17
Graphs or Networks
Node, arc and region of a
graph.
Euler's formula for graphs.
Traversable graphs.
Polyhedra.
Faces, Vertices and Edges of a
polyhedra
Euler's formula for polyhedra.
Leonard Euler
(1707-1783)
He is the most prolific mathema-
tician in history. His contem-
poraries called him 'analysis
incarnate'.
Even total blindness during the
last seventeen years of his life
did not retard his unparallel
productivity.
Graphs and Polyhedra
This unit facilitates you in,
defining a graph, node, arc and region.
framing Euler's formula for graphs.
verifying Euler's formula N + R = A + 2 for
given plane graphs.
drawing graphs for given N, R and A.
identifying the traversable graphs.
explaining and using the conditions for
traversable graphs.
defining a polyhedra.
framing Euler's formula for polyhedra.
verifying Euler's formula for the given
polyhedra.
Crystals, chemical bindings, cell biology quite
often follow the geometrical laws of polyhedra.
- Marjorie Senechal
 Bangalore

416 UNIT-17

Here is a road route map showing connections

between some places in Karnataka. Observe
the route map and find the different ways in
which a person can travel from one place to
another.
From the route map we can understand that
(i) There is no direct route to Bidar from Belgaum
Bangalore.
(ii) There is direct route to Mangalore, Hubli
Karwar, Hubli, Bangalore and Mysore
from Shimoga. Karwar
Shimoga
(iii) From Shimoga, there is no direct route
to Belgaum but one can move to Belgaum
either by reaching Karwar or Hubli and Mangalore
then Belgaum.
(iv) From Belgaum we can directly reach Mysore 3

Bidar, Gulbarga, Hubli and Karwar but

not other places.
This route map helps you to visualise the different routes to different places without
actually travelling. If we start from a particular place, Can we come back to the same
place after visiting all the places without travelling the same route twice? Which is the
shortest path between any two places?
H
Let us discuss another example. Consider a H1 H2
situation of three houses H1, H2, H3 each to be connected
to each of the three utilities – water (W), gas (G) and
electricity (E) by means of pipes. Is it possible to make
such connections without any crossover of pipes? The G E W
given figure shows this situation of three utilities.
These type of problems can be solved mathematically using graph theory. Graph
theory is a study of graphs which deals with connections between two objects and graphs
are excellent mathematical models. Graph theory has wide variety of important
applications in computer science, electrical engineering, genetics, linguistics,
architecture, geography, chemistry etc.
In this unit let us study the basics of graph theory.
Graphs
Observe the given figures. These figures D
P
A
have some common characteristics.
Q D
Let us list them. A C
B
• They have a set of points N
B C
• Points are joined in pairs by a line E
L
K M
segment or curved line.
Networks and Polyhedra 417

Such figures are called graphs or networks.

A graph is a set of points (vertices) in which points are joined in pairs by lines (edges).

Know this ! A graph G is defined as a non-empty set of objects V = {v 1, v2, v3.....} whose
elements are called vertices (or points or nodes) and another set E = {e 1, e 2, e 3....}
whose elements are called edges (or lines or arcs or branches), such that each edge
is identified with a pair of elements of V.
Representation of a graph
A graph is diagrammatically represented in which the objects are represented by
points and the connections by straight or curved lines. You can observe this in the
Karnataka map, where places are denoted by points and the route connecting two places
by lines.
Nodes, arcs and regions
Observe the graphs given below.
T
N
A R
B
P S

P
Q M
D C Q R
(i) (ii) (iii)
Nodes
In each of the above graphs, the points or vertices are called nodes. Each node has
at least one line drawn from it.
The number of nodes in a graph is denoted by N.
 In graph (i), N = 4 Nodes are A, B, C, D
In graph (ii), N = 3 Nodes are P, Q, R
In graph (iii), N = 7 Nodes are M, N, P, Q, R, S, T
Arcs
Observe that in each of the graphs, pairs of nodes are joined by lines (straight or
curved) called arcs or edges.
Hence, an arc is a line connecting a pair of nodes.
In graph (ii), arc PQ is repeated thrice and arc QR is repeated twice.
Such arcs are called multiple arcs or edges.
In graph (iii), arc NT is repeated twice and hence it is a multiple arc.
In graph (iii), observe that node M is joined to itself. The arc MM is called a loop.
Note : A graph is called a simple graph if it has no multiple arcs or loops.
418 UNIT-17

The number of arcs in graph is denoted by A.

 In graph (i), A = 4. Arcs are AB, BC, CD, DA
In graph (ii), A = 5. Arcs are PQ (3 times), QR (2 times)
In graph (iii), A = 11. Arcs are PQ, QR, RS, SP, PN, SN, NT (2 times), SM, RM, MM.
Regions:
Observe the following two graphs.
A
A D In both the graphs, we observe that arcs
B are crossing each other.
E
C
B C
(i) D
(ii)
But, the graph (i) can be redrawn as follows, such that no two arcs cross over each
other.
A D
In this graph, crossing of arcs AC and BD
is avoided.

B
C
The graph (ii) cannot be redrawn, however much we try, in such a way that no two
arcs cross over. Here, we cannot avoid crossing of two arcs.
If a graph can be drawn in the plane, so that no two of its arcs (or edges) cross
over each other, the graph is called a plane graph.
In the above graphs, graph (i) is a plane graph and graph (ii) is not a plane graph. 4

A plane graph divides the plane into parts, each of which is called a region or face
of the graph. The region bounded by arcs is the interior region and the unbounded region
is the exterior region of the graph.
A graph which is not a plane graph will not define regions.
The number of regions is denoted by R. Observe the following plane graphs and
number of regions. 3 6
2
1 2
R3 D C
A D A 1 E
5 3

R R
R4 R2 R
R R
R1 F A
R
R R R
B B
C C D B
R=4 R=3 R=6
Euler’s Formula for graphs
Any graph will have specific values for N, R and A. Are the values of N, R and A
related? That is, are the number of nodes, arcs and regions of a graph related?
Is it possible to determine the value of any one of the three when the other two
values are known, without actually drawing the graph?
For this we need to find a relationship between N, R and A. Let us find it by the
following activity.
Networks and Polyhedra 419

Acitivity : Identify the value of N, R and A in each case. Complete the table.

Sl.No. Graph N R A
L
1. K M

6 3 7

P O N

2.
R
Q
W

X T
3. Y

Z
Compare the values of N, R and A in each case.
We can observe that, N + R – 2 = A or N + R = A + 2, where N, R and A are respectively
the number of nodes, the number of regions and number of arcs.
This is called Euler's formula for graphs.
In fact, this is precisely the formula which was obtained by Euler way back in 1750.
Now, let us verify Euler's formula for different graphs.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
A B
Example 1 : Find N, R and A for the following network.
Sol: • The point of intersection of AC and BD is named as E. E
• A, B, C, D and E are the nodes.  N = 5 D C
(i)
• AB, BC, CD, DA, AE, EC, BE and ED are the arcs.  A= 8
• Regions are bounded by ABE, BCE, DCE and ADE.  R = 5
Example 2 : Draw a graph having N = 3, R = 4 and A = 5. A

Sol: N = 3.  the graph has 3 nodes. A

To draw the graph for the given data,
first mark 3 points as shown.
B C B C
420 UNIT-17

A = 5.  the graph has 5 arcs.

Join A, B and C in such a way that there will be 5 arcs atmost.
R = 4,  the graph has 4 regions.
Discuss in groups and draw different graphs for the same data.

Example 3: Verify Euler's formula for the Example 4 : Verify Euler's formula for the
given graph. A given graph.
Sol: N = 8, A = 12, R = 6 Sol: N = 5, A = 9, R = 6 A
P
N+R = A+2 S N+R=A+2
B D
8 + 6 = 12 + 2 Q
5+6 =9+2
R
14 = 14 11 = 11 B D C
LHS = RHS C
 LHS = RHS E
 the graph satisfies Euler's formula.  the graph satisfies Euler's formula.
EXERCISE 17.1

1. Using Euler's formula, 2. Draw the graphs for the given values
complete the following table. of N, A and R

N R A
N R A
(i ) 6 10
(i ) 7 5 10
(ii ) 5 3
(ii ) 8 6 12
(iii ) 4 9
(iii ) 5 4 7
(iv ) 7 12
(iv ) 5 5 8
(v ) 15 20

2. Verify Euler's formula for the given networks.

H
x A
R
B
I
C G

o P
Q C
y z D F
D E
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A C
K L
F G H B D
D C
B L I
O F I H E
A E C
K J G
N M A B
D
(v) (vi) (vii) (viii)
Traversable graphs
This idea was discovered by Euler while solving the famous seven bridge problem.
Let us first study about the problem and then traversable graphs.
Networks and Polyhedra 421

The Koingsberg seven bridges problem

The problem is about the seven bridges of Koingsberg. The city of Koingsberg (today known
as Kaliningard) is divided by the Pregel river that surrounds the island of Kneiphof.
These four land regions were connected by seven bridges. Observe the following
figure. C

B
A

D
The problem of Koingsberg bridges is explained as follows:
A person starts at any one of the four land areas of A, B, C and D. He has to walkover
each of the seven bridges exactly once, touch all the four land areas and return to the
starting point. No person could finish this task. It was a puzzle to them, until the great
mathematician Euler in 1736 showed that it is impossible. He represented this situation
by means of the diagram and called it a Graph.
C
The graph representing the seven bridges problem is as shown.
Now, draw the above graph in your notebook. Start from any node A B
and try to trace the graph without lifting the pencil, without retracing
any arc of the graph and return to the starting point. Is it possible?
D
Now try some more graphs.
Trace the following graphs, staring from any node, without lifting the pencil and
without retracing any edge, and pass through all the edges. You can pass through a node
any number of times. Draw the arrow marks.

(i) (ii) A B (iii) K L (iv) X

A B

D C N M Z
Y

What have you discovered ?

You will discover that, graphs (i), (ii) and (iv) are traceable by satisfying the conditions,
where as graph (iii) is not traceable.
(i), (ii) and (iv) are traversable graphs.
(iii) is a non-traversable graphs.

The graph which can be traced in one sweep without lifting the pencil from the
paper and without retracing any arc is called a traversable graph.
Know this! A graph is traversable if we can sequence all its arcs or edges in such a
way that any two consecutive arcs in the sequence have a node or vertex in common
and no edge is repeated in the sequence.
422 UNIT-17

Activity : Draw the given graphs in your notebook. Try to trace the paths in one
sweep and without lifting the pen or pencil and without passing any arc. Identify the
graphs that are traversable.

(i) A (ii) R (iii) P (iv) R

T Q L Q
P Q
B C
S R
M P

N
We have learnt that by drawing the graphs, it is possible to determine whether the
given network is traversable or not. This method becomes tedious and time consuming
for many complicated graphs.
For example, try this graph
A
Let us learn to determine the traversability of graphs without D E
actually tracing their path.
You have already learnt about nodes and that two nodes can be C B
joined by any number of arcs. The number of arcs at a node is called F
the order of the node.
Observe the following networks and identify the order of each node.
Some of them are done for you.
Sl. Graph Node Order
1. A 3
A B
B –
2. A B A 2
B 5
C –
D C
D –
3. P 4
P Q
Q –
U V
T R –
S R
S 3
T 4
U 1
V –
We observe that the order of the nodes is either an even Know this! The order of
number or an odd number. the node is also called the
If the number of arcs drawn from a node is an even degree of the node or
number, then the order of that node is even and it is called vertex.
an even node.
Networks and Polyhedra 423

If the number of arcs drawn from a node is odd, then the order of that node is odd and
it is called an odd node.
Activity : Identify the even and odd nodes and their orders.
D H Z G
S P
E C
T F E
(i) B (ii) (iii)
R Q X Y
A D

How can we find the order considered for a loop which has only one arc? Let us
study. Observe the given graph. A

In this graph, order of node 'A' is 2 and node B has 2 arcs and a loop. Note
that starting from node B the loop can be traced both in clockwise and B
anticlockwise direction. Both the paths are taken as two different paths. Hence,
order of a loop is 2.
Therefore the order of node B with a loop is increased by 2. Its order is 4.

EXERCISE 17.2

Find the order and type of each node in the following graphs:
Q A
1. K L 2. P 3.

B D

C
N M
R

F A E B
4. E G 5. C B 6.

A
H F
P Q
H
D G C

Condition for traversibility of graphs

We have learnt to find the order of each node in a given graph and also its type.
Let us discover the condition for traversibility of graphs.
Observe the traversable graphs given in the following table. Identify the number of
even nodes and odd nodes in each case. Write them in the columns as shown in first
example.
424 UNIT-17

Graph Nodes and Number of Number of

their order even nodes odd nodes.
P P 2
Q 4
R 4 4 0
Q R S 2

S
N
M
O
L

K P
Y

X V

S U
T
F
G E

A D
C
B
Traversaple graphs in the above examples, satisfy one of the two conditions,
(i) A graph is traversable if, all nodes are even.
(ii) A graph is traversable if, there are only two odd nodes and all the other nodes are
even.
A graph is traversable if any one of the above conditions is satisfied. This is Euler's
condition for traversibility of graphs. Euler obtained this condition way back in 1736,
while solving koingsberg Seven Bridge problem.
Example 1 : Identify the order and type of nodes. Check whether the graph is
traversable or not.
Node Order Type
P 3 Odd
P Q 4 Even
A B R 3 Odd
A 1 Odd
Q B 1 Odd
C 1 Odd
R D 1 Odd
D C
Networks and Polyhedra 425

The given graph has more than 2 odd nodes and one even node. Hence it is not a
traversable graph according to Euler's condition for traversiblity.
In the following table, observe the networks that are not traversable. In each case,
observe number of even nodes, odd nodes and the remarks.

Sl. Network Nodes and No.of even No. of Remark

No. their order nodes odd nodes
1. B A–3
A B–1 – 4
D More than two odd
C C–1 nodes.

D–1
2. O–3
P Q
O
P–3
R Q–3 2 4
Two eve n no des
R–5 and more than two
T S
S–2 odd nodes.

T–2
3. X–5 More than two odd
Y–1 – 4 nodes.
Z X Z–1
W Y W–1

From the above table, we can conclude that the networks do not satisfy the condition
for traversibility. Hence, they are not traversable networks.
This means, a given network is traversable if it contains two odd nodes and any
number of even nodes or all even nodes.

EXERCISE 17.3

Verify the traversability of the following networks. State the reasons for each
example.
P Q G
1. A D 2. 3. K Q 4.
E T
F D F
E
L P
G H S R M
B C H
N O
H I G
5. 6. A D 7. K M 8.
B C O A B C D
L N
E F H G F E
D E F R Q P
426 UNIT-17

Polyhedra: We know that all geometrical figures are classified into plane figures and
solid figures. We have learnt Euler's formula, N+R = A+2 for plane graphs which are plane
figures.
Can we apply the same formula for solid figures?
Consider a cube, it is a three dimensional figure where all the points
are not lying on the same plane. Observe that it is made up of six plane
surfaces, exactly any three of them meet at a point and exactly any two
of them intersect along a line.
Euler has given a different formula for such solid figures. Let us learn about it.
Observe the following set of solid figures.

Set A Set B

What difference do you find between the solid figures in set A and set B?
In set A, the solid figures have lateral surfaces which are plane polygonal surfaces,
where as set B consists of solid figures which have curved surfaces as lateral surfaces.
The closed solid figures in space bounded by plane or polygonal surfaces are called
polyhedra.
Hence, each polyhedra is bounded by polygonal surfaces and these surfaces are
called Faces of polyhedra.
'Hedra' is a Greek word meaning faces and 'poly' means many.
Polyhedra is the plural form of polyhedron.
You are familiar with triangular based pyramid. Observe its figure given below.
This is also a polyhedra bounded by four triangular faces.
Hence it is also called "tetrahedron" where 'tetra' means 'four'.
Similarly, other polyhedra are named after the number of
faces they contain.
Study the polyhedra and their names given in the following table.

Sl.No. Polyhedra Number of faces Name

1 4 Tetrahedron

2 5 Pentahedron
Networks and Polyhedra 427

3. 6 Hexahedron

4. 6 Hexahedron

5. 8 Octahedron

6. 12 Dodecahedron

7. 20 Icosahedron

We observe from the above table that some of the polyhedra are bounded by identical
faces [1, 3, 5, 6, 7] and some are bounded by different polygonal faces [2, 4].
Polyhedra which are bounded by identical or congruent regular polygonal faces
are called regular polyhedra.
Polyhedra which are bounded by non-congruent polygonal faces are called irregular
polyhedra.

Know this !
Plato was born in Athens, Greece [430 BC – 340 BC]
Plato associated the polyhedral solids Tetrahedron, Octahedron,
Hexahedron and Icosahedron with four elements, fire, air, earth and
water respectively and Dodecahedron as a symbol of the universe as a
whole. These 5 polyhedra are called Platonic solids.
Plato
Think !
There are only five regular polyhedra. Why ? Discuss in groups.
Euler's formula for polyhedra
Consider an example.
A cube is a regular polyhedra. It is bounded by regular polygonal
surfaces (6 squares).
Each polygonal surface of the polyhedra is called Face.
The number of faces is denoted by F.
For hexahedron, F = 6.
428 UNIT-17

Observe that, any two faces intersect along a straight line and any three faces
meet at a point.
The line of intersection of two faces of a polyhedron is called an Edge.
Number of edges is denoted by E.
For hexahedron, E = 12.
The point where three faces of a polyhedra meet is called a ‘vertex’.
Number of vertices is denoted by V.
For hexahedron, V = 8
Is there any relation between F, V and E ?
Observe the following table. Some figures of polyhedra are given.
Identify the number of faces, vertices and edges for the polyhedra given in the
columns.

Sl. Polyhedra Number of Number of Number of

no. faces F vertices V edges E

1. 4 4 6

2.

3.

4.

5.

From the above table, we can state that "the number of edges (E) in each polyhedra
is 2 less than the sum of its number of faces and vertices. This is Euler's formula for
polyhedra.
This relation can be stated as F + V = E + 2.
Networks and Polyhedra 429

EXERCISE 17.5

I. Write the number of faces, edges and vertices for the following solids figures
and verify Euler's formula.
1. 2. 3. 4.

II. Verify Euler's formula for the following

(a) Dodecahedron (b) Icosahedron
Try : Compare the number of faces (F) and Know this
number of vertices (V) of the following
pairs of polyhedra. * For pyramids, with base having 'n'
sides, F = n +1, V = n +1, E = 2n
(i) Hexahedron and Tetrahedron
(ii) Dodecahedron and Icosahedron * For prisms, with base having 'n'
What do you observe ? sides, F = n + 2, V = 2n, E = 3n
They are called dual solid figures.
Network of regular polyhedral solids :
A solid bounded by a polyhedron is a polyhedral solid. When a polyhedral solid is cut
open, we get its graph. Graph of regular polyhedral solids is given below. Study them.
Names Polyhedra Graphs Unfolded Shape of
polyhedra each face

Tetrahedron Equilateral triangle

Hexahedron Square

Octahedron Equilateral triangle

Dodecahedron Regular pentagon

Icosahedron Equilateral triangle

430 UNIT-17

Activity : Prepare the models of regular polyhedral solids by drawing the networks of
each on a cardboard and pasting the flaps where ever necessary or using cellotape. Do
the activity in groups.

Try! Find which of the five plane graphs corresponding to the platonic solids is
traversable?

Graphs and Polyhedra

Regular
Graphs or Traversable polyhedra
Polyhedra
Networks Graphs
Irregular
polyhedra
Euler’s conditions
Nodes Arcs Regions for traversibility
N A R of graphs

Euler’s Formula Faces Edges Vertices

for plane graphs F E V
N+R = A + 2

Euler’s Formula
for polyhedra
F+V = E + 2

When you gain something,

let it be a,
When you make use of it for n times,
then it will be na,
When you share it with n persons,
it will become an.