents.
SELF-CHECK 5.4
1. What do you understand by the concept of WYSIWYG?
2. List additional features of word processing software that you know.
5.9 SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE

Spreadsheet consists of rows and columns, and has been used as a business tool
for a few centuries. Spreadsheets produced manually are difficult to prepare and
when there is a change, many of the calculations need to be redone. A spreadsheet
software can perform the calculations again, automatically, whenever a number
changes. For example, a function of the spreadsheet is to calculate the distance
based on speed and time. Changes in speed will cause another round of automatic
calculation which will alter the distance. This ability enables businesspersons to
try out a set of different numbers and obtain the results quickly. The ability to ask
„What if?‰ and later, see the results on the computer before committing to buy
resources enables businesspersons to make decisions faster and better. In short,
spreadsheet software is a software for undertaking analysis, calculation, planning
and mathematical modelling on the computer.

What about spreadsheet software for users at home? The ability to enter a set of
numbers in meaningful ways, for example, a set of deposit and interest rates for
buying a house, and offer financial ideas to users who cannot do it themselves
(manually). Home users can use spreadsheet to perform various tasks from budget
preparation to considering whether to accept a new job.
It can be used to create a model based on mathematics and other business

activities. Currently, this software has replaced paper spreadsheets, calculators
and pencils.
Among the traditional functions that are supported by spreadsheet software are:
(a) Storing data automatically;
(b) Accepting summarised raw data and producing information; and
(c) Performing analysis and improving planning.
The strength of spreadsheet is the ability to calculate automatically, speedily and

accurately. As such, it can be used to perform „what if‰ analysis, sensitivity
analysis, expense requirement, profit forecasting, graphic creation and simulation.
Any problem involving data that can be entered into rows and columns are
suitable for spreadsheets. Examples of this type of software are Quattro Pro and
Lotus 1-2-3.
The spreadsheet is divided into rows and columns. Each row is numbered while
each column is given name. The intersection between each row and column is
called a „cell‰. Each cell contains reference address and fixed address. In each cell,
a user can type in a number, text or mathematical formula. Solution to a problem
using spreadsheet can be divided into four steps:
(a) Problem Definition Stage

Covers the objective of the spreadsheet, type of required output, type of
input variables, assumptions in calculation and types of formula to be used.
(b) Planning for Presentation Stage

Covers how to arrange labels, data, formula and other instructions to achieve
maximum efficiency, clarity and flexibility.

(c) Data Entry Stage

Involves the required types of commands for input, edit and store values,
label, formula and functions in the required presentation.
(d) Testing and Using Stage

Stage that tests whether spreadsheet produces the results accurately when
data is entered.
Other features that are available in electronic spreadsheet are macro (short
program which can be used to repeat specific steps), mathematical functions, plot
3D, active function and integration with other applications. Figure 5.11 illustrate
the Excel electronic spreadsheet.
Figure 5.11: Excel electronic spreadsheet
SELF-CHECK 5.5
State the uses of electronic spreadsheet in business.

5.10 DATABASE SOFTWARE

This software can store, update, manipulate, access and report in various views,
and print data in various forms.
When data is available as a report, that is, a form that is useful to users, the data
has become information.
Concert organisers, for example, can store and change data such as the date of the
next concert, seat number, ticket cost and sales. When this has been done, the
organiser can use the software to access information such as the number of tickets
sold in every price range or percentage of tickets sold on the day before the concert.
Database software is useful for someone who needs to reach out to a large number
of people. For example, a volunteer who is looking for blood donors for the
National Blood Bank can store a file of all donors in his area so that he can access
their names and telephone numbers to enquire on the type of blood donated,
postcode or the last date of his blood donation.
Database management system (DBMS) software is also known as database

manager. The database management system is a computer-based system for
defining, manipulating, controlling, managing, maintaining and using database.
Database can be defined as:
(a) Collection of data or information and the relationship amongst them; or
(b) Collection of data with related set of entities.
The data can be in the form of text, video, graphics, audio and others. Databases
are stored in secondary storage. To fulfil the needs of organisations, data needs to
be collected, stored and accessed effectively. Databases can help with these three
processes. Databases also enable data to be processed and shared by various
parties. Data can also be edited, added and erased easily. Users can perform
queries over the database to solve problems. A number of important terms in
database include entities, attributes, field, record and relationship.
(a) Entities are things, people, places or events whereby the data and
information stored is about them. Examples of entities are universities,
students, employees, cars and doctors.

(b) Attributes or fields are data or information that explains the characteristics
or features of a certain entity. For a student entity, examples of attributes
include name, address, date of birth, identity card number, matrix number
and gender.
(c) Record is a collection of related attributes for a certain entity. It can also
explain a certain event, which is a number of related fields about certain
event grouped together logically to form record. An example of a record
which groups together a number of attributes for a student entity is
presented as follows:
Name : Abdullah Adam

Matrix number : 789
Address : No. 7, Jalan Sephia 2, Taman Sephia Permai, 43600 Bangi,
Selangor
Date of birth : 1 January 1977
(d) Files are various collections of records containing the same attributes.
An example is a file of First Year Student containing all records of Year 1
students in the Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia
Communications.
(e) Database is a collection of several files that are related to one another.
The main source of data for a computer-based information system is the
database. Another objective of the database is to reduce data duplication.
For example, a student database may consist of a combination of student
personal file, file of courses offered at Open University Malaysia,
co-curriculum activity file and student finance file (see Figure 5.12).
Figure 5.13 illustrates a model for structuring data in a database, which in
this example is the hierarchical model.

Figure 5.12: Database
Figure 5.13: Simple diagram of a hierarchical database model
Figure 5.14 shows the example of database, which consist of two tables; Customer
Table and a Book Rep table. The Customer table has 15 records and 10 fields, while
Book Rep table has 4 records and 10 fields.

Figure 5.14: An example of database created using Microsoft Access
5.10.1 Database Management System Organisation

Database management system has the function of managing data and information
stored in the database. It can be regarded as an interface between users and the
database whereby it acts as a facilitator to allow users to access and manipulate
data elements embedded in the database. Examples of database management
system for personal computers are Microsoft Access, dBase V, FileMaker Pro,
FoxPro, Visual Fox Pro and Paradox.
Database management system is different from traditional file management. The

traditional file management is a system containing files which are separated from
each other. For example, student file and file of courses offered every semester are
different and not related to each other. This makes processing difficult if
information from several files is required.
For example, we have a record and attributes as follows:
(a) Student file ă Name, matrix, identification card, department;
(b) Course TZ1443 registration file ă Matrix, name, department;
(c) Course TU2983 registration file ă Matrix, name, department; and
(d) LecturerÊs room file ă Lecturer name, room no.

With the traditional file system, we may face problem in getting a list of the
studentsÊ names based on department or list of courses taken by a student because
the information is present in three different files.
Traditional file processing system has the following weaknesses:
(a) Data Redundancy ă Same data attributes are repeatedly present in different
files;
(b) Data Integrity Problem ă Data needs to be updated in all files to ensure that
it is consistent throughout; and
(c) Program and Data Independence Problem ă Program and data are closely
related as data is created to feed into a program.
Database management system is created as a means to solving problems. It has the

following objectives:
(a) Integration of data from various file sources or databases;
(b) Avoids data redundancy;
(c) Sharing of data among different applications;
(d) Data integrity can be retained in terms of security and reliability; and
(e) Data in the database can be changed as required.
SELF-CHECK 5.6
1. What is the advantage of having a database?
2. What is meant by database management?
5.11 DOCUMENT PROCESSING SOFTWARE

TeX is a document processing system for producing high quality documents. It is
mostly used in the publication of academic journals or magazines. This system is
suitable for use mainly in documents that involve many mathematical formulas.
TeX documents are in the form of ASCII which contains markups such as an
HTML document. This document will later be processed to produce a form of
portable document such as postscript or PDF. Figure 5.15 shows the Ghostview
software which can be used to display .ps and .pdf documents.

Figure 5.15: Ghostview software that display the postscript document
5.12 GRAPHICS SOFTWARE

Displaying graphics to businessmen may seem non-beneficial at first because there
is number printing that is normally done by the computer. However, graphs, maps
and charts can help people to compare data, identify pathways with ease and make
decisions more quickly. Research has shown that human beings learn more from
information that is presented visually. Furthermore, visual information is
normally more meaningful than pages containing numbers. Besides representing
numbers and facts, graphs are often used together with messages by
businesspersons as part of their presentation.
Graphics software combines various visual objects to produce presentations

that are attractive and joyful.

The use of graphics software is very satisfactory if the work is done by a graphic
artist who has artistic ability as well as the ability to use sophisticated graphics
software to translate the ideas. An artist uses the software as a tool to produce
computer-based arts. Graphics software is a software that converts numerical data
into a graphic display form such as the bar chart and pie chart. It enables users to
produce various types of graphical forms. Five types of graphics software are
shown in Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16: Five types of graphics software
(a) Decorative Graphics

This software is used to improve document production but not to deliver
information. Decorative graphics are normally embedded inside word
processors like clip drawing. Examples of decorative graphics software are
Paint (given out free in Windows OS as shown in Figure 5.17), Paint Shop
Pro and Adobe Photoshop.

Figure 5.17: Microsoft Paint
(b) Business/Analytical Graphics

This software simplifies numerical data so that the data is easily understood.
Examples of such graphics are bar chart, pie chart, dotted area chart, line
graph and pictogram. These graphics are normally obtained by using
spreadsheet or statistical software.
(c) Presentation Graphics

This software is used to present data or ideas to customers. The presentation
may consist of text, table, clip drawing, picture or business graphics.
Examples of such software are Microsoft PowerPoint (see Figure 5.18),
Freelance and Harvard Graphic.

Figure 5.18: Microsoft PowerPoint
(d) Illustration Graphics

This software is a type of presentation graphics that is used professionally.
Three types of illustration software are drawing, painting and image editing.
An example of this software is Adobe Illustrator as shown in Figure 5.19.

Figure 5.19: Adobe Illustrator
(e) Animation Graphics

This software adds movement over the image and drawing. Examples of
graphics software used for animation are Maya (for 3D animation) and
Adobe Flash Professional CS6. These types of software were used to produce
Toy Story and Toy Story 2.
5.13 GROUPWARE SOFTWARE

Groupware software is a software that is used in a network of a group of users
working on one project. It normally consists of four different types, namely basic
groupware software like Lotus Notes, workflow software like Action Workflow,
and scheduling software like MS Project.
5.14 DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE

Desktop publishing software is a software that is used for printing or publishing
and is more advanced than word processing software. The features of this software
are its ability to mix and match texts and graphics, various types of styles and
presentations, import elements in different formats and page description
language. Examples of desktop publishing software are Microsoft Publisher,
PageMaker, FrameMaker, QuarkXPress and Scribus. Figure 5.20 shows an
example of an interface of Scribus, an open source software for desktop publishing.

Figure 5.20: Scribus
5.15 MULTIMEDIA SOFTWARE

Multimedia software or multimedia composition enables users to combine text,
graphic, animation, video, music, voice and sound in their presentation.
This software simplifies multimedia-based software development. Examples of
multimedia software are Adobe Captivate and Articulate Storyline. Figure 5.21
shows an example of Adobe Captivate.

Figure 5.21: Adobe Captivate
 Although system software is rarely talked about, its importance cannot be

denied.
 There are four categories of system software, namely OS, utility program,
device driver and language translator.
 Application software consists of word processing, electronic spreadsheet,

database, presentation software and others.
 The OS manages resources, provides user-interface and executes applications.
 Windows, Mac OS, UNIX and Linux are commonly used operating systems.
 The five features of OS are multitasking, multi-user, multi-processing, batch

processing and virtual memory.

 Application software is also often used to increase productivity of

organisations and individuals. Examples include word processing,
spreadsheet, database as well as groupware software.
 Advanced application software is divided into four categories ă business

software, graphics and multimedia software, communication software, and
home, personal and educational software.
Batch processing Multi-processing

Compiler Operating System (OS)
Database Spreadsheet
Data mining User-interface
Device driver Utility program
Multitasking Virtual memory

Topic  Programming
Language
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the concept of programming languages;
2. State the five generations of computer languages;
3. Identify six characteristics of programming language; and
4. Identify different types of programming languages.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall know more about programming language. Computer
programs are developed by using programming languages. A program is a set of
instructions followed by the computer, so that data can be processed. The process
of producing a program is called programming. Programming is part of the larger
software development process which consists of problem specification, program
design, programming, program testing and program maintenance.
6.1 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

The computer itself is essentially mindless and cannot think on its own. It requires
instructions from humans to perform certain tasks, ranging from a simple task
(such as performing a 2 + 2 arithmetic operation) to a very complex task (such as
launching a spacecraft to Mars). Therefore, we use a programming language to
communicate with and instruct the computer to perform certain tasks. Instructions
in a program are arranged logically through the process of programming. There
are many types of programming languages that can be used by programmers to
communicate with the computer.
TOPIC 6 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE  121
A programming language is similar to a natural language like English in several

aspects. For example, it resembles words, symbols and syntax. To write a program,
a programmer needs to know the words, symbols and syntax of the programming
language used.
There are many programming languages such as Python, Java, Perl, Eiffel, C, C++,
C# and COBOL. These different programming languages were invented at
different points in time, as shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Programming Language Evolution
Years Programming Language
1950s Lisp, Fortran
1960să1970s Basic, C, SmallTalk, Pascal, Scheme
1990s C, C++, BETA, Java, Prolog, Python
There are programming languages for specific purposes as well such as

Concurrent C, Orca and Leda for parallel programming, and the Android platform
for mobile programming. Figure 6.1 shows the relationship model between users,
programming language and computer.
Figure 6.1: Relationship model between users, programming language and computer

122  TOPIC 6 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
6.2 WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES?
Users can use whatever programming language they know to solve problems.
However, if the user knows only one programming language, the solution
provided may not be optimal and efficient. Therefore, a user needs to understand
the potential of a certain programming language so that he can evaluate the
strengths and weaknesses of the language in solving the problem faced. After
evaluation, he can adopt the most effective method from a list of possible methods
to solve the problem. There are four benefits of understanding programming
languages and they are elaborated in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Benefits of Understanding Programming Languages
Benefit Elaboration
Recognising the For example, if the development involves a rapid

advantages and limitations prototype, then it is more efficient to use scripting
of various programming language such as Python rather than using C or C++.
languages and where it is
suitable to use each of them Each language is suitable for one field. For example, to
develop graphical user interface (GUI), it is more
efficient to use C++ or Java rather than C. To perform
many calculations, Fortran is more suitable than Java or
C.
Produces more efficient If a user understands a few programming languages, he

solutions can use the most efficient language to solve the problem.
For example, if the solution requires access to databases,
it is better to use scripting language such as Python for
linking rather than C or C++.
Influences usersÊ thinking For example, an object-oriented language will cause the
in solving problems user to think of a solution based on the object concept
while a logic-based language will trigger the user to
think of the solution based on logic.
Tools for solving problems Most problems are more efficiently solved by experts in
using the computer their respective fields. Therefore, experts in certain fields
can learn appropriate programming languages in order
to solve their problems.

It is common for a programmer to know more than one programming language.

Normally, each programming language has similar characteristics. After
mastering one programming language, it is easy to master another programming
language because the programming concept is the same ă only the language syntax
changes. There are many types of programming languages and their fields of
applications are based on current needs and trends. Examples of these languages
and their fields of application are shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Examples of Programming Languages and Their Fields of Application
Programming
Application Year
Language
Fortran Scientific calculations 1956
Lisp Symbol calculation, artificial intelligence 1957
C System development 1974
COBOL Business-oriented system development 1960
C++ Large and complex system development 1984
Visual Basic System development, graphical user interface 1990
Perl Internet, text processing 1990
Java Internet applications, graphical user interface, enterprise 1995

systems
6.3 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

GENERATIONS AND EXAMPLES
In general, programming languages can be categorised into five generations.
The first generation is known as the machine language. When computers were first
invented, the language adopted was the machine language, using binary digits of
„0‰ and „1‰ to represent instructions and data. Programs that were written in the
machine language needed no translation into the object code before computer
execution because the machine language format already adhered to the computer
architecture.

Computer language generation is said to have begun from low level to high level.
A programming language is said to be a low level of one when it resembles the
language that is actually used by the computer. A high-level programming
language, on the other hand, closely resembles the language used by human
beings such as the Malay Language. Table 6.4 shows five programming language
generations and how the programming language is represented in each of the
generations.
Table 6.4: Five Generations of Programming Language
Generation Language Representation of the Programming Language
1st Machine 10010001
2nd Assembly ADD 210(8,13), 02B(4,7)
3rd Algorithmic Over_time := 0
4th Query FIND Name = „MAZLAN‰
5th Natural IF patient is sick THEN examine body temperature
Let us now learn more about the generational programming languages.
(a) First Generation

Programming language for this generation is the machine language. With the
machine language, a programmer can write an optimal program. However,
this method is quite difficult because the programmer needs to remember the
binary code and numbers. That is why the machine language is rarely used
today. The machine language is also dependent on the computer brand and
this adds more difficulties in using it.
An example of the machine language used to represent instructions and data

is as follows:
01011010 00010000 01111100 11101001
(b) Second Generation

Consists of assembly language. The invention of the assembly language is
the first step in the development of software, which is easier and more
effective. An assembly language is easier to remember because of its short
forms. It also depends on the type of computer.

It uses symbols and words to represent instructions and data, and does not
use binary digits like the machine language. An example of a program in the
assembly language is given as follows:
V86_signal_return:
Call SYMBOL_NAME (save_v86_state)
movl
xorl
call SYMBOL_NAME (do_signal)
jmp restore_all
ALIGN
Since a program in the assembly language is not in the machine language

understood by the computer, it needs to be converted into the machine
language first before the computer can process it. The software called
„assembler‰ is used to convert programs from assembly language to machine
language.
(c) Third Generation

Consists of languages produced in the 1950s, that is, high-level languages.
They are still being used today, for example, C, COBOL and Fortran. They
resemble the human natural languages more than the assembly language.
This makes it easier for programmers when writing their programs. This
generation of languages are also known as high-level languages and is
designed for use in various machines, with minimal change required. With
the third generation languages, users no longer need to write many
instructions like those in the machine language or assembly language.
Instead, users need to type only one instruction to perform something that
requires many instructions in the machine language.
Among the reasons for the invention of the high-level languages are as
follows:
(i) To simplify writing, unlike machine language and assembly language;
(ii) To enable a program to run on more than one machine, as it only needs
to be recompiled before being run on a different machine; and
(iii) To enable a programmer to concentrate on fulfilling usersÊ needs.

Examples of programming languages produced in this generation are

Algol 68, Fortran, C, Ada, COBOL, Simula, APL, BCPL, Basic, PL/1, Pascal,
Logo and Modula.
Most high-level languages are based on algorithms or procedures. With

procedure-based language, a programmer needs to use programming logic
to solve problems. In other words, a programmer needs to write the
instructions in a certain order for it to be implemented to solve the problem.
Source codes are programs that are written in high-level languages.
These high-level languages need to be converted to machine language, which

is called object code, to enable programs to be executed by the computer. This
conversion process is done by language processors.
There are three types of language processors, as shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Three language processors
(d) Fourth Generation

Known as problem-oriented language. Languages of this generation, also
known as fourth generation language (4GL), require even less instructions as
compared to the third generation languages when performing a certain job.
The definition of this generation is different, depending on vendors.
Normally, this language is combined with a software package like the
database management system (DBMS). A fourth generation language is used
to access information from files and databases.

Fourth generation language instructions resemble English language

instructions for accessing and formatting data. Languages of this generation
are easy to use. This enables professional and non-professional users to
develop software easily. Some people do not consider fourth generation
language as a procedure-oriented language because it places emphasis on
what needs to be done and not on how it should be done (method). Fourth
generation language will not replace the third generation language because
it focuses more on one task.
Most fourth generation language procedures are automatically generated by

the computer and users only need to state what needs to be done and not
how to do them.
A few examples of the fourth generation languages are as follows:
(i) Query languages such as Structured Query Language (SQL), Query by

Example (QBE) and Intellect. These languages are used to change, edit,
create and access information from databases;
(ii) Report generators are languages used to generate queries and reports
from databases; and
(iii) Application generators perform more than query languages and report
generators. They are tools that generate software according to usersÊ
needs with regard to data required to be processed and reported.
(e) Fifth Generation

Natural languages of programming languages, that is, languages that are the
same as the query languages except that users are not required to learn
words, grammar and syntax. Instead, they use natural languages like
English. The use of natural languages touches on the field of artificial
intelligence, that is, how to make computers think like humans.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What makes low-level programming language different from high-

level programming language?
2. Give two benefits of understanding the programming language.

6.4 APPROACH: CLASSIFICATIONS OF

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Programming languages can be classified according to six characteristics of the
language (see Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: Six characteristics of programming language
Each characteristic has its own strengths and weaknesses. Besides these six
characteristics, there are also other characteristics of programming languages such
as:
(a) Constraint programming;
(b) Aspect-oriented programming;
(c) Programming languages based on mathematical notations such as APL

language, which was designed to express algorithms in a very concise
manner.
But for now, we shall focus on the six core characteristics mentioned earlier. The
following subtopics will discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each
characteristic.

6.4.1 Imperative Language
Imperative means instruction, order or command.
Therefore, imperative language is a language in which every instruction for

solving the problem needs to be stated clearly. Each instruction for solving the
problem will be executed step by step. An imperative language can be likened to
a recipe for cooking. In this language, the technique used is „Do A, then, do B‰.
Thirteen examples of imperative languages are shown in Figure 6.4. There are
times when it is also known as procedural language. The basic idea in imperative
language is that users need to state every step that is required in solving the
problem.
Figure 6.4: Thirteen examples of imperative language
6.4.2 Object-oriented Language
Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
The need for an object-oriented language arose when existing languages could no
longer fulfil the needs of systems that are becoming more complex. The advantages
of object-orientation are ease of system management, ability to change system
properly and reusability of components in a new system. The structure of an
object-oriented language makes a program easier to design and understand.
Object-oriented languages handle images, audio, video and sound much easier
than procedural languages (third generation). The basic idea is to focus on objects
inside a system, not on functions that occur inside the system.

There are four concepts in an object-oriented language, as indicated in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Four Concepts of Object-oriented Language
Concept Description
Class Blueprint that defines the variables (or attributes) and the methods
common to all objects of a certain kind.
Object Each object is an instance of a particular class. Many unique objects

can be created from the same class.
Encapsulation Term given to the process of hiding all details of an object that do
not contribute to its essential characteristics. Encapsulation hides
the implementation details of the object and the only thing that
remains externally visible is the interface of the object (i.e. set of all
messages that the object can respond to).
Inheritance Capability of a class to use the properties and methods of another

class while adding its own functionality.
An advantage of the object-oriented language is reusability. Any object that has

been declared as reusable can be used in another program. This simplifies and
speeds up the application development. Object-oriented language was first
introduced in 1970 in Simula language, followed by Smalltalk and C++. Examples
of object-oriented languages are C++, Smalltalk, Java and Objective-C, Pascal,
Delphi, BETA, HyperTalk, Limbo, Python and Eiffel.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Explain the underlying concepts of object-oriented programming that

makes it advantageous for the purpose of application development.
6.4.3 Logic-based Language

Logic-based language focuses more on problem statement, not on how to solve the
problem. The software system is responsible for solving the stated problem. This
language is based on logic, that is, facts and rules. Facts and rules are stated in the
form of IF-THEN statement. For example, users can state facts and rules as follows:
IF X is-father-of Y AND Y is-father-of Z, THEN X is-grandfather-of Z.

In writing logic-based program, users make use of Horn Logic - statement that
uses IF-THEN. All facts and rules will be stated in Horn Logic form. Subsequently,
the user will state a problem to be solved. The system will try to solve the problem
based on the facts and rules that have been given. For example, we can produce
the following information based on Horn Logic:
happy (x) <– rich (x), famous (x)

happy (x) <– young (x), in-love (x)
happy (x) <– old (x), wise (x)
famous (x) <– actor (x)
famous (x) <– singer (x)
Subsequently, we can state the following fact:
actor {ali}
rich {ali}
Finally, we can ask the system the following question which means is ali happy?:
? – happy (ali)
The system will answer yes or no based on the information given earlier. An
example of the logic language is Prolog.
6.4.4 Function-based Language

A function-based language emphasises what needs to be calculated and not how
to calculate. The program is in the form of functions, that is, a function that is
almost the same as a mathematical function. The codes written in function
language are normally short and concise. For example, to get all odd numbers
between 1 and 20, a function-based program is given:
[x|x <– [1..20]; x mod 2 = 1]
Examples of function languages are Lisp, FP, Scheme, Common Lisp, Hope,
Standard ML, Miranda, Haskell, Hugs and Lucid.

6.4.5 Script
Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for a
certain objective. They can be used for developing prototypes rapidly. This type of
language is portable between various types of computer platforms. Systems that
have been developed in scripting languages run slower. Examples of scripting
languages are JavaScript, Python and PHP.
HTML, JavaScript and PHP are the Internet-based scripting languages that are
used to develop applications for the Internet.
6.4.6 Visual Language

Programming that uses a visual language replaces instructions based on text with
icon symbols. Each icon represents an object or general programming function
such as copy, delete, open file and so forth. An example of visual language is
Visual Basic. It is the most popularly used visual language amongst normal and
professional users. Other visual languages in the market are Visual FoxPro and
Visual C++.
6.5 COMMON PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Let us learn a few common programming languages in this subtopic.
(a) C
It is a small language with attractive features. The C language is mostly used
in the development of system software and application software.
Programs in C are portable, whereby users only need to recompile

programs of a new operating system in order to produce suitable object
codes.
For example, Linux and UNIX operating systems were developed in C

language. The C programming course is a core subject in computer science
programmes for most university. The C language is quite difficult to learn
for new users but it is a language that has various capabilities and is very
powerful.

(b) C++
C++ adds on object features to the C language based on ideas from the Simula
language. Initially, it was known as C with Classes language. This language
is mostly used in large and complex systems development such as telephone
switching, graphic user interface system and road traffic control.
(c) Java
Java is an object-based language which was invented in 1995 by James
Gosling. It has the features of C++ and Simula.
Java converts Java programs into byte code, not to object code, where the
byte code can run in any operating system by using Java virtual machine
without any changes to the program. This technique enables any Java
program to be portable among many computer systems. Initially, Java was
mostly used in producing graphics and animations on websites. It is known
as a widely used programming language in the world. Java has been popular
with the slogan „Write once, run everywhere.‰
(d) Perl
Perl is a scripting language that can be used in the processing of text,
common gateway interface, database communication and others. PERL has
portability feature.
In addition, PERL can be used for the following purposes:
(i) Develop web application;
(ii) Administer system; and
(iii) Process textual or numerical data.
(e) Python
Python is a scripting language based on objects which can be used to

develop prototype, process data based on text, communicate with
databases and others.
Among the applications that have been built using Python are web
applications, address book, computer network management and astronomy
software. Python is an alternative to Perl.

6.6 COMPILER, ASSEMBLER, INTERPRETER

Programs that have been written in a programming language are called source
codes. Source codes are in the form of text or ASCII. It can be written by using the
general purpose editor such as notepad or integrated development environment
(IDE) editor. Examples of mostly used IDE are Borland C++ and Visual Studio.
Now, let us observe an example of a source code used for C programming

language as shown below. The program will display the output „hello world‰
when it is executed.
main ( )
{
printf (“hello world \ n”);
}
This source code needs to be compiled or converted into object code before it can
run in any computer. The compilation process is done by the compiler. If this
program is compiled in Linux, it can only run in Linux; if it is compiled in
Windows, it can only run in Windows.
This problem is said to be non-portable, that is, any software that is compiled in
operating system type A cannot run in operating system type B. The problem of
non-portability arises because the object code produced from the compilation
process is different for different operating systems. The object code is specific for
only one type of operating system.
While the source code is compiled, it will be linked to a library, that is, a set of
existing instructions in an operating system. In Windows operating system, the
library is given extended dynamic loading library (.dll). Examples of libraries in
Windows operating system are vb200.dll and vb3000.dll. The software (or object
code) that is produced requires this library to run. Since the library is only present
in the specific operating system (for example, Windows), the object code that is
produced can only run in Windows system.
Every processor (central processing unit) is built using a different architecture.

Each architecture contains a set of instructions, which are different from one type
to another. Since the set of instructions is different, the machine language of each
processor is also different. The object code that is generated from the compilation
process is in the form of machine language. Since the machine language is
different, the object code produced is also different. Therefore, the object code can
only run in the processor that produces it.

For example, two types of architecture for the processor are RISC and CISC.
Examples of CISC processors are Intel, AMD and Cyrix while examples of RISC
processors are Alpha, Motorola 6800 and PowerPC. Any program that is compiled
for an Intel processor cannot run on an Alpha processor because both contain
different object codes.
To convert assembly language programs into object code, we need to use the
assembler. The object code produced is not portable. We can use assembly
language to write the program. The assembly language is mostly used in the
development of operating systems and it is used specifically in certain operating
systems.
An interpreter is a computer program that translates high-level instructions line

by line into an intermediate form, which it then executes. In contrast, a compiler
translates high-level instructions directly into machine language. Compiled
programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an
interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage
during which machine instructions are generated. This process can be time
consuming if the program is long. Interpreter does not convert programs into
object code. Programs in the interpreter are portable, that is, it can run using any
operating system. Programs in interpreter are far slower than programs that are
compiled and run in the form of object code. Basic and Lisp are examples of
programming languages that use interpreter.
 Programming language is an artificial language to communicate with the

computer.
 A program is a set of instructions followed by the computer, so that data can

be processed.
 The importance of understanding a certain programming language is to

evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the language in solving problems
efficiently.
 Programming languages can be divided into stages or five generations

(machine, assembly, algorithmic, query and natural), beginning from the
lowest to the highest.

 The higher the language is, the nearer it is to the human language form.
 Most high-level languages are languages based on algorithms or procedures.
 Fourth generation language instructions resemble English language

instructions for accessing and formatting data.
 Programming languages can be classified based on six characteristics, namely

imperative, object-oriented, functional, logic, parallel, scripting and visual.
 The imperative language is a language whereby every instruction for solving

the problem needs to be stated clearly.
 Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
 Three important concepts in object-oriented language are class, object and

inheritance.
 Logic-based language is based on logic represented by facts and rules in a form

of IF-THEN statement.
 A function-based language emphasises what needs to be calculated and not

how to calculate.
 Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for a
certain objective.
 Programming using visual language replaces instructions based on text with

icon symbols.
 HTML, JavaScript and PHP are the Internet scripting languages.
 Assembler is used to convert programs from the assembly language to the

machine language.
 Compiler is used to convert high-level language (for example, Basic, C and

Pascal) into object code.
 Interpreter is used to interpret and execute instructions one by one in a high-

level language.

Assembler Interpreter
Compiler Logic-based language
Encapsulation Machine language
Function-based language Object-oriented language
Imperative language Visual language
Inheritance

Topic  The Internet
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the term „Internet‰;
2. Discuss the history, development and evolution of the Internet;
3. Explain Internet addressing, applications of the Internet and ways
of searching for information via the Internet; and
4. Discuss the current and future trends of the Internet.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall focus on the Internet. You may be familiar with browsing the
Internet, however, do you know what the real capability of the Internet is? Do you
know the definition, history, development and evolution of the Internet? In this
topic, we shall learn about these things as well as how the Internet addresses the
computer that is connected to it. Besides that, you will also learn about the effective
process of searching for information over the Internet. Finally, we will explore the
current and future trends of the Internet. Let us start!

TOPIC 7 THE INTERNET  139
7.1 DEFINITION OF INTERNET

In organisations such as a government agency, private company or university,
computers are usually linked to a computer network called local area network
(LAN). This enables users to share resources (for example, printers), communicate
via e-mails, shared databases and so forth. When two or more LANs (and other
networks) are combined into one big network, it is called inter-network or the
Internet. Figure 7.1 shows the basic structure of the Internet.
Figure 7.1: The Internet structure
The Internet is the short form of „interconnected networking‰ that refers to the
largest type of global network. Imagine that all computer networks in the world
are linked to form one big network that spans the globe. The network formed is
called the Internet, in other words, a network formed by an interconnection of
computer networks in the entire world. With the Internet, a computer in Kuala
Lumpur can access a computer in China, India, US, Japan, Saudi Arabia and
anywhere else in the world.
The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large and covers
the whole world. It operates using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP).

140  TOPIC 7 THE INTERNET
There were various proprietary networks linking several countries before the
Internet era (for example, the Malaysia Airlines network linking the companyÊs
offices worldwide) but these were not the Internet. The Internet has adopted the
TCP/IP in order to enable various types of computers to work together. The
Internet has been successful in creating a global village whereby a community can
easily communicate with another community without physical and time
boundaries.
The term „intranet‰ refers to a portion of the Internet that is located within
one organisation. „Intra‰ means inside or within.
For example, a portion of the Internet that is located in all the faculties in Open
University Malaysia (OUM) constitutes an intranet. The portion must be guarded
by a firewall (a type of security software) to ensure that outsiders could not simply
come into OUM network to access its confidential files. Therefore, the intranet is
really a subset of the Internet ă one at the organisational level, while the other, at
the global level.
As many intranets were built, companies discovered more competitive advantage

if they link them together. Thus, an extranet is formed by linking two or more
intranets.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. In your own words, give the definition of the following terms:
(a) Internet;
(b) Intranet; and
(c) Extranet.
2. Based on the answer in question 1, explain how they differ from

one another.

7.2 HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

The Internet network has an interesting history. By looking at the history, we are
able to evaluate the advantages, disadvantages, weaknesses, past development
and predict the future trends of the Internet better. The Internet network was born
in the US in 1969. The US Department of Defence formed the Advanced Research
Project Agency (ARPA) which started the network. This organisation was
responsible for upgrading the activities of research and development in the field
of technology in order to compete with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic
(USSR), the predecessor of todayÊs Russia. This was the US response to the success
of the USSR government in launching the Sputnik communication satellite. In the
1970s, the US and the USSR were in a Cold War. Many people thought that the
success of the USSR had awakened the US from a technology slumber.
7.2.1 How the Internet Began

Two main researches in ARPA were intellectual sharing and computer resource
sharing. Intellectual sharing research touched on how researchers could share
opinions among themselves no matter where they were. Computer resource
sharing research touched on how a researcher could use computer resources at
other places easily. It needs to be noted that, during that decade, computers were
very expensive, limited and large. A computer often cost millions of dollars and
occupied one big room. Only organisations like the US Department of Defence and
large companies could afford to own a computer. Personal computers (PCs) were
not yet available.
As a result of that research, a computer network called ARPANET was established

in 1969. It connected four computers that were available at different locations ă
University of California, Los Angeles, University of California, Santa Barbara,
University of Utah and Stanford Research Institute. In 1971, a total of 23 computers
joined ARPANET, mostly universities and research centres. In 1971, e-mail
facilities were introduced into ARPANET. In 1973, the numbers increased several
fold.
In the 1970s, initiatives were taken to create a standard data sharing among various
types of computer networks. At that time, every computer company introduced
network systems that were different from one another. This initiative enabled all
computers of different brands in various types of networks to share data or to
communicate among themselves easily. In 1974, a data sharing technique called
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was introduced. Later, in 1978, this technique
was expanded to what was called TCP/IP.

7.2.2 The Internet as a Phenomenon

In 1982, computers connected to the ARPANET network fully used TCP/IP as the
standard for data sharing. This enabled various types of computers in ARPANET
to share data among themselves. The terms „interconnected networking‰
(internet) and „Internet‰ were used from this year onwards. The term „Internet‰
(with a capital I) refers to the computer network that uses TCP/IP, while „internet‰
refers to the grouping of computer networks that uses TCP/IP. The success of
ARPANET in using TCP/IP resulted in many universities and other organisations
joining ARPANET. In 1984, about 1,000 computers were inside ARPANET. The
main activities of the Internet during that time were e-mail, file transfer, remote
login and Usenet.
In 1986, the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET), a high-speed

network, was formed. This network became the backbone network that connected
universities, research centres and government agencies with the supercomputer
centre. In 1990, the ARPANET network was terminated and its functions were
taken over by NSFNET. In 1997, NSFNET, which functioned as the backbone
network of the Internet at the time, was taken over by a private party.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Internet usage was still confined to universities,
research centres and government organisations. Its main applications were e-mail,
file transfer, remote login and Usenet. In 1989, a breakthrough occurred in the
European Laboratory for Particle Physics (European Organization for Nuclear
Research [CERN]), a large research centre in Switzerland that was destined to
change the Internet forever. Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, proposed an
information sharing technique based on hypertext for the Internet environment.
In 1990, Berners-Lee introduced a protocol for data communication over the

Internet called Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), a technique that can be
used to develop distributed multimedia systems based on networking.
The multimedia system contains graphics, text, audio and video which can be
indexed and accessed easily by users in the entire world. This system has been
given various names like the World Wide Web, also known as the Web, W3 or
WWW. The Internet, in the shape that is most familiar to many of us, was born!
The Web can be defined as a network of various types of information like graphics,
audio, video and its text is based on hypertext. The original term for hypertext was
introduced by Ted Nelson in 1967. Originally, hypertext only involved document
texts but now, it involves documents based on graphics, audio, video and others.

Ted Nelson worked to develop a hypertext system that was named Xanadu.
The basic idea of the hypertext was once presented by Vannevar Bush in an article
As We May Think in 1947. According to Nelson, hypertext means a collection of
documents or nodes that have links or references among them. Users can read a
document and access other documents via interactive links. The basic concepts in
hypertext are link, accessibility and interactivity. With hypertext, the information
provided is linked among themselves like a cobweb.
The technique of HTTP was introduced to the Internet in 1991.
In 1992, there were 70 sites that offered HTTP and Web services on the entire
Internet. HTTP was still not widely used because there was no Internet browser
that was good and attractive for users. Most Internet browsers at that time were
based on text.
In 1993, a browser based on graphics was developed by Marc Andreessen and Eric
Bina at the National Centre for Supercomputing Application (NCSA) in the US.
This browser, called Mosaic, was given out for free to users. It contains interface
features that are attractive and user-friendly. A combination of ideas from Berners-
LeeÊs hypertext and the Mosaic browser was finally successful in popularising
HTTP on the Internet.
Mosaic software was considered the main invention ă a great application that has
successfully popularised the Internet to general users instantly. At the end of 1993,
within just two years of the HTTP introduction, there were 700 websites.
The Internet began to attract the media and the general public, and a lot of news
concerning the Internet was found in magazines, newspapers and television (TV).
On the commercial aspect, the Internet began attracting the attention of giant
commercial organisations. Many people think that the Internet is the key to their
future business success. Many Internet-based companies have been formed in
large numbers. Marc Andreessen and a few friends set up an Internet technology
company and produced an Internet browser called Netscape. This browser is given
free to all users. The giant Microsoft Corporation was quite late in entering the
Internet browser arena. This company produced the Internet Explorer browser as
a means of dominating the Internet. Competition between these two Internet
browser software brands in attracting the Internet users market was very
interesting. Many people thought that whoever dominates the browser software
will dominate the Internet. The textbox below presents an interesting story about
the Netscape-Microsoft Internet browser software war.

From 1996 to 1999, there was a war on Internet browser software ă the software
that was used to surf the Internet between software giant Microsoft and
Netscape. Why? Many people thought that whoever managed to control the
market in the Internet browser software would ultimately control the Internet
because the Internet browser is the „vehicle‰ for accessing the Internet.
In 1996, Netscape (company) produced the Netscape Navigator software and it

was given out for free to users. As a result, Netscape controlled 80 per cent of
the Internet browser software. At that time, the Internet was becoming popular.
Many companies began to realise the Internet as an attractive business
opportunity. Many websites were developed, goods began to be sold and
various services were offered. The question was, „How to access the Internet?‰
Users began to use the Internet browser software and whoever was in control
of the Internet browser market would also control the Internet.
Microsoft Corporation entered the Internet browser market quite late. After
realising the importance of the Internet, Microsoft began to set out a strategy to
control the Internet. Remember that Microsoft was controlling 90 per cent of the
PC operating system market (nine out of ten PCs sold were using Windows
95/98/ME/XP system). As a first step, Microsoft produced the Internet
Explorer and it was given out for free to customers. As a result, in 1998, almost
90 per cent of the browser market was controlled by Internet Explorer.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Describe the role of ARPANET in the historical development of the

Internet.

ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Surf the web for articles on the Internet between 1997 and 1999.
In the frenzy to popularise the Internet, some reports from the
media could have been sensationalised. Based on current facts,
which statements by the pundits then have now become true and
which statements have turned out to be wrong?
2. In your opinion, what will the Internet be like in the next seven
years to come?
3. Conduct a quick research on Malaysian dotcom companies. Find

out what are the major obstacles in setting up a dotcom company
in Malaysia.
Share and compare your findings with your coursemates in the

myINSPIRE online forum.
7.3 INTERNET EVOLUTION

Some people think that the Internet opened up a new era in the economy. In this
new economic era, a company does not need a building or a physical site. Instead,
it only needs a website to deal with customers. All transactions can be done via the
Internet. Many Internet-based companies, also called dotcom companies, have
been formed all over the world. Many of these companies were listed on the stock
exchanges and received extraordinary responses from investors. For example,
companies such as Facebook gained substantial value shortly after its listing, even
before it reported any profits.
7.3.1 Development of the Internet

It is estimated that the number of Internet users will double every 18 months.
The period from 1997 to 1999 was the period of the Internet explosion whereby the
Internet became a hot topic during talks and discussions. Internet fever began to
reach the masses. Many users became familiar with Web browsing while some
wanted to set up their own individual website and everyone wanted to have an
e-mail account. Various benefits and advantages of the Internet were proposed by
the media as well as other parties. Among the benefits of the Internet were the
possible creation of a global village, removal of boundaries of nations, availability
of information speedily, closing the gap between developed and developing

nations, opening online education and creating borderless economies. However,

to date, most of these statements have not been achieved fully or they are still being
debated upon.
Although the popularity of the Internet has increased and many dotcom
companies have emerged rapidly, the year 2000 was a difficult year for the
Internet. Weaknesses on the Internet were felt by users. Among problems that
arose were the difficulty in searching for relevant information, network
congestion, unfiltered news, fake news, spread of viruses through e-mails,
inadequate security for financial transactions over the Internet, invasion of
privacy, data theft and widespread online pornographic materials. While the
Internet saw the booming of many tech start-ups, there were also many dotcom
companies that suffered losses and had to close down.
The Internet will continue to develop. Table 7.1 shows the history of the Internet
(five phases) and how it has developed throughout the course of history.
Table 7.1: Five Phases of the Development of the Internet
Evolution Year Explanation
1st Phase Before 1969 Birth of the ARPANET for the purposes of research and
computer resource sharing in the US only. Most users
were scientists, students and academicians. The Internet
was used as a tool for sharing computer resources.
2nd Phase 1970ă1990 Communication like e-mail, FTP and Usenet were used
widely. Usage was still confined to universities and
government agencies. Internet usage concentrated in the
US, Europe and Japan. The Internet was used as a tool
for communication.
3rd Phase 1991ă1997 Hypertext technique was used widely in network

information. The Internet began to attract public
attention because the Internet browser had attractive
and user-friendly interfaces.
4th Phase 1998ă2000 Internet explosion era. The number of users expanded
rapidly. The Internet was used for business transactions.
It became the subject of conversations and many articles
regarding the Internet were written in various
magazines.
5th Phase 2001ăonwards Internet reality era. Many dotcom companies closed
down. The realities of the InternetÊs advantages and
disadvantages were felt. Initiatives to improve the
Internet continued.

ACTIVITY 7.2
As we know, the Internet dominates almost every aspect of human life

today. Draw a mind map on how it all started, then share and compare
your work with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
7.3.2 Internet Timeline

Next, we will continue our study and focus on the Internet timeline, as mentioned
in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Internet Timeline and Events
Year Event
1969 Four computers were connected on the ARPANET network in the US. The
computers were from University of California, Los Angeles, University of
California, Santa Barbara, Stanford Research Institute and University of Utah.
1971 The number of computers in the ARPANET went up to 21. The technique of e-
mail communication was introduced.
1973 The University College of London was connected to ARPANET, the first
connection of ARPANET outside the US.
1978 TCP/IP data sharing technique was introduced.
1979 Usenet was introduced. It involved two computers in ARPANET.
1982 ARPANET used TCP/IP completely. Definitions of Internet and intranet were
introduced. „Internet‰ refers to the (worldwide) grouping of computer
networks that uses TCP/IP while „intranet‰ refers to a computer network that
uses Internet Protocol.
1984 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded 1,000 units.
1988 The Internet was massively attacked by „Internet worms‰, which was a
computer software that spread on its own. This incident demonstrated the low
level of safety on the Internet. Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT)
was set up to monitor the security on the Internet.
1989 The number of computers exceeded 100,000 units. A book entitled Cuckoo Nest
was published. This book explained how a group of invaders from Germany
successfully entered some of the US military computers, without permission,
via the Internet.

1990 ARPANET was terminated and replaced by the National Science Foundation
Network.
1991 HTTP was produced by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. This became the basis for
the development of the Web on the Internet.
1992 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded 1 million units. Malaysia
gained access to the Internet. The Internet network in Malaysia was managed
by the Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS). The network
was known as JARING and is participated by several local universities
including OUM.
1996 Browser war between Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer. At that
time, almost 80 per cent of users were using Netscape Communicator.
1997 The backbone function of the National Science Foundation Network for the
provision of the Internet passage was taken over by a commercial company.
Java, a computer programming language which was based on objects was
launched by Sun Microsystem in 23 May 1997. This language received
extraordinary responses. Java enables websites to have various attractive
animations. Search engines were also introduced. There were already 17,618
discussion forums based on e-mails.
1998 The Internet was estimated to have millions of websites. Electronic commerce
(e-commerce) and portal technology began to attract attention.
1999 The number of computers on the Internet was estimated at 76 million units. The
number of web servers was estimated at seven million units.
2000 An estimated one billion websites were on the Internet.
2003 Wi-Fi (wireless LAN) technology was expanding rapidly. It started to become
a main source of connection to the Internet for many compatible devices.
2008 The Internet became more accessible to many people via portable and wireless
devices such as laptops and smartphones as compared to fixed line services on
desktop computers. The shift to mobile access of the Web has accelerated with
the rise of smartphones and later with the rise of tablet computers. Social media
platforms started to rise in popularity.
2018 It is estimated that well over half of the worldÊs population have online access
or are using the Internet. Most of the growth of Internet users has been
attributed to affordable smartphones and various data plans.

In the Internet history and timeline, we have found rapid development of the
Internet just within a period of 50 years. The Internet began as a research network.
Then, it became a communication and data sharing network (later it evolved into
the Internet becoming a platform for social media and social network) and a
network for e-commerce. The Internet has removed physical boundaries that
divided the world and created a global village that transcends time and space.
ACTIVITY 7.3
The Internet has greatly affected human life today, whether in Malaysia
or the entire world, and it is expected to continue to do so in the
foreseeable future. Imagine if the Internet did not exist today. What
would society be like? What are the activities that users cannot do
without the Internet? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE
online forum.
7.4 INTERNET ADDRESSING

A computer needs an Internet Protocol (IP) address to communicate with other
computers on the Internet. Without the IP address, computers cannot reach the
Internet. Do you know that the IP address for the entire Internet is coordinated by
a body with its centre at http://www.internic.net while for computers in Asia,
it is coordinated by Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) with its
centre in Japan? The distribution of IP numbers in Malaysia is managed by the
Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS).
There are two types of computers on the Internet ă host computers and server
computers. A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which has an IP
address. IP address is made up of four sequential numbers which are organised in
the format of „a.b.c.d‰. Examples of IP addresses are 202.187.48.7, 202.187.46.197
and 192.228.128.18. Each sequence of a, b, c, and d consists of numbers between
0 and 255. For example, IP address for a host at OUM consists of numbers between
211.25.48.X and 211.25.54.Y. A good analogy for an IP address is the identity card
number. It is unique to a certain host. There are no two hosts on the Internet that
has the same IP address. A computer needs to have an IP address to access the
Internet.

As a simple rule, if the computer is a PC and has an IP address, then the computer
is a host computer. If a user accesses the Internet using services provided by the
Internet service provider like unifi.com.my, time.com.my or maxis.com.my via a
home computer, the user does not need an IP address. The userÊs computer will be
given an IP address dynamically by the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Computers can also function as servers, that is, computers that can be accessed by
users on the Internet. A server is a high-powered computer that is used as a
platform for websites, e-mails, electronic discussions, archives, file server and
others. Normally, a server would use UNIX, Linux, Solaris or Windows Server
2019 as its OS.
A server has two forms of identification, namely an IP address and a Fully

Qualified Domain Name (FQDN). Examples FQDN (with IP address in brackets)
for a server are www.thestar.com.my (13.32.8.111) and www.oum.edu.my
(211.25.48.10). The analogy here is that a person has an identity card number and
name, same goes for a server which has an IP address and a FQDN. As a simple
rule, if the computer is highly powered, has an IP address as well as a fully
qualified domain name, then that computer is a server.
FQDNs are used to assist Internet users because it is easier to remember a fully
qualified domain name (thestar.com.my) rather than an IP address (13.32.8.111).
Therefore, every server on the Internet has an IP number and name for
identification. A fully qualified domain name gives a lot of information regarding
a certain server. For example, the server name oumvle.oum.edu.my gives the
following meaning ă oumvle is the host computer, oum is the organisation name
and my is the country name. Therefore, in general, the name oumvle.oum.edu.my
refers to a server located at OUM.
Figure 7.2 presents a breakdown of the IP address of OUMÊs library server,

indicating the different parts of its FQDN.
Figure 7.2: Fully qualified domain name

The end part of the server name normally shows the location or type of
organisation in which the server resides which is called top-level domain (TLD)
that shows the suffix of the domain name. For examples:
(a) .org refers to a non-commercial organisation;
(b) .com refers to a company;
(c) .my refers to Malaysia; and
(d) .uk refers to the UK.
Because the Internet originated from the US, the domain name for computers in
the US does not have a country name. For example, www.facebook.com.
We can see more examples with explanations of TLD an Internet address end part
in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Top-level domain (TLD)
Did you know that most server names are in the form of Uniform Resource Locator
(URL) and that has been the basis of HTTP? An example of a URL name is
https://www.oum.edu.my, whereby:
(a) http refers to HTTP (when it is https, it refers to HTTP Secure);
(b) www refers to website;
(c) oum refers to OUM;
(d) edu refers to educational institution; and
(e) my refers to country, Malaysia.

HTTP is a protocol of data communication for the Web, where hypertext

documents include hyperlinks to other resources that the user can easily access,
for example by a mouse click or by tapping the screen. HTTP was developed to
facilitate hypertext and the Web. Meanwhile, HTTP Secure, which is an extension
of HTTP, signifies the secure version of HTTP, whereby all communications
between the browser and the website are encrypted or have digital certificates
along with security protocols.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
What do you understand by server computer? Explain.
7.5 INTERNET APPLICATIONS

The Internet is a network that was initially developed for research work. It was
mostly used by universities, research centres and government agencies. That is the
reason why there are many documents of academic nature on it. They include
books, technical reports, research output, translations, data, articles, discussions,
program source codes, research software, lecture notes, software guides, pictures
and sound. Normally, the information is free and can be accessed via websites.
Based on this scenario, the Internet can be likened to a huge virtual library, which
contains numerous types of information. Internet applications are supported
through the Web, which serves as an information space where documents and
other web resources are identified by URLs, interlinked by hypertext links and
accessible via the Internet.
The Internet also offers various forms of communication such as e-mail, online
discussion board, Usenet, e-mail based discussion and social media through the
Web. These communication techniques have successfully created a global village.
With e-mail, users can communicate with anyone, anywhere. E-mail is a type of
communication that is cheap and fast. An e-mail sent from the OUM takes only
seven seconds to reach the UK. By using e-mail, users can send attachments such
as Microsoft Word documents, software, zipped files, graphics or audio.
The Internet also offers discussions based on e-mails. Discussions normally focus
on a specific topic. Users need to have and e-mail accounts in order to participate
in the discussions. There are several locations that offer discussions based on
e-mail for free. One such example is https://groups.yahoo.com.

The Internet also offers various online discussion topics via Usenet. There are over
7,000 topics discussed in Usenet and users can choose from various topics that
interest them. In a Usenet discussion, anyone from any parts of the world can give
his opinion or idea freely. One of the ways to access is by accessing a Usenet server
such as http://dotsrc.org/usenet.
Internet has become the platform or host to various social media and social
networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube and many more.
All these sites have the features of Web 2.0, which is a term for sites that allow
users to connect, interact, contribute and collaborate with each other, rather than
being websites with static pages or just for retrieving information. Web 2.0
provides users with the opportunity to effectively present their ideas, lead online
discussions, share educational content and document files as well as collaborate
with each other in real time. Some of the Web 2.0 applications are Google Docs,
Prezi, Pinterest and many others.
On the Internet, you can also search and obtain various types of information for
reference and reading. A user can get the entire literary works of William
Shakespeare, translations of the Quran, sayings of Prophet Muhammad PBUH,
classical Malay literary works, recipes for cakes, lecture notes, US Central
Intelligence Agency reports on Malaysia and many more. Many foreign and local
universities have placed their lecture sources such as notes, sample examination
papers and online software onto the Internet to be accessed by and for the benefits
of the students. An example of a lecture website is http://www.vlib.org.
The Internet is also a large archive of computer software. It contains various types
of software such as graphics, word processing, databases and games. A type of
software that is getting wide attention on the Internet today is the open source
software. The open source software consists of high quality software and can be
obtained together with the program codes.
The Internet also offers various news sources which are up to date and fast via
newspaper and television websites.
Examples of news websites are:
(a) https://edition.cnn.com
(b) https://www.thestar.com.my
(c) https://www.bharian.com.my

Users can also buy various things via the Internet. For example, users can buy
reference books from companies in Germany via the Internet. Purchases via the
Internet normally require credit cards. It is estimated that total sales via the
Internet, also called e-commerce, could reach up to billions in the near future.
Examples of popular e-commerce websites are:
(a) https://www.amazon.com
(b) https://www.ebay.com
(c) https://www.lelong.com.my
The Internet also offers a variety of entertainment such as music, videos, movies,
blogs and games. On the Internet, you can also find various websites that have
been built by marketers for the purpose of promotion and advertising. Users can
visit the website of a museum, a university, a company or of an individual person
and view the various types of information being displayed. The websites contain
a variety of information in the form of text, audio, video, graphics, cinema,
software and so forth. In other words, there are numerous materials on hundreds
of websites that can be accessed through the Internet.
Based on the discussions, we can think of the Internet as a very large virtual
environment, without boundaries, without a clear map and without anyone in
control, and it covers the entire world. It can be said to contain a reservoir of
knowledge about the world. It also offers ways of communicating to human beings
effectively and speedily.
We can see the summary of things available on the Internet in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Things available on the Internet

ACTIVITY 7.4
In your opinion:
(a) How has the Internet benefited individual users and the society at
large?
(b) What problems have you encounter with the Internet? What
processes can be improved on the Internet?
Share your thoughts in myINSPIRE and compare your opinions with

those of your coursemates.
7.6 SEARCHING FOR INFORMATION OVER

THE INTERNET
The Internet is a big source of information. How do we obtain the information that
we want on the Internet efficiently? Users need to understand this approach
because it will help them to search for information and use the information
efficiently.
Searching for information involves the process of searching the place where the
required information is present. This is an important process. Many users spend a
lot of time exploring the Internet and searching for information but to no avail.
The user ends up obtaining information that is not relevant and/or out of date.
Two main ways of searching for information over the Internet are through search
engines and portals. Other minor approaches that can also be used are the Usenet,
FAQ, e-mail discussion forums and archive sites. Examples of components that are
used to search for information on the Internet can be seen in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Components that are used in searching for information on the Internet
Manipulation of information involves the process of transforming the information

and using the acquired information wisely. Often, users spend their time obtaining
information that ultimately cannot be used because they do not know how to
manipulate the information. This will indirectly waste time and energy.
The Internet security level has improved a lot. This can be seen on especially on
online banking sites such as cimbclicks.com and maybank2u.com. Even so, there
are still hackers who are able to access the host computer without permission.
If they managed to successfully invade the website, they will be able to steal data,
change sites, steal credit card numbers and perform other transactions.

ACTIVITY 7.5
Discuss the strategy to handle the following issue on the myINSPIRE

forum.
Users are still questioning the level of data security over the Internet for
e-commerce transactions. There have been thousands of stories of stolen
credit card numbers by intruders from company servers. What is the
guarantee provided by companies that the credit card numbers used in
e-commerce transactions are safe?
7.6.1 Search Engine

The first step in searching for information is to use a search engine. Users can use
one or more key words to search for the desired information. The search engine
will search for Websites based on the key words. Can you name some examples of
popular search engines? Figure 7.6 shows an example of a popular search engine
ă Google.
Figure 7.6: Google search engine

Source: http://www.google.com.my
Search engines are not intelligent but they are also not dumb either. They function
based on robot and index.
A robot is a kind of software that is sent by the search engine to wander

around the Internet.
How does this robot work? A search engine will send many robots to wander
around the Internet. These robots will bring back data on the web servers visited.
Based on the data brought back by the robots, an index will be built. This index
basically contains key words and identifies in which servers the key words are
present. Every search engine has different techniques in building the index.
Therefore, two different search engines will give different answers for the same
key words. Since the size of the Internet is very large, not all Internet servers will
be accessed by the robots. When users make a request based on key words in a
search engine site, the search engine will refer to the index to obtain relevant
servers. The search engine will always perform the updating process over the
index.
7.6.2 Portals
The second best way to access information is to use portals. A portal is a server
that contains a directory of several servers on the Internet based on categories of
information available on the servers. Users can find information by accessing the
servers in related categories.
Examples of popular portals are:
(a) http://www.igoogleportal.com
(b) https://www.yahoo.com
(c) https://www.wikipedia.org

Portals require human beings to arrange and classify servers according to

categories. This method produces a list of servers that is more orderly and can be
used easily. For example, if a user wants to know more about the Java
programming language, he can access servers that are available in the category of
computer programming language. This method often produces information that
is suitable and relevant. Commercial portals are those like
https://www.yahoo.com and https://www.aol.com. An example of a portal
(website) for the Malaysian governmentÊs official information and usage for
citizens and non-citizens is shown in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7: Portal of the Malaysian Government

Source: https://www.malaysia.gov.my/portal/index

7.6.3 Other Methods

In addition to search engines and portals, users can also find information through
forums and frequently asked questions (FAQ), as shown in Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8: Archive website frequently asked questions

Source: http://www.faqs.org
Just remember that Usenet is an online discussion corner. There are various
discussion corners in Usenet. In one discussion corner, new users may be asking
very trivial questions in the eyes of experienced users. Often, whenever trivial
questions are asked in the discussion corner, experienced users would say ă
„RTFM or the FAQ‰. Do you know the meanings of these abbreviations?
The acronym RTFM means „read the fine manual‰. In other words, the new user
should have read the manual first before asking trivial questions or simply refer to
the FAQ, which is a document in the form of questions and answers. Questions in
the FAQ are those that are often asked in the Usenet discussion corners. More
details about Usenet and FAQ will be deliberated in the upcoming topics in this
module.

Besides FAQ and RTFM, users can also search for information on the archive
server, that is, a server that contains a lot of information on specific topics. The
address of the archive can normally be obtained from FAQ portals or documents.
Many hosts on the Internet serve as archives or centres of information gathering in
certain fields.
Examples of websites that serve as archives or centres of information gathering in

certain fields are:
(a) http://www.stat.cmu.edu ă Archive in the field of statistics and data

science;
(b) https://www.ibiblio.org (former website is http://www.metalab.unc.edu)

ă Archive for open source software; and
(c) https://.filehippo.com ă Archive for Windows software.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1. How can users find useful information on the Internet within a

short period of time?
2. Explain the advantages of communication through:
(a) E-mail; and
(b) Usenet.
7.7 INTERNET LAWS

It is not easy to regulate the Internet due to the vast distribution of its networks
that crosses many nations and jurisdiction. Moreover, the Internet is not owned by
any one person or entity but shared by many, even if web domains, server hosts
and end user devices are owned by people and corporations. As such, it is difficult
to enact laws to govern and control the usage of the Internet that can be
consistently applied to all users. For example, the propagation of politically
sensitive materials and immoral content such as pornography are generally
allowed in most advance democracies due to the concept of freedom of speech.
The same materials can be accessed by users even in places that prohibits them,
including Malaysia, which have laws such as the Sedition Act, Film Censorship
Act and the Penal Code that essentially makes such materials illegal.

In summary, cyber laws in Malaysia may not be used to stop the broadcast of
illegal materials outside of Malaysia. The act only has jurisdiction over websites
operating in Malaysia. In line with the progress of the Internet, the Malaysian
government has gazetted the Computer Crime Act 1997 and Communication and
Multimedia Act 1998 to deal with unhealthy activities over the Internet.
Nowadays, there are many crimes committed through the Internet. There are also
individuals who abuse the Internet as a source of reference for their criminal acts.
For example, misuse of chat or social networking site to lure women or teenagers
for various purposes are not healthy. This is quite dangerous isnÊt it? Various laws
have been enacted in recent years to provide effective protection to women and
children. Furthermore, various methods have been used to provide education and
training as well as creating awareness among Internet users, regardless of gender
and age, to better protect themselves and use Internet safely.
With most of the data available online and easily accessible to many people,
concerns about data privacy has been increasing among Internet users. In order to
provide better data protection to both online and offline users, laws and
regulations such as MalaysiaÊs Personal Data Protection Act 2010 and European
Union General Data Protection Regulation have been introduced and adopted.
7.8 INTERNET TODAY AND THE FUTURE

Originally, the Internet was developed as a network for research and academic
purposes. Therefore, most of the original information on the Internet was of the
academic type. When the Internet was first set up, there was trust among all the
Internet users. Therefore, security issues on the Internet were not that important.
The Internet also provided an infrastructure for communication and intellectual
sharing via e-mails, Usenet and discussion corners.
Today, activities on the Internet include e-commerce, news, multimedia material,

hypertext, websites, entertainment and many more. These activities give rise to
issues that were not previously important such as access, information filter, userÊs
privacy, Internet passage congestion and data security. These concerns began to
get more attention of late. It was predicted that the Internet will become a basic
need for every household, just like the telephone or TV in the near future.
The Internet of things (IoT) is a description for computing setting in which
everyday devices, or things, are connected to the Internet. Sensors connected to
these devices collect, share and transmit data to and from the Internet to other
devices or servers online.

Businesses will also increase via the Internet. Various steps are being taken to make
the Internet more widespread and easy to use by users, for example, Internet access
via TV, fourth and fifth generation (4G and 5G) approach to mobile phones as well
as the use of optical fibres and high powered lines to houses.
Based on earlier discussions, we also find that the Internet has its own set of
problems. By understanding the problems, users will be aware of its limitations,
future of the Internet and will not easily believe everything that is found on the
Internet. The Internet is a virtual space and has a very wide coverage.
There are five major trends that are related to future Internet, as shown in
Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: Five Key Trends that are Related to Future Internet
Trend Description
We always For example, we access e-mails in the office or at home via a

communicate using a laptop. If we are mobile, for example, at the airport, we can still
variety of devices in be connected to the e-mail by using other devices such as
various places smartphone or tablet.
We use a variety of For example, online banking, online games, Internet TV, digital
online services every movies, video on demand, magazine subscription or online
day newspapers, online purchases, online distance learning and
social networking.
The Internet has Users will be powered by equipment and low cost devices that
evolved rapidly from will allow them to create their own content. This will make the
the concept of products and services more personal. To make the content and
sharing information products more attractive, the collaborative concept will be
to collaborative adopted for the production and better service. This will spark a
publication phenomenon that will change work ethics and commercial and
social activities amongst the Internet users.
The number of smart The smart products are used to collect and process data. This
products increases information could then be used in the subsequent preparation
every day of information in order to facilitate decision making.
Personal information In future, different devices can be used to collect information

spreads in various about other users (such as location, time and behaviour). Data
systems and accumulated will be used as a set of system to indicate the
networks particular user. If there is demand, this can be disbursed
quickly to other parties.

Info graphics from the following websites may also provide you with an overview
of the future developments on the Internet:
(a) https://www.visioncritical.com/internet-of-things-infographics/
(b) http://dailyinfographic.com/2016-the-year-of-the-zettabyte-infographic
(c) http://www.smashingapps.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/The-
Internet-in-2020.jpg
ACTIVITY 7.6
In your opinion, is the Internet bandwidth of today capable of satisfying

Internet users in the future? Or will the technology continue to play
catch-up with Internet congestion? Try to discuss the issue with a
coursemate and post your conclusions on the myINSPIRE online forum.
 From 1969 until today, computers and the Internet have undergone five phases
(before 1969, 1970ă1990, 1990ă1997, 1997ă2000 and 2001ăonwards) and have
become a major part of our life.
Ć The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large and covers
the whole world. It operates by using TCP/IP.
Ć The term „intranet‰ refers to a grouping of some LANs within an organisation

(intra means inside or within).
Ć The Internet began in the US with the birth of ARPANET, which was intended
for research and sharing of academic resources. ARPANET has grown rapidly
but was later replaced by the National Science Foundation Network.
Ć HTTP and the Web have sped up the already rapid development of the Internet
even more.
Ć There are two types of computers on the Internet, namely host computer and
server computer.
Ć A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which has an IP number.

Ć IP address contains four sequential numbers ă a.b.c.d. Some examples of IP

addresses are 202.187.48.7, 202.187.46.197 and 192.228.128.18.
Ć The computer can also function as a server, that is, the computer can be
accessed by other users on the Internet.
Ć The server has two forms of identification, namely IP address and fully
qualified domain name. A fully qualified domain name is much easier to
remember compared to the IP address.
Ć There is a lot of information on the Internet about various things. The

information can be obtained through search engines and portals via the World
Wide Web.
Ć Cyber laws in Malaysia cannot be used to stop the broadcasting of illegal

materials from outside Malaysia. Actions can only be taken on websites which
operate in Malaysia.
Ć There are several major trends associated with the future of the Internet
including the existence of online services and the growing number of smart
products.
ARPANET Intranet
Cyber law Internet
Domain Internet Protocol (IP)
E-mail National Science Foundation Network
(NFSNET)
Extranet
Search engine
Frequently asked questions (FAQ)
Security
Fully qualified domain name (FQDN)
Transmission Control Protocol/
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Hypertext Usenet
Information Web

Topic  Software on
the Internet
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe seven types of software that are available on the Internet;
2. Distinguish between shareware and freeware;
3. Explain the concept and advantages of open source software;
4. Explain the terms File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Telnet;
5. Discuss ethics and the use of smiley icons, acronyms and signature
to communicate effectively in e-mails;
6. Explain Usenet and frequently asked questions (FAQ); and
7. Discuss the Internet phenomenon.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall learn about the various software that are available on the
Internet. Some software can be obtained free of charge while others have to be
purchased. This topic will also discuss a popular Internet communication
technique, that is, e-mail. In the beginning, e-mails were text-based but now, you
can even send several types of data together with the e-mail such as text
documents, graphics, audios, PowerPoint presentations and many more. We will
also discuss matters related to e-mail such as ethics, the smiley icons and many
others. Finally, we will discuss about the Usenet and frequently asked questions
(FAQ). Are you ready?

TOPIC 8 SOFTWARE ON THE INTERNET  167
8.1 INTERNET SOFTWARE

There are seven types of software and software services on the Internet as shown
in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Seven types of software on the Internet
We will look at the types of software in more detail, starting with shareware and
freeware in the next subtopic.
8.2 SHAREWARE AND FREEWARE

In Figure 8.1, one of the software is known as shareware. Do you know what is the
purpose of this software?
Shareware is a type of software that can be used free of charge within a certain
period of time.
After that period, if the user continues to use the software, he needs to send
payment to the programmer of the software. This allows the consumer to make a
choice whether to continue using it or to switch to another application.

168  TOPIC 8 SOFTWARE ON THE INTERNET
Do you know some of the examples of this software? Examples of shareware are
WinZip (see Figure 8.2) and McAfee (antivirus).
Figure 8.2: Winzip
Besides shareware, there is also freeware. It is available free of charge from the
Internet. Often, this software has specific charges to users who want to add
functionality or upgrade the software. If not, the user will remain with the basic or
normal functions of the software.

An example of freeware is the AVG antivirus software (refer to Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.3: AVG antivirus software
8.3 OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

Another type of software that we are going to learn about is open source software.
Do you know why this software gets a lot of attention in the Internet now? What
does it refer to?
Open source software is a software that can be obtained without any cost,
together with its source codes that is licensed to be studied, changed and
redistributed freely to others.

Distribution of the software together with its source codes has the following
advantages:
(a) Users can modify the software and are not tied or bound to any company;
(b) Users have the opportunity to remove errors that may be present in the
source codes; and
(c) Users can also learn how the software is built based on the source codes.
The open source software begins with the GNU project (GNU is not UNIX). It is a
project founded by Richard Stallman from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) at the beginning of 1980s. The original aim of this project was to
produce a system based on UNIX for free of charge use. This project has been
successful in producing software of high quality such as GNU Compiler Collection
(GCC) compiler, Lisp program compiler, Emacs editor and others. All GNU
software programs use the copyright called GNU Public Licence (GPL) which
states that anyone can modify the program source code but the modification must
be shared with other users. Basically, GNU encourages software and source code
sharing among users so that high quality software can be produced.
The GNU Public Licence concept is the opposite of the commercial software
concept. Commercial software would tie users to the software company. If the
software contains errors, users will have to wait for the newer version to be
produced and this will take a long time. If the software company raises the price,
users will have to accept that and pay more for the latest version of the software.
Users can make any modification to the source code of the open software but users
are requested to share the modification with other users via the Internet. With this
intellectual sharing, it is hoped that the software will be continuously modified so
that it will become a high quality software.
Examples of open source software which are widely used today are Linux
(operating system), Apache (web server), GNU Compiler Collection (C language
compiler), Perl (high-level programming language) and R (statistical software).
We can see the definitions of GNU Public Licence software in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: GNU Public Licence Software Definitions
GNU Public
Definition
Licence Software
Linux Operating system for a computer. It is an alternative to

commercial software such as Windows 95/98/ME/NT, Mac OS
and Sun Solaris. It is widely used in universities, research
centres, private companies and the public. It contains lasting
characteristics (Linux can operate for years without stopping),
multiprocessing, multi-user and other sophisticated
characteristics. Today, Linux system has a desktop environment
similar to Windows 98/ME/NT in terms of user-friendliness.
It can be installed together with Windows 98/ME inside one
computer.
TeX A document processing system. It is used to produce various

types of documents and books, especially those that involve
many mathematical expressions. Detailed information can be
obtained on the website http://www.tug.org. TeX was
produced by Donald Knuth, a famous mathematician and
computer scientist. One of his writings is The Art of Computer
Programming in three volumes.
LibreOffice High quality office software which contains word processing,

spreadsheet, database and presentation software, free of charge.
This is an alternative to the Microsoft Office or Open Office.
All types of documents in Microsoft Office can be read by
LibreOffice. Many government organisations today have
changed to LibreOffice. Users need a minimum memory of 64MB
and at least a Pentium processor to use the LibreOffice with
comfort.
GNU A project started by Richard Stallman at the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology in 1981 to produce a free UNIX system.
Among the software products of this project are GNU Compiler
Collection C compiler, Emacs editor, R statistical software, Perl
language, Awk processor and Fortran g77 compiler. All GNU
software use a GNU Public Licence.

Python An object-oriented programming language. It can be used for

building a prototype, Internet programs, data processing,
scientific calculations and more. Among organisations that used
this language are National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Disney, Boeing and Google. Detailed
information at www.python.org.
R Software for data analysis. It can be obtained for Windows

98/ME and UNIX systems. It contains various facilities for
statistical analysis such as regression analysis, time series and
hypothesis testing. The R website is at http://www.r-
project.org. It is an alternative to commercial software like
Statistical Product and Service Solutions, and Statistical Analysis
System, better known as SPSS and SAS respectively.
There are thousands of high quality open source software available over the
Internet for users. You can visit the following website for detailed information on
open source software:
(a) http://www.opensource.org
(b) http://www.gnu.org
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What do you understand by the term GNU Public Licence? Explain.
2. Give two examples each of shareware and freeware that are

available on the Internet.
3. Explain the differences between shareware and freeware.

8.4 FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a technique of downloading data from any FTP
server on the Internet onto the userÊs computer.
We can see an example of the website as shown in Figure 8.4:
Figure 8.4: FTP using Firefox at host
Many servers offer anonymous FTP services, which means the server allows
anyone, anywhere to download data from it.

Users can use a variety of software to manage the files on the server. Among the
commonly used software is CuteFTP (see Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5: CuteFTP display
8.5 TELNET
Telnet is a technique of communicating with a server and using the facilities

that are available on the computer.
To use Telnet, a user needs to have a user account on the server to be accessed.
The Telnet technique can be used to access servers at foreign university libraries,
Usenet server, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) server, multi-user domain server or
database server.
Let us look at an example of the use of Telnet. Suppose a user wants to perform
complex calculations that require high performance computers (super). What
should he do? The user can proceed to the supercomputer centre in Malaysia
located at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Jalan Semarak, Kuala Lumpur to

perform the tasks. A supercomputer is a type of computer with high capability and
cost. It can be used to perform simulations, car modelling, complex calculations,
weather forecasting and many others.
Besides that, the user can access the supercomputer via the Internet. The user can
Telnet to the supercomputer and perform computations on the computer
remotely. The Telnet technique enables the sharing of supercomputer resources
for all users wherever they may be in Malaysia.
8.6 E-MAIL
An e-mail is a communication technique between users on the Internet. In the early
days, e-mails were only text-based. Today, users can send various types of data
together with the e-mail, for example, Microsoft Word documents, PowerPoint
presentations, Excel spreadsheets, graphic .jpg, audio .mp3 and others. The
computer server that manages the e-mail is called the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) server.
To use e-mails, users need to have an e-mail account on the e-mail server. Most
organisations like universities and private companies give out free e-mail accounts
to their staff. If users use the services of tm.net.my (Telekom Malaysia), they are
also given free e-mail accounts.
There are websites that offer free e-mail accounts such as Gmail at mail.google.com
and Yahoo! Mail at mail.yahoo.com. Users can access the websites and register for
the e-mail accounts. These free e-mail websites are popular among students and
other individuals.
An e-mail account contains two parts ă account name and the name of the SMTP
server (domain name). For example, a user with the name Anis Shafiqah has an
account name of anis_shafiqah on the host server SMTP oum.edu.my. If the user
registers at www.oum.edu.my with that account name, the userÊs e-mail account
will be anis_shafiqah@oum.edu.my. The account name has a minimum of eight
characters and a maximum of 32 characters, on condition that it does not contain
special characters or space.
The following e-mail account names are not valid: „anis shafiqah‰ and
„a shafiqah‰. On the other hand, the following account names are valid:
„anis_shafiqah‰ and „a_shafiqah‰. Select a good account name that is suitable and
can be easily remembered by other users. Names such as „brutal99‰, „lanunlaut‰,
„amy89810‰ and „mahakaya‰ are certainly not suitable. Imagine the feelings of the
receiver when he receives an e-mail from someone with the name,
mat_brutal@hotmail.com.

To read an e-mail on the user account on the SMTP server, users can use two
techniques:
(a) Users can use the server software and access the said SMTP server; and
(b) Users can download the e-mail from the SMTP server onto a personal
computer using the Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) technique.
If the user is an Internet subscriber with an telecommunications service company,

the Post Office Protocol 3 technique/protocol is used to download e-mails from
the service providerÊs server onto their personal computer. The e-mail client
software that can be used are Eudora, Pegasus and Microsoft Outlook. We can look
at an example of the Gmail e-mail communication website as shown in Figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Gmail website

8.6.1 E-Mail Discussion

With e-mails, users can participate in various e-mail discussion corners. There are
thousands of discussion corners covering various interesting topics such as
economics, science, computers and religion. You can participate in these
discussion corners by writing an e-mail to the server that manages the discussion
corners. Normally, e-mail discussions are managed automatically by the computer
and without human intervention. Do remember that users communicate with the
computer via e-mails. Therefore, they follow the instructions to participate or to
exit from the discussion corner correctly. A list of e-mail discussion corners can be
obtained at http://www.groups.yahoo.com and http://www.tile.net.
The advantages and disadvantages of participating in discussion corners are

briefly listed in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Participating in E-Mail Discussion Corners
Advantages Disadvantages
Can discuss with and pose questions The number of e-mails received may be a
to many Internet users who are lot. Certain active discussion corners will
knowledgeable in certain fields. see more than 200 e-mails a day.
Answers to questions may be obtained Users need to spend a lot of time reading
very quickly. e-mails.
Can share opinions and information with Most e-mail contents are rubbish and not
people who have the same interest. beneficial.
Low cost. ă
8.6.2 Ethics of E-Mail Discussion

Several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail discussions are as
follows:
(a) Observe traditional customs during discussions. Always respect other usersÊ
opinions even if they disagree. Agree to disagree;
(b) Remember that it is a virtual discussion corner. Users do not know other
users or their background. Other users may be older or may have more
experience. They may be a professor, researcher, program expert, chief
executive officer, coursemate, neighbour or others;

(c) Show good conduct. This demonstrates your personality to other users. If a
user is noisy and obnoxious during the discussion, most likely his questions
will not be entertained by other users;
(d) Share your expertise and ask questions if you need the expertise of other
users. By sharing, a user can establish communication with other users;
(e) Respect the privacy of other users. Do not discuss private issues;
(f) Be willing to forgive other usersÊ mistakes and be ready to help in solving
problems. Do not entertain those who like to quarrel;
(g) Discussion forums are archived. Maybe in 10 yearsÊ time, if users search on
the Internet, they may find their old e-mails again. Therefore, be careful
when writing them; and
(f) Do not post usersÊ private e-mails onto the discussion forum without the
permission of the concerned users (very important). This violates the privacy
act of certain countries.
8.6.3 Smiley
An e-mail content in the form of text makes it difficult for users to express emotions
like anger, happiness, hatred, tears and laughter. Therefore, the smiley icon
technique is used. A smiley contains text-based symbols used in e-mails to
represent a certain emotion such as anger, hatred and laughter. To view a smiley,
users need to tilt their heads 90 degrees leftwards. Nowadays, most e-mails have
options for smiley icons (see Figure 8.7):

Figure 8.7: Usage of smiley icons in e-mail
The following e-mail note has no smiley icons:
What to do. It is luck. Maybe you can help.
Is it less effective or impactful? Let us change it into a more effective e-mail and
have better impact by using the smiley icons:
What to do. It is luck. :-( May be you can help. :-)
The smiley symbols or icons used are :-) and :-(. The second e-mail shows that the
writer feels sad and jokingly asks if the receiver can help him.

There are hundreds of smiley symbols and there are most common ones are shown
in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: The Smiley Symbols
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning
:-) Smile ;-) Smile, wink
:-( Sad, do not agree :-p Taunting
8-) Wearing glasses :-O Eye surprised
Do you know how the smiley icon was started? You can visit the following website
to learn the history of smiley icon and how it began:
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/sefSmiley.htm
ACTIVITY 8.1
You can visit the Yahoo! Messenger website at http://messenger.yahoo.

com/features/emoticons/ to see a variety of interesting smiley icons.
In your opinion, what other icons can be added? Try to find other icons
from other websites. Compare the ways and means of how they are
written.
ACTIVITY 8.1

8.6.4 Acronyms
What is ASAP, ROTFL, RTFM, YMMV, BTW? These characters are acronyms or
short forms that are used to represent phrases that are normally used on the
Internet. In Table 8.4, nine of the popular acronyms are shown. Acronyms are used
in order to facilitate users to write quickly, without the need to type full sentences
in the e-mail, discussion and chat. This can save time and reduce spelling errors.
In fact, space can also be saved!
Table 8.4: Nine Popular Acronyms
Acronym Expression Meaning
ROTFL rolling on the floor laughing Laughing while rolling on the floor,
a cynical expression
BTW by the way By the way
RTFM read the fine manual Advised to read the manual before
asking
AFAIK as far as I know As far as I am concerned
ASAP as soon as possible An advice to speed up
FYI for your information For your information
IMHO in my humble opinion My view point
OTOH on the other hand On the contrary
YMMV your mileage may vary It may be different with you
ACTIVITY 8.2
If you receive the following e-mail, what can you understand from it?
„Please send the program ASAP. Your proposal makes me ROTFL.

Regarding the TeX program, please RTFM. I experience power upgrade
of 20 times after adding more RAM, YMMV. BTW, I am going to Ipoh
tomorrow. IMHO, SarahÊs proposal is better than AnisÊ proposal.‰
Share your interpretation of the message in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

8.6.5 E-Mail Signature

An e-mail signature is a message at the end of an e-mail. It may contain the address
of the user, web address, words of wisdom, graphics, text and so forth. Its purpose
is to give a unique personality to the e-mail. An example of an e-mail signature is
displayed in Figure 8.8.
Figure 8.8: Example of an e-mail signature

8.6.6 Using E-Mails Effectively

Guidelines on the effective use of e-mails are shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Guidelines on the Effective Use of E-Mails
Guideline Explanation
Ensure that your e-mail This makes it easier for the receiver to read your e-mail.
content is short and It is not proper to send a long-winded e-mail, hoping that
precise. the receiver will read it. Remember, the receiver is also
busy with other work and may be receiving hundreds of
e-mails a day.
Ensure that an appropriate This will help the receiver to determine the importance of
and concise title is used. the e-mail received.
Do not enclose a large- This would cause problems to the SMTP. Limit the size of
sized attachment. your attachment to less than 1MB. There are cases when
users send e-mail attachments of 50MB in size.
Ensure that the e-mail sent Use the virus scanner to examine the e-mail received.
or received does not
contain virus.
Process your e-mail in a For example, before going out for lunch, solve all your
batch. e-mail communications immediately. Do not postpone.
Archive all important For future reference or evidence.

e-mails.
Do not subscribe to many For example, if you subscribe to five discussion corners
e-mail discussion corners. and each discussion has 100 e-mails a day. As such, you
will receive an average of 500 e-mails a day. Much of you
time will be used just to read the e-mails.
Do not reply to e-mails E-mail enables you to reply directly even to those whom
while you are angry. you are not comfortable with. You may regret sending the
reply. Once sent, an e-mail cannot be retracted.

8.7 USENET
Usenet is an Internet discussion forum that is open, independent and free.
A Usenet discussion does not involve e-mails. Users do not have to register with
any server to enter Usenet. A user simply need to have Internet access to access a
usenet news server and participate in the message threads or read Usenet postings.
Servers are usually operated by public universities or local Internet service
provider.
Usenet discussion is divided into a number of major topics. These topics are later
broken down into more specific subtopics (see Figure 8.9). Therefore, users can
easily search for discussion forums that are of interest.
Figure 8.9: Examples of Usenet discussions

For example, a user wants to read an article in the C programming language

discussion corner. The user can access the discussion corner comp.lang.c. If the
user wants to read about Malaysia, he can access soc.culture.malaysia. An example
of an article in comp.lang.c is shown in Figure 8.10.
rom: holism (nolsen@nospam.myrealbox.com)

Message 18 in thread
Subject: Re: Learning C
Newsgroups: comp.lang.c
Date: 2001-04-11 21:43:55 PST
>> Anyone have any suggestions for a good introductory book on C?

>
The C Programming Language by Kernighan and Richie is a pretty

awesome book. Lots of short and sweet examples from the guys who
created the language. It’s just the C language minus most of the fat
you find in beginner books, so if you already know basic programming
concepts it should be a good book to get you into C.
Nick
Figure 8.10: Example of an article in comp.lang.c discussion forum
In Usenet discussion forums, users can share opinions, request for help, argue,
spread rumours, sell items, fire at someone, criticise someone, get to know each
other and others. There is no filtering of the Usenet contents. Therefore, the Usenet
contents may be true or false. Users are reminded not to readily believe stories
such as get-rich-quick-schemes or pills for preventing old age that are available in
Usenet.
In Usenet discussion forums, the same questions may be occasionally asked by a

new user. To avoid this, veteran users of discussion forums have taken the
initiative to produce a document called frequently asked questions (FAQ).
Frequently asked questions (FAQ) is a document containing questions that

are frequently asked by users and the answers to those questions.

Therefore, FAQ originate from various Usenet discussion forums. For example,
if there is a new user involved in comp.text.tex discussing TeX document
processing software, the user may want to know the background of TeX, its
history, how to use TeX and so forth. The new user can ask these questions in
comp.text.tex. However, a better way is for the user to read the FAQ in the
comp.text.tex discussion forum. Normally, each discussion forum has a FAQ sent
to the forum every month.
Learners are recommended to browse the website http://groups.google.com and

read several Usenet discussion pages like soc.religion.islam, soc.culture.malaysia,
comp.lang.c, sci.math and others to see how Usenet discussions operate. After that,
you can participate in a discussion forum that is suitable for you.
It is wise to read the FAQ first before posing questions because it contains useful
information for new users to refer to and to know. An archived FAQ document is
available at the website http://www.faqs.org and has been discussed in Topic 7.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
List the advantages and disadvantages of Usenet. How would you

evaluate the validity of its contents? Explain.
8.8 THE INTERNET PHENOMENON

The growth of the Internet with the advancement of hardware and software
development in various computing devices such as personal computers,
smartphones, cloud computing and wearable devices has created a phenomenon
in various ways.
One of the phenomena of the Internet is the addictive use of social network
websites and applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LINE, Google+
and many more. So, what do you know about social network websites?

Boyd and Ellison (2013) in their article titled Social Network Sites: Definition,
History and Scholarship have defined the social network websites as web-based
services that allow individuals to:
(a) Construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system;
(b) Articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection; and
(c) View and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within
the system.
Facebook is the most popular social network site that allows users who are part of
the same „network‰ to view othersÊ profiles, unless a profile owner has decided to
deny permission to those in their network. Figure 8.11 shows the interface of the
Facebook website for Open University Malaysia.
Figure 8.11: Facebook of OUM site

Source: www.facebook.com/openunimalaysia

Other popular social network sites, geolocation applications and trending social
media applications that are based on the Internet and cloud storage are Twitter,
YouTube, Foursquare and Instagram. These software or applications have created
their unique approach and phenomenon for their users.
The other trend on the Internet that is currently attracting many users is the growth
of smartphone usage. It led to the active development of mobile applications in
accessing data over the Internet. In addition, cloud computing allows accessibility,
storage and online communication such as through Google ChromeOS or
Chromebook, Box, Dropbox, Google Drive and others. Last, but not least, is the
wearable computing such as Google Glass and smart watches. All these new and
developing technologies cater to the growth of the Internet around the world.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
Discuss the Internet phenomenon and predict the future of software and
applications used for the Internet.
 There are various types of software on the Internet. Some of them are
shareware, freeware, open source software, protocols, file transfer, Telnet,
e-mail and Usenet.
 Shareware is a software that can be used by users free of charge within a

specific period.
 Freeware is also available free of charge from the Internet.
 The open source software begins with the GNU project (GNU is not UNIX),
a project founded by Richard Stallman from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology at the beginning of 1980s. The original aim of this project was to
produce a system based on UNIX for free of charge use.
 Among the advantages of open source software is that users can change or
modify the software and they are not tied to any company.
 File Transfer Protocol is a technique of downloading data from any File

Transfer Protocol server on the Internet onto the userÊs computer.

 Telnet is a technique of communicating with a server and using the facilities

available on the computer.
 The e-mail is a communication technique between users on the Internet.
 There are several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail
discussions.
 A smiley contains text-based symbols used in an e-mail to represent a certain

emotion such as anger, hatred or laughter.
 Acronym or brief phrases are used to represent commonly used phrases on the
Internet.
 Usenet is an Internet discussion forum that is open, independent and free of

charge.
 Usenet contains frequently asked questions (FAQ). It is a document that contains

the answers for the most frequently asked questions by consumers.
 The Internet has grown to be a phenomenon in various aspects of our daily life
including the way we communicate, share and work. There are many software,
applications and websites available for social networks, communication, cloud
computing, wearable computing and many more technologies to fulfil our
needs.
E-mail Open source software

Freeware Shareware
Frequently asked questions (FAQ) Smiley
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Telnet
GNU Project Usenet

Ellison, N. B., & Boyd, D. M. (2007). Social network sites. Journal of

Computer-Mediated Communication 13(1), 210ă230. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x

Topic  Communication
9
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe four basic elements of communication;
2. Identify communication as an important component of information
technology (IT);
3. Explain the functions of coder-decoder in a communication system;
4. Describe two types of electromagnetic signals for data
transmission;
5. Identify two modes of transmitting data;
6. Identify three techniques of controlling data flow direction;
7. Identify three types of wires used as media for transmission; and
8. Explain the concept of cellular radio technology.
 INTRODUCTION
Communication is simply the transfer or exchange of messages, ideas, thoughts,
information or knowledge by means of whatever forms like words, writing,
behaviour or even body language. Data communication is a more specialised term,
targeting at the collection and distribution of electronic data in the form of text,
voice, pictures, graphics, video and others via the communication network.
Four important elements need to be understood before any types of

communication can happen. The elements are message, sender, receiver and
media. In this topic, we shall study each of these elements in detail.

192  TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION
9.1 IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF

COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process of sending data or information from one person
(or device) to another person (or device). Data or information can be in various
forms including text, images, audios, signals, videos, graphics and others.
Communication can happen between people, computers, computers and people,
tools, and others. Communication cannot take place if two people speak at the
same time and none listens. Examples of daily communication are face-to-face
conversations, reading books, looking at the beauty of nature, reading or receiving
letters, watching television, listening to speeches and certainly listening to lectures.
Networking is a mechanism for communication.
There are four elements for each type of communication to happen. The elements
are message, sender, receiver and media as illustrated in Figure 9.1 during a
telephone communication.
Figure 9.1: Communication via telephone
Let us learn about each of the elements in detail.
(a) The Sender

The sender is the message transmitter or the place where a message begins.
The sender may be a person, an application, a machine that can create
messages or replies without human assistance, system user, sensor, staff card
reader or other input devices.

TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION  193
(b) The Message

Certainly, when you communicate, a message is needed. A message exists in
various formats and forms. A message can be in the form of a file, request,
reply, status, control or mail. When we ask someone, the message of asking
may be in the form of voice, letter, eye movement or body movement. There
are long messages, for example, letters. There are short messages, for
example, an order to „read‰. When we access a website, for example, we type
the address of the website www.oum.edu.my. The website address is a
message that we send to the website concerned or we can ask the computer
software to search for the website concerned. Thus, we are the sender, the
computer is the receiver, the website address is the message and the Internet
is the media.
(c) The Receiver

It can be a situation where there is the presence of a message, media and
sender but there is no receiver. Without a receiver, communication cannot
happen. For example, we can cry for help in a jungle. In this case, there is a
message, a sender, a media but there is no receiver. Hence, there is no
communication taking place. The receiver is the target of the message.
The receiver may be a computer, terminal, printer, people, remote control
device and others. In a computer network, the receiver and the sender can be
present inside the same computer. For example, sender of an e-mail
mazlan@oum.edu.my sends an e-mail to azly@oum.edu.my; both the sender
and the receiver are present inside the same oum.edu.my e-mail server.
(d) The Media

A message is carried from the sender to the receiver via the communication
media. The media is the channel or vehicle for carrying the message. For
example, in a communication that involves two people talking face-to-face,
the medium is the air while in a telephone conversation, the medium could
be the telephone line, a microwave, a wireless or a combination of these.
9.1.1 Coder and Decoder

Think of how the message we send can be understood by the receiver. The message
needs to be altered into a suitable form so that it can pass through the media and
is altered again into a form that can be understood by the receiver. In this aspect,
coder and decoder are required. The coderÊs function is to code the message of the
sender so that it is altered into a suitable form for the media and the decoder
converts it back into a form that is understood by receiver. Figure 9.2 clarifies the
general situation of coder and decoder in a communication system.

Figure 9.2: Communication system
9.1.2 Message Understanding

Even if the four elements (sender, receiver, media and message) are present but
the message is not understood, the actual communication still does not take place.
In human communication, language becomes the main obstacle that often requires
a third party, that is, translator. In a computer communication, data representation
code or information becomes the obstacle. As such, there is a standard code that
represents data, namely ASCII, EBCDIC and the latest is Unicode.
9.1.3 Error Detector

In a communication between the sender and the receiver, there is a need for an
error detector to ensure that the data sent is the same as the one received by the
receiver. This error may be described as noise or interference in the process of
transmission via the media, just like the climatic condition when the medium is
the air or microwave. If communication happens between people, the person
himself can perform the detection and correction of errors based on human ability.
If communication happens between computers, error detection is much needed to
provide a scheme of detection and correction of the message error by attaching
additional data or information while sending the data so as to increase the
opportunity for error detection. This scheme will be discussed later.

9.1.4 Security
When data is sent, it will become an attraction for eavesdropping. An example is
buying goods via the Internet using credit cards. The credit card number sent via
this medium will be easily stolen, if security measures are not taken. Among the
security measures often used is encryption. We shall discuss this issue in the next
topic.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. Communication comprises a number of elements of which message

is one of them. What are the other elements?
2. Explain the functions of the following communication elements:
(a) Receiver; and
(b) Error detector.
3. What are the functions of the coder and the decoder in a

communication system?
4. What is the purpose of having standardised codes in

communication among computers?
5. Humans communicate using various methods such as speaking

and signing, among others. The progress of IT has enabled us to
communicate via various new methods. Can you identify the
techniques of communicating via computers?

ACTIVITY 9.1
Identify the sender, receiver and media in the following communication:

9.2 BASICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication refers to the form of electronic communication, which

usually involves data transmission between users and computer, computer
and computer, and computer and devices. Features of data communication
include the types of signal, mode of transmission, data flow direction and rate
of transmission.
Can you imagine how electromagnetic signals that carry information are delivered
to the receiver?
Electromagnetic signals can be used to deliver information through various

transmission media. Two forms of signals that can represent information for
transmission via the communication lines are:
(a) Analogue Signals; and
(b) Digital Signals.
9.2.1 Analogue Signals

Analogue signals are continuous. In other words, when signals are sent via the
media (such as telephone wire), the electrical signals that are transmitted are
represented in the form of a continuous sine wave as shown in Figure 9.3. The sine
wave has three parameters, namely the frequency, amplitude and phase
(see Figure 9.4).
(a) Frequency
Refers to the number of recurring waves (see Figure 9.3). It is measured in
hertz (Hz), which is one cycle per second. Signals with 40Hz recur
40 cycles per second.
Figure 9.3: Wave frequency

Figure 9.4: Sine wave
(b) Amplitude
Refers to the height of the wave or the waveÊs highest energy level,
as shown in Figure 9.5. Amplitude is measured in various units,
for example, voltage (V) or decibel (dB). The stronger the signal, the higher
is the amplitude.
Figure 9.5: Wave amplitude
(c) Phase
Refers to the rate of signal change with time or the measure of time
shift of the waves and is measured in degrees (À). Signals with the
same frequency can have different phases when they are compared.
In Figure 9.6, the bottom wave (b) has a different phase (phase 180À)
compared with the top wave (a). One complete wave cycle begins at a point
and continues until it reaches the point again. A shift in phases happens
when one cycle is not yet complete but another new cycle has already begun,
that is, before the previous cycle has completed fully. This happens at
point 1 in Figure 9.6(c).

Figure 9.6: Signal phases
Analogue signals are used in low-speed telephone lines. Analogue signals

are transmitted via public switched telephone network (PSTN).
9.2.2 Digital Signals

Unlike the analogue signal, which is like a continuous sine wave, the digital signals
are a discrete wave. In the digital transmission, a series of discrete pulses are
transmitted or sent, carrying digits of 0 and 1. These 0 and 1 values are similar to
the binary data representation in the computer.
Digital signals are in two states only, either low voltage and high voltage, off
and on or 0 and 1.
Normally, digital signals are represented as rectangular waves as shown in

Figure 9.7.
Figure 9.7: Digital signals
Digital signals cannot be transmitted via public switched telephone network,

except after they have been changed to analogue signals. The process of changing
digital signals into the analogue one is called modulating, while the reverse
process is called demodulating.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain the differences between analogue and digital signals.
9.3 MODE OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Computers that have been networked perform their jobs individually. Destination
computers do not know when the information from source computers would
arrive. Therefore, there needs to be a strategy to enable the destination computer
to realise that the source computer has sent through the information, and that the
information has arrived to enable it to act on the information. The strategy of
making this known is called mode of data transmission.
Data transmission between two points or between two computers can happen in
two forms, namely in parallel or in series. Data that is sent through the parallel
transmission will be delivered in one go, normally in one byte (8 bits)
simultaneously. If 8-bit data is sent, 8 parallel wires will be used to send the data
ă each bit is sent via separate wires, as shown in Figure 9.8. Extra wires are needed
to send data between the sender and the receiver. These signals allow the data to
be sent in a proper sequence.
Figure 9.8: Parallel transmission
Printers, for example, receive data from the computers via the parallel ports that
are transmitted in parallel, that is, character (byte) by character (byte). This
transmission is suitable for short distances. Parallel transmission is not practical
for data communication. Computers normally transmit data in serial form because
of the high speed. Centronics parallel interface is an example of the parallel format.

Serial transmission is transmitting data serially, that is, the data is being sent one
bit after one bit (see Figure 9.9).
Figure 9.9: Serial transmission
Serial transmission is slower than parallel transmission but is more suitable for
long distances. Serial transmission is the normal method of data transmission in a
communication network. In data communication, the data is transmitted serially.
Two modes of transmission for serially transmitted data are asynchronous
transmission and synchronous transmission.
9.3.1 Asynchronous Transmission

This type of transmission has become popular after the invention of
teletypewriters that were used to send telegrams. Characters are sent one by one.
The time of transmission also cannot be determined but the characters can be sent
at any time. To enable the destination computer to realise that one character has
arrived, each character is wrapped with one start bit and one stop bit as well as
one parity bit, as shown in Figure 9.10.
Figure 9.10: Asynchronous transmission
Each character can be separated by a different time space, which means that there
is no synchronisation between the sender and the receiver, especially when there
is no data being sent. Synchronisation is achieved only at each character. The
receiver will synchronise with the sender when start bit is received. Several
agreements between the sender and the receiver include the number of bits per
word, parity check (whether odd or even), speed of transmission and how the
message is ended.

For sending each character, two additional bits are also sent. For example,
when sending 100 characters, the total bits being sent are 1,000 bits (eight bits
per character + two bits for start/stop  100). These 1,000 bits are equivalent to
125 characters, where 25 additional characters constitute the overheads for the
asynchronous transmission. The asynchronous transmission is clearly not efficient
for sending large amounts of data. However, it is suitable for low-speed data
communication, normally up to 32,000bps.
9.3.2 Synchronous Transmission

One weakness of the asynchronous transmission is the overhead that needs to be
carried during data transmission. In the synchronous transmission, a high
efficiency level is achieved by sending a group or a block of characters at one go
and to replace the wrapper bits (start and stop) by header and trailer.
Figure 9.11: Synchronous transmission
The receiver will check the data bits received until a header is found which
contains Synchronous Idle (SYN) characters and start bit, as shown in Figure 9.11
above. Next, both the sender and the receiver will mutually synchronise between
them. The receiver will receive all characters until a tail is found containing the last
character and SYN character. Data block (or packet) size varies from a few
characters to hundreds of characters. The bigger the data block, the faster the
transmission will be.
Synchronous transmission is faster and more efficient than the asynchronous

transmission. The efficiency level of synchronous transmission is up to 98 per cent
while that of asynchronous transmission is only up to 80 per cent. However, if
there are errors in the synchronous transmission, the entire block of data
(all characters) will be spoilt whereas only one character will be spoilt in the
asynchronous transmission. The hardware used to perform synchronous
transmission is more expensive and more complex than that for the asynchronous
transmission. Any type of data can be transmitted synchronously while only
characters can be transmitted by the asynchronous transmission.

SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. Explain the mode of data transmission.
2. Clarify the differences between synchronous transmission and

asynchronous transmission.
9.4 DATA FLOW DIRECTION

Data communication network has three categories of line operation to control data
flow, namely simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex lines. The three flow types of
data transmission have advantages and disadvantages.
9.4.1 Simplex
Simplex transmission allows data to move in only one direction, similar to the one-
way traffic (see Figure 9.12).
Figure 9.12: Simplex transmission
Examples are television (TV) broadcasting and radio broadcasting. Other

examples are terminals receiving data only (like normal TV) that displays share
price data at the share trading centre and displays plane arrival or departure
information at the airports, sensing devices at the traffic light crossing that track
the arrival of vehicles and printers. All these examples confirm the data flow in
only one direction.

9.4.2 Half-Duplex
Half-duplex transmission confirms that data moves in two directions but only one
direction at a time. For example, moving through a very narrow bridge allows you
to move only one car at one time, climbing the road to FraserÊs Hill where going
up and coming down are fixed at different hours, people who communicate using
walkie-talkie or radio taxi as well as communication between two computers using
modems (see Figure 9.13).
Figure 9.13: Half-duplex transmission
This technique is quite slow because of:
(a) The time for the device to change its role from sender to receiver or vice
versa;
(b) The waiting time while the sender device transmits a message to confirm
readiness to receive data to the receiver device; and
(c) The waiting time for the sender device while waiting for the reply on the
readiness to receive data from receiver device.

9.4.3 Full-Duplex
Full-duplex transmission allows data to be sent in two opposite directions all the
time, just like the two-way street (see Figure 9.14).
Figure 9.14: Full-duplex transmission
This technique allows the communication device to be capable of sending and

receiving data completely and independently. This technique also increases the
efficiency of the transmission system as compared with the half-duplex mode of
transmission. The required device here is more expensive than the two earlier
mentioned types but the transmission is faster.
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. Based on the simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex types of

communication, discuss which type of communication is the most
effective in terms of the cost factor.
2. Data moves in three types of flow. Discuss the advantages and

disadvantages of each of the flows.

9.5 RATE OF DATA TRANSMISSION

Transmission rate can be said to be the bit rate or the baud rate.
Bit rate is the real measure of the number of bits transmitted every second.
Bit rate or data rate is measured in bit per second (bps). For example, modem
speed is 14,400bps.
Baud rate is a measure of the number of changes of line states per second.
Change of line state means a change from state 0 to state 1 or vice versa, for
the digital signal. For the binary digital signal, baud rate = bit rate.
The rate of transmission depends on the frequency and the bandwidth.
Frequency refers to the amount of data being sent via a channel or line at wave
frequency ă the cycle of waves per second. Frequency is stated in Hertz (Hz)
or cycles per second.
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequency
that is supported by a certain channel or line.
Data can be sent at various frequencies within a certain bandwidth. The maximum
transmission speed depends on the available bandwidth. The bigger the
bandwidth, the higher the transmission rate or the speed of transmission will be.
There are three grades of bandwidth. Let us learn more about each grade of
bandwidth in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1: Grades of Bandwidth
Bandwidth Description
Voice band This bandwidth is present in PSTN, the traditional telephone network.
It is called voice band because PSTN is originally built for voice
communication instead of data. The width of its bandwidth is 4,000Hz,
which is sufficient for sending voice. Since its bandwidth is limited, it is
used for communication at the rate of up to 28.8Kbps.
Medium Normally used for communication that involves mainframe computers

band and minicomputers. Its normal speed is between 56Kbps to 264Mbps.
Broadband It involves the satellite, microwave, coaxial cable and optical fibre. It is
used for high-speed computers and has a speed of between 56K to
30Gbps.
SELF-CHECK 9.4
1. State the differences between bit rate and baud rate. When will both
the bit rate and the baud rate be equal?
2. State the advantages and the disadvantages of each technique of

data flow direction.
3. List the three types of bandwidth grades.
9.6 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

In this subtopic, we shall focus on the transmission media. Transmission media
depends on the form of data that is altered for communication. Among the basic
forms of data that can be altered for communication are electrical pulses, light
pulses, electromagnetic waves and infrared waves.
The types of transmission media for carrying signals depend on the types of
signals. Twisted pair wire and coaxial cable carry signals in the form of electrical
pulses. Light pulse signals can be carried via optical fibre cable. For the
electromagnetic wave that penetrates the air, it requires the support of microwave
and satellite systems. The three forms of data ă light pulses, electromagnetic waves
and infrared waves ă are all the types of waves that come with the wireless type of
transmission media.

Transmission media can be classified as guided (via the physical media such as
twisted pair wires, coaxial cables and optical fibre cables) or unguided (via air,
vacuum and water).
9.6.1 Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cable is the medium that is normally used to send data in the form of
electronic pulses. It is also known as twisted pair wire. Twisted pair cable consists
of a number of coloured and shielded wires that are twisted to create magnetic
fields and therefore, will reduce noise interference. Normally there are four or
eight wires (forming two or four pairs). In general, each pair of wires supports one
voice channel. This type of cable is often used for telephones. Twisted pair cables
are cheap and easily obtainable but the signals that pass through them are easily
lost and interrupted, and its transmission rate is low. An example of a twisted pair
wire is shown in Figure 9.15.
Figure 9.15: Four twisted pair wires
There are two types of wires or cables, namely unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and
shielded twisted pair (STP). Unshielded twisted pair cables are cheaper and easier
to handle but can be interrupted easily and have a shorter coverage distance as
compared with shielded twisted pair.
Besides being classified into unshielded twisted pair and shielded twisted pair,
twisted pair cables are also classified according to categories set by EIA/TIA-568.
In general, the factors that differentiate between these categories are the thickness
of wires according to American wire gauge (AWG) and the error features.

9.6.2 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, also called shielded cable, is made up of one or more copper wire
strings that are shielded by insulator and covered with iron mesh. This cable is
widely used to support long distance connections. It offers higher rate of data
transmission as compared to twisted pair cable and can be used to send all types
of data (not limited to voice or text). Examples of coaxial cables include TV cable
(usually used to connect the TV to the antenna) and the short link between a
computer and the local area network. This type of cable transmits data or signals
by way of electrical pulses.
In a voice communication system, every coaxial cable can support about 60 voice
channels. Such cables that support multiple voices are called bandwidth coaxial
cables with a speed of up to 100Mbps. This type of cable is called thick coaxial
cable, thicknets or 10Base5, which is also called thick Ethernet.
Another type of such cable is the basic band coaxial cable that is used to send data
at high speed such as in the local area network (LAN). The cable that is often used
in the local area network is the RG-58AU cable, often called the thin coaxial cable,
thinnets or 10Base2, which is also called thin Ethernet ă with a speed of up to
10Mbps. An example of the coaxial cable can be seen in Figure 9.16.
Figure 9.16: Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable offers bandwidth and a degree of immunity from highly unstable
signals. In addition, this cable is cheap to install and complies with existing
standards. However, this cable incurs high cost for long distances because of the
need for repeaters. The safety level of this cable is not yet high. Termination and
connecting points of this cable need to be done correctly to avoid spoilage that can
create congestion in the network, thus, preventing access to it.

9.6.3 Fibre Optic Cable

Optical fibre is a medium in which data is transmitted in the form of light pulses.
Optical fibre technology is a new communication technology that is low cost, high
volume of transmission, low error rate and safe for the message. Signals are
converted into light pulses and shot by laser via shielded optical fibre. That light
will move and refract along the cable shield. This fibre can transmit data at a speed
of 80Gbps. A picture of the optical fibre cable can be seen in Figure 9.17.
Figure 9.17: Optical fibre cable
Optical fibre is made from silicon fibre or silica, which is thinner than the human
hair. It can be used to transmit various types of data such as video, pictures,
multimedia, music and graphics. Since the data is transmitted via light, it is not
affected by electronic interference and that will reduce errors in data transmission.
This fibre is also lighter than coaxial cable. Optical fibre cable is used for linking
long distances or linking between continents. Each fibre can support multiple voice
channels or TV channels.
9.6.4 Microwave System

Microwave does not use cables as its transmission media but uses air or sky space.
Microwave uses the radio system, which uses high frequency to send and receive
data. Microwave signals are sent in the form of line of sight. These signals cannot
be bent according to the surface of the earth or to avoid hills, mountains and tall
buildings. Therefore, relay stations are used to link up microwave signals.
The number of relay stations depends on the shape of earth, normally 30kmă50km
between each other. Relay stations are normally placed on top of tall buildings,
hills and tall towers. The frequency of microwave transmission is normally

measured in increments of two hertz until 40GHz. Figure 9.18 is a simple diagram
that describes how relay stations are used to provide coverage over a geographic
region.
Figure 9.18: Wave relay station
Microwave technique is used for high volume communication and over long
distances. Parabola discs and towers require high costs to be built. Therefore, the
cost of a microwave system is expensive and it is for long distances. This technique
is suitable for communication between tall buildings in city areas, especially when
the cost of installing optical fibre cable is very expensive. Now, microwave systems
are often used to link up networks between buildings in campuses and towns.
For a medium-sized microwave system, the cost is average, it can be divided into
sub-channels and can be extended over long distances. However, it can be easily
interrupted by noise from the weather and electricity as well as the need to
overcome the line of sight problem including geography. The use of microwave
also follows tight rules in order to avoid overlapping.

9.6.5 Satellite System

The satellite approach is used when the transmission distance is long and there
exists many obstacles. Data or signals that are carried via the satellite are in the
microwave form to represent voice, data and video. Satellite is an electronic device
that contains up to 100 transponders (small, specific radios) that receive,
strengthen and resend the signals.
Satellite acts as a relay station between one earth station and another earth station.
The signal frequency that is uplinked to the satellite is different from the signal
frequency that is downlinked to the earth station. Types of satellites are classified
according to their locations from the earthÊs surface as well as the signal frequency
to uplink and to downlink. Figure 9.19 illustrates how a satellite system relays
signal.
Figure 9.19: Satellite system
Global positioning system (GPS) is a navigation system that uses satellites to

determine a userÊs position anywhere on the earth. The GPS technology was first
used by the US military in the 1960s. It was later expanded into civilian use over
the next few decades. Today, the GPS receiver is included in many commercial
products such as automobiles, smartphones, exercise watches and geographic
information system (GIS) devices.

Satellite system is expensive but cost effective for sending large volumes of data.
The satellite coverage area on earth is called footprint. The position between the
satellites needs to follow certain rules in order to avoid signal interference between
each other. There are three advantages and seven disadvantages of using the
satellite system, as presented in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Using the Satellite System
Advantages Disadvantages
 Satellite footprint offers a large  Signal gets noisier while its strength
geographical area of coverage. deteriorates as distance increases.
 High loading enables large volumes  Limited lifespan of 7 to 10 years, after
of data to be transmitted. which the satellite will run out of real
orbit.
 Low cost per user.
 Data transmission can be intercepted
and decoded, unless they are
encrypted.
 Satellite transmission can be
intercepted by other people.
 High cost of installation and
operation.
 Requires a decoder and parabola
dish.
 Delay in receiving the signal.
9.6.6 Infrared
Infrared (IR) technology is a data transmission in the form of infrared radiation,
without going through wires. This approach is limited to only a small area and is
based on the line of sight. The transmission rate is about 10Mbps. This technology
can be used for wireless computer network. Mobile computers and devices such
as the mouse, printer and smartphone may have an IrDA port that enables the
transfer of data from one device to another using infrared light waves. The most
common example of infrared communication is your TV remote control The
infrared signals allow you to change channels, increase or decrease the volume
and perform many of other remote operations without having to leave the couch.

9.6.7 Radio
Radio frequency technology that utilises the wireless transmission is divided into
two types, namely high frequency and low frequency. High frequency radio
technology such as the cellular radio can penetrate office walls but has limited
coverage. Low frequency radio technology utilises the radio spectrum technology,
has a big penetrating power and wide coverage but has a problem of interference.
Radio spectrum technology utilises the normal radio frequency such as amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) and short wave. This technology is
normally used for pagers.
Pager is actually a radio receiver that receives a message or signal at a certain

frequency sent by a sender.
Cellular radio technology is designed for mobile computing and is mainly used by
mobile phones, also called the cellular telephone. In Malaysia, there are many
cellular telephone operators like Celcom, Digi and Maxis. Cellular technology uses
radio frequency and cell sites. A cell site is a geographical area of a roughly circular
shape where cellular phones can get signal coverage and thus operate within that
specified physical area. Users move from one cell to another cell. Each cell is linked
to the master cell site that provides a link to the normal telephone network.
The radio frequencies which are available to the cellular network are limited.
As such, a key feature of cellular telephone service involves the reuse of
frequencies across different cells in order for an operator to accommodate a large
number of users. Users themselves sometimes resort to installing amplifiers or
boosters on their own phones in order to improve the signal strength of their
equipment.
Cellular radio technology can also use low earth orbit satellite. Examples of cellular
radio satellites are Iridium and Teledesic. Cellular radio technology has seen a lot
of development and various cellular technologies have been introduced of late, for
example, 5G networks.

9.6.8 Telephone Network

The telephone network that is used by the public is called PSTN. It traditionally
handles voice but can also be used to carry small amounts of data. PSTN is also
sometimes called plain old telephone service (POTS). Currently, PSTN signals are
also carried by various new transmission media such as optical fibre, microwave
system and satellite system. Data in PSTN can be sent via dial-up lines, leased lines
or dedicated lines. For many parts of the world, POTS remains the basic form of
residential and small business communication service.
 Communication normally involves only humans. However, it also occurs

between humans and computer, as well as computer and computer ă this
electronic form of communication is known as data communication.
 The sender is the message transmitter or the place where a message begins.
The sender may be a person, software application, machine that can create
messages or replies without human assistance, system user, sensor, staff card
reader or other input devices.
 A message can be in the form of a file, request, reply, status, control or mail.
 The receiver may be a computer, terminal, printer, people, remote control

device and many others.
 A message is carried from sender to receiver via the communication media.

The media is the channel or vehicle for carrying the message.
 The cellular radio technology concept is becoming more popular now. Many
communication companies like Maxis, Celcom and DiGi use this technology.

Analogue signal Media

Asynchronous transmission Microwave system
Coaxial cable Networking
Coder Radio
Communication Receiver
Data communication Satellite system
Decoder Sender
Digital signals Simplex
Fibre optic cable Synchronous transmission
Full-duplex Telephone network
Half-duplex Twisted pair wire
Infrared system

Topic  Ethics, Privacy
and Digital
10 Security
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the ethics guidelines of using technology;
2. Discuss issues related to information privacy; and
3. Describe various types of digital security risks and ways to
safeguard it.
 INTRODUCTION
We are vigorously going through the process of information revolution where the
development and use of information and communications technology (ICT) has
revolutionised our capability to extract, manipulate, store, communicate and
present information. The main characteristics of this era are a rise in the number
of knowledge workers, a world that has become more open in the sense of
communication and the sharing of data. However, this paradigm shift brings new
ethical problems such as privacy right which is threatened by the risk of the free
flow of information over the networks or devices. This topic will address the
concerns in ethics, privacy and security from the aspect of guidelines, techniques,
risks and safeguards in dealing with the way technology is used.

218  TOPIC 10 ETHICS, PRIVACY AND DIGITAL SECURITY
10.1 ETHICS
The technology revolution has generated a lot of controversy. One of the
controversies concerns questions about what is (and what is not) ethical with
regard to the activities involving information technology. The standards that
determine whether an action is good or bad are known as ethics. Computer ethics
refers to the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers, mobile devices,
information systems and related technologies. Frequently discussed aspects of
computer ethics are information accuracy, intellectual property rights, codes of
conduct, green computing, information privacy, unauthorised use of computers,
software theft and many other concerns on the usage of the various technologies.
The advancement of technology has created a world without borders. We can now
interact with anyone regardless of location. In addition, data can be moved from
one location to another. Even your confidential data that used to be kept in your
drawer, can be easily assessed now if the data has been converted into the
electronic form. Behind the facilities provided by these technologies, we need to
be aware of irresponsible parties who will take advantage of our carelessness when
using IT in our daily activities. Now, more than ever, it is very important to
emphasise computer ethics in the usage of such technologies.
In most organisations, computers are used to help the management ensure smooth
and efficient running of the business operations. Top management also uses
computers to facilitate in making important strategic decisions. Ethical problems
are often discussed in human resource management. This is because information
technology (IT) has opened new ways of conducting ethical and unethical business
processes electronically. Computer users are now confronted with series of ethical
issues especially when they perform duties in the office. Examples of situations
that could raise questions about ethical or unethical use of IT include:
(a) An employee who uses his computer at work to send personal email
messages;
(b) A supervisor who reads an employeeÊs email message;
(c) An employee who uses her computer at work to complete a homework

assignment for school;
(d) A student who copies text from the Web and uses it in a research paper for
his English composition class;

TOPIC 10 ETHICS, PRIVACY AND DIGITAL SECURITY  219
(e) An employee who sends political campaign material to individuals on her

employerÊs mailing list; and
(f) A person who makes unauthorised access to an organisationÊs network and

reports any vulnerabilities discovered to the organisation.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Engage a coursemate in a discussion on ethics based on the situations

mentioned in Subtopic 10.1. You may also add in scenarios based on your
personal work experiences.
List down what is considered ethical or unethical, share and compare

your list with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
The following subtopics will discuss ethical issues related to information accuracy,
intellectual property rights, codes of conduct and green computing.
10.1.1 Information Accuracy

Information accuracy represents the legitimacy, precision and authenticity with
which information is rendered. Because of the pervasiveness of information about
individuals and organisations contained in information systems, special care must
be taken to guard against errors and to correct known mistakes.
Information accuracy is important because many lives may be dependent on it, for
example, the medical information at hospitals, therefore, the information must be
accurate. To obtain accurate information, we need the right value. If someone gives
inaccurate information, it is difficult to find out who made the mistake. Many
situations or actions can lead to inaccurate information. The most common case is
when the user enters a wrong value or data. Moreover, inaccurate information may
accrue from typographical mistakes. To avoid such mistakes, the organisation
must find hire those with relevant experience and skills in data entry, and it must
use programs which can discover typographical mistakes.

10.1.2 Intellectual Property Rights

Intellectual property (IP) refers to unique and original works such as ideas,
inventions, art, writings, processes, company and product names and logos.
Intellectual property rights are the rights in which creators are entitled for their
work. Certain issues arise surrounding IP today because many of these works are
available digitally and can easily be redistributed or altered without the creatorÊs
permission.
A copyright gives authors, artists and other creators of original work the exclusive
right to duplicate, publish and sell their materials. A copyright protects any
tangible form of expression. A common infringement of copyright is piracy, where
people illegally copy software, movies and music. Many areas are not clear-cut
with respect to the law because copyright law gives the public fair use to
copyrighted material. The issue surrounding the phrase, „fair use‰ allows the use
for educational and critical purposes.
10.1.3 Codes of Conduct

A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether a
specification is ethical/unethical or allowed/not allowed. An IT code of conduct
focuses on acceptable use of technology. Employers and schools often specify
standards for the ethical use of technology in an IT code of conduct and then
distribute these standards to employees and students. Figure 10.1 shows the
preamble to one such example:

Figure 10.1: Sample code of conduct in using ICT resources

ACTIVITY 10.2
Use the link below to download the full code of conduct shown in
Figure 10.1:
http://www.southsidemontessori.edu.au/uploads/1/0/9/5/10956261
5/code__it.pdf
Review the code of conduct. Is there anything in it that is relatable to your

place of work? Is there any item that can be improved on? Share your
thoughts in the myINSPIRE online forum.
You may also find examples of codes of conduct online that define acceptable
forms of communications for websites where users post commentary or other
types of communications such as blogs, wikis and online discussions.
10.1.4 Green Computing

Green computing involves reducing electricity and environmental waste while
using a computer. People often use and waste resources such as electricity and
paper while using a computer. Green computing is the practice of using computer
and other IT resources effectively and efficiently.
Nowadays, IT has radically changed our work and life while enhancing our
productivity, economy and social well-being. However, most people do not realise
that IT has also been contributing to environmental issues. Computers and other
IT infrastructure absorb significant measures of power, and is expanding day by
day, placing a substantial weight on our electric grids and adding to greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions. In other words, IT is both a solution and a problem for
environmental sustainability.
Green computing started in 1987 when the World Commission on Environment

and Development issued a report entitled Our Common Future, which proposes
the fundamental idea of sustainable development. The US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) launched the Energy Star programme in 1992 to serve as
a sort of voluntary label granted to computing items that succeeded in minimising
the utilisation of energy while maximising productivity. Energy Star was intended
to advance and lower energy consumption, decrease GHG emissions caused by
power, climate control equipment and different advance technologies. Table 10.1
comprises a list of suggestions to make computing healthy for the environment
and in accordance with Energy Star recommendations.

Table 10.1: Green Computing Tips
Green Computing Tips Logo
Conserve Energy:
 Use computers and devices that comply with the Energy Star
programme.
 Do not leave a computer or device running overnight.
 Turn off the monitor, printer and other devices when not in
use.
Reduce Environmental Waste:

 Use paperless methods to communicate.
 Recycle paper and buy recycled paper.
 Recycle toner and ink cartridges, computers, mobile devices,
printers and other devices.
 Telecommute.
 Use videoconferencing and VoIP for meetings.
In Malaysia, green computing is also known as green technology. It has been

identified as one of the key drivers of national economic growth. In April 2009,
the Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water was established to promote
sustainable energy and water for all. Now the ministry is known as the Ministry
of Energy, Science, Technology, Environment and Climate Change (MESTECC).
It is responsible for promoting innovation in the management of strategic
resources by ensuring availability, reliability and affordability of energy and water
services as well as to champion the application of green technology to promote
green economy and green living. The Malaysia government has also established a
fund ă the Green Technology Financing Scheme (GTFS) ă amounting to
RM1.5billion to promote green computing technology. The Ministries of Education
and Higher Education are also working with MESTECC in promoting and
integrating green topics in the education system in order to create awareness
among the young.
ACTIVITY 10.3
Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum on how

we can contribute to green computing initiatives at work, home and
school.

10.2 INFORMATION PRIVACY

Information privacy refers to the right of individuals and companies to deny or
restrict the collection and use of information concerning them. In the past,
information privacy was easier to maintain because information was kept in
separate locations. Each retail store had its own credit files. Each government
agency maintained separate records. Doctors had their own patient files.
Today, huge databases store data online. Much of the data is personal and
confidential, and should only be accessible by authorised users. Many individuals
and organisations, however, question whether this data really is private. Some
companies and individuals collect and use this information without your
authorisation. Websites often collect data about you so that they can customise
their advertisements and send you personalised e-mail messages. Some employers
monitor their employeesÊ computer usage and e-mail messages.
Technology has facilitated the process of data collection and storage. For example,
banks store data on every customer. The data includes age, marital status, total
savings, total loans, savings conducts and others. Universities keep student
records, which include academic achievements, co-curricular activities, types of
studies, types of financial support, age, parentsÊ occupations, nationality and many
others. The Road Transport Department (RTD) keeps car ownerÊs names and the
related details. All these are examples whereby individual privacy can be misused
or abused by the keepers of information.
If customers have credit cards, the banks will have data on spending habits,
methods of debt repayments, types of purchases, income and others. Therefore,
bank and road transport officers may use these data to sell to some interested
parties for marketing and other purposes. All the data that are stored in banks,
universities and RTD are personal private data which can be used for evaluating
an individualÊs lifestyle.
The following are examples of privacy questions that need to be highlighted:
(a) Who has the right over the data?
(b) Can banks sell personal data of individuals to other companies for marketing
purposes?
(c) Can banks provide information on individual savings to other banks for the
purpose of loan approval?
(d) How can individuals determine that their personal data which is kept by the
authorised parties is accurate? and

(e) Can the RTD commercialise information of its databases concerning cars and
their owners?
The Internet has expanded the issue of privacy even more widely. With the
Internet, users can use e-mails for communications. Privacy issues that may arise
from the use of e-mails include:
(a) Whether the contents of e-mails are secured against intrusion;
(b) Whether the contents of e-mails are regarded as personal items that cannot
be publicised to other parties;
(c) Whether the employer has the right to read e-mails of his employees;
(d) Whether the government has the right to filter e-mail contents; and
(e) Whether the contents of e-mails can be used in court as evidence.
E-mails that are sent through the Internet can be read by anyone, anywhere. The
e-mail is like a postcard. All e-mail messages are open for all to read. A number of
techniques have been introduced to ensure the safety of messages in e-mails. One
of the techniques is to encrypt the message, whereby it is converted into a form of
codes. The codes will be reconverted back to the actual message upon reaching its
destination. Research on encryption is still ongoing and various techniques have
been devised to better safeguard against intrusion by irresponsible persons.
Privacy rights is also an ethical issue because many records, which are stored by
non-governmental organisations are not covered by existing laws. In spite of that,
individuals have shown that they are very concerned with the control issue of who
has the right over personal information and how it is used.
10.2.1 Cookie
A cookie is a small text file that a web server stores in your computer. Cookie files
typically contain data about you such as your username, postal code or viewing
preferences. Websites use cookies for a variety of purposes.
Most websites that allow for personalisation use cookies to track user preferences.
These cookies may obtain their values when a user fills an online form which
requests for personal information. Some websites, for example, store usernames in
cookies in order to display a personalised greeting that welcomes the user by name
to the website. Other websites allow users to customise their viewing experience
with preferences such as local news headlines, local weather forecast or stock
quotes.

Some websites use cookies to store usernames and/or passwords so that users do
not need to enter this information every time they sign in to the website. Online
shopping sites generally use a session cookie to keep track of items in a userÊs
shopping cart. This way, users can start an order during one web session and
completes it on another day at another session. Session cookies usually expire after
a certain time, for example, a week or a month.
Some websites use cookies to track how often users visit a site and the webpages
they visited while at the website. Websites may use cookies to target them with
relevant advertisements. These websites store the userÊs interests and browsing
habits in the cookie.
Some websites sell or trade information stored in your cookies to advertisers,

a practice many believe to be unethical. If you do not want your personal
information to be distributed, you should limit the amount of information you
provide to a website or adjust how your browser handles cookies. You can
regularly clear cookies or set your browser to accept cookies automatically, prompt
if you want to accept a cookie, or disable all cookies use.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Explain how cookies work and what they are used for.
2. Give two examples of privacy issues on the Internet.
10.2.2 Privacy Law

The Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA), enacted in June 2010, has significant
impacts on how personal data is processed by organisations and business entities
as it protects the data of private citizens from being misused. Personal data is
defined as any information collected or processed in connection with a commercial
transaction by any automatic operation equipment (such as automated teller
machine, public kiosk, personal computer, web browser and mobile app) which is
capable of identifying a person, also known as a data subject. The above definition
will include information such as name, address, identification card or passport
number, email address, telephone number as well as banking details.

The PDPA prohibits data users from collecting and processing a data subjectÊs
personal data without his consent. The Act also prohibits data users from
disclosing or making its data available to any third party without the consent of
data subjects. It requires data users to inform data subjects on the purpose of its
data collection, the class of third party who may have access to the data and the
choices that data subjects have on how the data is to be used.
The Act also imposes a duty on data users to put in place adequate security and
indemnity measures to prevent the theft, misuse, unauthorised access, accidental
disclosure, alteration or destruction of data under their care. The Act also provides
for the rights of data subjects to access, modify and update their personal data.
There are exceptions to the PDPA. It does not apply to credit reporting business,
data collected/processed for the prevention or detection of crime, for the purpose
of preparing statistics and research, in accordance with a court order or for the
purpose of discharging regulatory functions.
10.3 DIGITAL SECURITY

Today, people rely on technology to create, store and manage their critical
information. Thus, it is important that computers and mobile devices, along with
the data and programs they store, are accessible and available when needed. It also
is crucial that users take measures to protect or safeguard their computers, mobile
devices, data and programs from loss, damage and misuse. For example,
organisations must ensure that sensitive data and information such as credit
records, employee and customer data, and purchase information is secure. Home
users must ensure that their credit card numbers are secure when they make online
purchases.
A digital security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss of or damage
to computer or mobile device hardware, software, data, information or processing
capability. While some breaches to digital security are accidental, many are
intentional. Some intruders do not disrupt a computer or deviceÊs functionality;
they merely access data, information or programs on the computer or mobile
device before signing out. Other intruders indicate some evidence of their presence
either by leaving a message or by deliberately altering or damaging data.
An intentional breach to digital security often involves a deliberate act that is

against the law. Any illegal act involving the use of a computer or related devices
is generally referred to as a computer crime. The term cybercrime refers to online
or Internet-based illegal acts such as distributing malicious software or committing
identity theft. Basically, digital security risks are caused by cyber criminals,
computer crimes and calamities. Now, let us take a look at the threats in detail
regarding computer criminals, cybercrime and disaster recovery.

10.3.1 Disaster Recovery

Disaster recovery is a set of policies and procedures which focuses on protecting
an organisation from any significant effects as a result of a negative event, which
may include man-made (hackers, viruses and others) or natural disasters. Disaster
recovery helps in designing strategies that can restore hardware, applications and
data quickly for business continuity. The following information in Table 10.2
describes how an organisation might implement a disaster recovery plan.
Table 10.2: Consideration for Disaster Recovery
What to Include
Disaster Type What to Do First What Might Occur
in the Plan
Natural  Shut off power  Power outage  Generator

(earthquake,
 Evacuate, if  Phone lines  Satellite phone, list
hurricane,
necessary down of employeesÊ phone
tornado, etc.)
numbers
 Pay attention to  Structural
advisories damage to  Alternate worksite
building
 Do not use  Action to be taken if
phone lines if  Road closures, employees are not
lightning occurs transportation able to come to
interruptions work/leave the
office
 Flooding
 Wet/dry vacuums
 Equipment
damage  Make and model
numbers, and
vendor information
to get replacements
Man-made  Notify  Data loss  Backup data at

(hazardous authorities (fire protected site
 Dangerous
material spill, departments,
conditions for  Protective
terrorist attack, etc.) of
employees equipment and an
fire, hacker, immediate
evacuation plan
malware, etc.) threat  Criminal
activity such as  Contact law
 Attempt to
data hacking enforcement
suppress fire or
and identity
contain the spill,  Make and model
theft
if it is safe to do numbers, and
so. Evacuate, if  Equipment vendor information
necessary damage to obtain
replacements

10.3.2 Cyber Criminals

Cyber criminals are individuals or teams of people who take advantage of a
computer and network system or make it a target, or sometimes both, in order to
commit a crime. Table 10.3 shows the types of cyber criminals.
Table 10.3: Types of Cyber Criminals
Type Description
Hacker Someone who accesses a computer or network illegally.
Cracker Someone who accesses a computer or network illegally but has the
intention to destroy data, steal information or other malicious actions.
Unethical Unethical employees may break into their employersÊ computers for a
employees variety of reasons. Some simply want to exploit a security weakness.
Others seek financial gains from selling confidential information.
Cyber Someone who demands payment to stop an attack on an organisationÊs

extortionist technology infrastructure. This criminal threatens to expose confidential
information, exploit a security flaw or launch an attack that will
compromise the organisationÊs network, if he is not paid a sum of money.
Cyber Someone who uses the Internet or the network to destroy or damage
terrorist computers for political reasons. Cyber terrorism usually requires a team
of highly skilled individuals, millions of dollars and several years of
planning.
The next subtopic shall continue the discussion on cyber crimes, focussing on the
types of criminal activities in the cyberspace.
10.4 CYBER CRIME

Cybercrime is any criminal activity that involves a computer, network device or a
network. While most cybercrimes are carried out in order to generate profits for
the cyber criminals, some cybercrimes are carried out against computers or devices
directly to damage or disable them while others use computers or networks to
spread malware, illegal information, images or other materials. Some cyber crimes
do both such as target computers to infect them with viruses, which are then
spread to other machines and sometimes to the entire network.
There are several cyber crime activities that can take place such as Internet and
network attacks, unauthorised access and use, software theft and information
theft. The following subtopics will explain them in details.
10.4.1 Internet and Network Attacks

Information transmitted over the networks has a higher degree of security risk
than information kept in an organisationÊs premises. In an organisation, network
administrators usually take measures to protect the network from security risks.
On the Internet where no central administrator is present, the security risk is
greater. Internet and network attacks that jeopardise security include malware,
denial of service attacks, phishing and many others attacks. The following are
details of the attacks:
(a) Malware
Also known as malicious software, it consists of programs that act without a
userÊs knowledge and deliberately alter the operations of computers and
mobile devices. There are many types of malware, for example, computer
viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spyware and adware. Malware does the
damage after it has been implanted or introduced into a targetÊs computer.
It can trigger in a variety of ways such as when a user opens an infected file,
runs an infected program, connects an unprotected computer or mobile
device to a network or when a certain condition or event occurs, for example,
when the computerÊs clock reaches a specific date that is intended. It can take
the form of executable code, scripts, active content and other software.
(b) Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attack

It is an attack meant to shut down a machine or network, making it
inaccessible to its intended users. DoS attack accomplishes this by flooding
the target with traffic or sending information that triggers a crash. In both
instances, the DoS attack deprives legitimate users (employees, members,
or account holders) of the service or resource that they expected.
(c) Phishing
This attack can be traced as far back as 1987. Since then, the risk of falling
victim to a phishing attack has increased incrementally due to the world-
changing adoption of Internet users and the constant pool of personal
information available through social media. Phishing attacks are an email-
based form of social engineering. Disguised as legitimate communication,
the fraudulent email tricks the recipient into responding by enticing them to
click a link, open an attachment or directly provide sensitive information.
Phishing attacks have become one of the most prevalent methods of
cybercrime because they are effective due to their ability to bypass detection
methods and offer low risk as there is little chance of capture or retribution.

E-mail is simple to deploy, making it easy to send large quantities of

messages in a single attempt. Adding to the ease of deployment is the
availability of low-cost phishing kits that include website development
software, coding, spamming software and content that can be utilised to
create convincing websites and e-mails.
In brief, to safeguard from Internet and network attacks, several prevention can be
practised including the use of antivirus software, be suspicious of unsolicited
e-mail attachments, scan any removable media for malware before using it,
implement firewall solutions and back up regularly.
10.4.2 Unauthorised Access and Use

Unauthorised access is when someone gains access to a website, program, server,
service or other systems using someone elseÊs account or other methods.
For example, if someone keeps guessing a password or username for an account
that was not his until he gains access, it is considered unauthorised access.
Unauthorised access could also occur if a user attempts to access an area of a

system he should not be accessing. When attempting to access that area, he would
be denied access and possibly see an unauthorised access message on the screen.
Some system administrators set up alerts to let them know when there is an
unauthorised access attempt so that they may investigate the reasons. These alerts
can help stop hackers from gaining access to a secured or confidential system.
Many secured systems may also lock out an account that has had too many failed
login attempts.
Unauthorised use refers to the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or
possibly illegal activities. Unauthorised use includes a variety of activities, for
example, an employee using an organisationÊs computer to send personal e-mail
messages, an employee using the organisationÊs word processing software to track
his childÊs soccer league scores or a perpetrator gaining access to a bank computer
and performing an unauthorised transfer.
Among the measures that can be used to curb this activity include activating the
access control that will limit who can have access to the a computer, device or
network, determining when they can access it and what actions they can take while
accessing it. Setting up usernames and passwords or using biometric devices to
grant access control can also be added in.

10.4.3 Software Piracy

Software theft or piracy is defined as unauthorised or illegal copying, sharing or
usage of copyright-protected software programs. Software theft may be carried
out by individuals, groups or, in some cases, organisations who then distribute the
unauthorised software copies to users.
Software theft is committed when someone performs any of the following:
(a) Steals software media;
(b) Deliberately erases programs;
(c) Illegally copies or distributes a program; and
(d) Registers or activates a software program illegally.
To protect software media from being stolen, owners should keep original
software boxes and media or the online confirmation of purchased software in a
secure location, out of the sight of prying eyes. All computer users should back up
their files and drives regularly, in the event of theft.
Many manufacturers incorporate an activation process into their programs to

ensure the software is not installed on more computers than legally licensed.
During the product activation, which is conducted either online or by phone, users
provide the software productÊs identification number to associate the software
with the computer or mobile device on which the software is installed. Usually,
the software can be run a preset number of times, has limited functionality or does
not function until it is activated.
10.4.4 Information Theft

Information theft occurs when someone steals personal or confidential
information. Both business and home users can fall victim to information theft.
An unethical company executive may steal or buy stolen information to learn
about a competitor. A corrupt individual may steal credit card numbers to make
fraudulent purchases. Information theft is often linked to other types of
cybercrimes. For example, an individual might gain unauthorised access to a
computer first and then steal credit card numbers stored in a firmÊs accounting
department.

Most organisations will attempt to prevent information theft by implementing the

user identification and authentication controls. These controls are best suited for
protecting information on computers located on the organisationÊs premises.
To further protect information on Internet and networks, approaches like
encryption or digital signatures and certificates can be used. Encryption is the
process of converting data that is readable by humans into encoded characters to
prevent unauthorised access. Digital signature is an encrypted code that a person,
website or organisation attaches to an electronic message to verify the identity of
the message sender. Digital certificate is a notice that guarantees a user or a website
that it is legitimate.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. Describe two types of Internet and network attacks.
2. Differentiate between software piracy and information theft.
 Ethics is the standards that determine whether an action is good or bad while
computer ethics are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers,
mobile devices, information systems and related technologies.
 Information privacy refers to the right of individuals and companies to deny

or restrict the collection and use of information about them.
 A digital security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss of or
damage to computer or mobile device hardware, software, data, information
or processing capability. The common digital security risks are caused by cyber
criminals, computer crimes and calamities.
 Disaster recovery is a set of policies and procedures which focuses on

protecting an organisation from any significant effects as a result of a negative
event, which may include man-made or natural disasters.

Code of conduct Ethics

Cookie Green computing
Cybercrime Information privacy
Cyber criminal Intellectual property
Digital security Malware
Disaster recovery Phishing

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


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CBCT2203

Basic Concepts of Information Technology

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Marini Abu Bakar

Mohd Zahari Awang

Translator: Mohd Zahari Awang

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, July 2007

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Course Guide xiăxvi

Topic 1 Introduction to Information Technology 1

Topic 2 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 20

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2.5 System Unit 30

Topic 3 Input and Output 38

Topic 4 Secondary Storage 64

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 Computer Software 81

Topic 6 Programming Language 120

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 The Internet 138

Topic 8 Software on the Internet 166

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 9 Communication 191

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 10 Ethics, Privacy and Digital Security 217

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 4

Study the module 64

Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 6

Assignment(s) and Examination(s) 15

TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the applications of IT including its components such as computer

2. Apply appropriate IT to specific professional or work situations that require

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 is an overview of IT which focuses on the principles of IT, background of

Topic 2 mainly covers the components of IT hardware such as the central

Topic 4 introduces a component known as secondary storage. This topic describes

Topic 5 focuses on software, which comprises the system software, application

Topic 6 delves deeper into the software by discussing programming languages,

Topic 8 specifically discusses software associated with the Internet. Popular

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 9 continues the discussion on communication by going into more detail

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.1: Examples of a tablet (left) and a smart phone

1.1 INFORMATION ERA

Table 1.1: Descriptions of the Agricultural, Industrial and Information Eras

Agricultural Era Cultivation of land, breeding of animals and plants, providing

Industrial Era Work processes simplified through mechanisation and