01 Bio Trans

Chapter 7 ​ - Membrane Structure and Function A. Phospholipids

Cell​ - basic unit of living organisms

Plasma Membrane
- Form special surfaces on almost all
subcellular organelles (e.g. nucleus,
mitochondria, lysosome, peroxisome), as well
as over the entire cell
- Separates cell from surroundings
- Controls inbound and outbound traffic
- Selectively permeable

Biochemical Composition
● Lipids​ (Phospholipids and Cholesterol)
● Proteins (​ Integral and Peripheral
Phospholipids)
○ 50% of the cell membrane is
protein by weight
● Carbohydrates

Historical Models of Plasma Membrane

Davson- Danielli Model (1935)
- Sandwiched arrangement of phospholipids
- Composition: globular protein, phospholipid
bilayer
Amphipathic
- Contains both a ​Hydrophilic and
Fluid Mosaic Model (Singer - Nicholson, 1972)
Hydrophobic ​end
- Most up to date model
- (Hydrophilic) Choline; Phosphate;
- With globular proteins
Glycerol
- Fluid composition of membrane
- (Hydrophobic)​ Fatty Acid chain
- Integral ​& ​Peripheral Proteins
- E-face - Phospholipids facing the extracellular
- Phospholipids arrange in a way where the
matrix
hydrophobic end faces ​water which is
- P-face​ - Phospholipids facing the protoplasm
present on the outer side of the membrane.
- Composition: phospholipid bilayer,
peripheral protein, integral protein,
Glycocalyx
transmembrane protein
- ​made out of glycolipids and glycoproteins
- consists of sugars, mostly ​oligosaccharides
(sugars with 8-12 monosaccharides)
- “Highly-hydrated fibrous meshwork of
carbohydrates that projects out and covers the
membrane of endothelial cells”
Cholesterol
- Is an important steroid that is produced by
the smooth ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)
- It is the precursor of hormones (e.g., sex
hormones)
- Interdigitate in the fatty acid tails

Lipid composition allows for the organism’s survival

in different environments

Membrane Fluidity
- Membrane is held mainly by hydrophobic
interactions
- Purpose: transportation of substances
- Lateral Movement
- 10​7 ​times per second
- Phospholipid travels 2µm Evolutionary Differences in Lipid Composition
- Flip-flopping Movement - Variations in lipid composition help in
- Very rare (once a month) adaptation
- Lipid switches from 1 - Variation is primarily temperature dependent
phospholipid layer to another (see: Archaebacteria)

The membrane is fluid and not solid nor liquid B. ​Proteins

because it functions for the regulation of entry/exit of
nutrients and it needs to retain its shape
Factors affecting Fluidity
- Hydrocarbon Tail (The ​shorter the tail the
greater the fluidity)
- Saturation of bonds (​Unsaturation leads to
more kinks and better fluidity)
- At lower temperature, phospholipids
with less double bonds would settle
into a closely packed arrangement,
leading to solidification
- Steroid Cholesterol: Fluidity Buffer (Temp.)
- Rigid sterol ring stiffens the
hydrocarbon tails
- @ relatively ↑ temp. (~37°C):
decreases membrane fluidity
- ↓ temp.: prevents packing of lipids
Membrane Proteins and Their Functions
- membrane: collage of proteins (often
clustered in groups) embedded in fluid matrix
of lipid bilayer
- Proteins determine most of membrane’s
function
Integral Proteins
- penetrates the hydrophobic interior of the
lipid bilayer
- Transmembrane proteins spans entire
membrane, others extend part way only
“​The hydrophobic regions of an integral protein consist
of one or more stretches of nonpolar amino acids,
typically 20–30 amino acids in length, usually coiled
into α helices​”

Peripheral Proteins
- Loosely bound to membrane surface (often,
to exposed parts of integral proteins)

Functions
- Attachment to the actin, microtubules, fibers
of extracellular matrix, etc. to maintain shape
- Signal transduction (through receptors,
undergoes conformational changes)
- Transport (channels, gated channels,
carriers)
- Intercellular junctions (for cell-to-cell
communication)
- Glycoproteins (for binding of cells together,
for recognition)
- Enzymatic activity
- Holds cell organelles in place

Glycosaminoglycans (GAG)
- Found in the cell’s ECM
- Anchored to membrane through proteins
- Functions in the prevention of the coagulation
of blood
Classes of Transport Proteins
1. Uniport
- 1 type of molecule is transported
- Example: (1) mechanism to transfer pyruvic
acid to mitochondria; (2) Na​+​ and Cl​-​transport
2. Symport
- two molecules being transported towards the
same direction
3. Antiport
- two molecules being transported towards
opposite directions
- such as that used in the nervous system’s
depolarization/repolarization through the
sodium-potassium pump
Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-Cell
Recognition
Cell-cell recognition
- cell’s ability to distinguish one type of
neighboring cell from another
- basis for the rejection of foreign cells by the
immune system (found in E-face of the
membranes)
Cells recognize other cells by binding to molecules,
often containing carbohydrates, on the extracellular
surface of the plasma membrane
Membrane Carbohydrates
- Short, branched chains of >15 sugar units
- Glycolipids​: CHO covalently bonded to lipids
- Glycoproteins​: CHO covalently bonded to
proteins
- Variation on CHO on extracellular side of
plasma membrane
- species to species
- among individuals of same species
- one cell type to another in an
individual
Rough ER transports proteins (made by the
ribosomes attached to it) to the Golgi Apparatus
where modification of proteins occur (e.g. adding
sugar, sulfur) before being transported out of the cell
Glycolipids act as Determinants of Blood Groups
- Influence the blood type (ABO Group)
- Oligocore​ is called the H substance
Membrane CHO function as markers that distinguish
one cell from another
Example: ​ABO Blood Type
- Type A: has transferase that attaches GalNAc
(N-Acetyl Galactose Amine) to H substance
- Type B: has transferase that attaches Gal
(Galactose) to H substance
- Type AB: has both transferases
- Type O: has none
Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes
“The asymmetrical arrangement of proteins, lipids, and
their associated carbohydrates in the plasma
membrane is determined as the membrane is being
built by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi
apparatus, components of the endomembrane system.”

Cell Membrane Permeability
● Small Hydrophobic Molecules*
○ O​2​, CO​2​, N​2​, benzene
● Small Uncharged Polar Molecules*
○ H​2​O, glycerol, ethanol
● Large Uncharged Polar Molecules**
○ Amino acids, glucose,
nucleotides
● Ions**
*can pass freely through lipid membrane
**cannot pass freely through lipid membrane, needs
transport proteins
Transport Proteins
- Specific for the substance it translocates
Channel Proteins
- Contains hydrophilic channel that can
be used as a tunnel through the
membrane
- Aquaporins: ​allows passage of water
Carrier Proteins
- Changes shape to shuttle passengers
through membrane
- Does not rely on transport proteins to
proceed. Instead, it relies on chemical
gradient. (High to low concentration
gradient)
Examples:
Diffusion, Osmosis, Dialysis
A. Diffusion
- Movement of molecules or atoms from a
region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration.
- Driving force of diffusion is the concentration
gradient
- Ex: uptake of oxygen by a cell performing
cellular respiration.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion
- Concentration gradient (the ​higher the
gradient, the faster the diffusion)
- Area (The ​smaller the area of diffusion, the
faster the diffusion)
- Temperature (the ​higher the temperature,
the faster the diffusion)
- Molecular Weight (the ​smaller the molecule,
the faster the diffusion)
- Distance (The ​shorter the distance, the faster
the diffusion)
- Presence of Water (The ​less concentration of
water, the faster the diffusion)
B. ​Osmosis
- Movement of molecules from a high
concentration region to a low concentration
region through a semipermeable layer.
- In the case of water,occurs as water passes
through the membrane through aquaporins
Water Balance of Cells Without Cell Walls

Cell Transport (Non-Mediated and Mediated) Tonicity

- Ability of a surrounding solution to cause a
Mediated cell to gain or lose water
- Relies on transport proteins - There are three tonic conditions for cells:
Examples: Hypotonic, Hypertonic, and Isotonic.
Active and Passive (Facilitated
Diffusion) Transport. Hypotonic
- Lower concentration of solute in the
Non-mediated surroundings.
- Prompts water to enter the cell causing
hemolysis
 - Makes the cells in plants turgid (cell walls
exert turgor pressure)
Hypertonic
- Higher concentration of solute in the
surroundings
- Prompts water to exit the cell causing
crenation
- In plant cells, the protoplast (cell membrane
of protoplasm) undergoes plasmolysis
In both cases for the plant, cell wall remains intact
Isotonic
- Equal concentration in both surrounding and
in the cell.
- Stable working condition for the cell.
Osmoregulation
- control of solute concentrations and water
balance in organisms w/o cell walls
- Ex: ​Paramecium a​ nd Amoeba found in sewage
water
Sewage water is supposed to exhibit
hypotonicity which would cause the
Paramecium​’s and amoeba’s cells to lyse
However, due to the presence of the
contractile vacuole, the cell remains intact
because it prevents the lysis of the
abovementioned unicellular organisms by
pumping out excess water
Water Balance of Cells With Cell Walls
- Plants have relatively inelastic cell walls
- Turgor Pressure: ​pressure exerted on the cell
walls due to its expansion through the uptake
of water
- Turgid: cell is firm, plant is healthy
(happens in hypotonic solutions)
- Flaccid: cell is limp, plant wilts
Plasmolysis
- contraction of the protoplast of a plant cell
due to exposure to hypertonic solutions
- Plasma membrane pulls away from cell wall
- Plant wilts and dies
C. Dialysis
- Selective separation of smaller molecules
from larger molecules by diffusion of smaller
molecules through a semipermeable
membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion (Passive-Mediated Transport)
- Spontaneous passive transport that requires
transport proteins in order to proceed
- Uses channel and carrier proteins
- Along concentration gradient
- Have specificity for molecules which it allows
to diffuse through
Cystinuria is the malfunction of transporter proteins
which handle the amino acid cystine. This leads to an
accumulation in the kidney/cystine stones
During filtration, cystine is filtered out rather than
passing through and being reabsorbed by blood.
Through heredity or genetic mutations, transporter
proteins malfunction and some molecules are filtered
out inappropriately hence accumulation of kidney
stones
Ion Channels
- ​channel proteins that transport ions
Gated Channels
- Ion channels that open and close in
response to stimulus (ex. electrical)
Active Transport
- Requires energy to proceed and makes use of
transport proteins.
 - Transport occurs against the concentration - regulated by protein receptors
gradient. - enables cell to acquire bulk quantities of
- Makes use of ​electrogenic pumps to cause specific substances
differences in electric charge.
- Enables a cell to maintain internal
concentrations of small solutes that differ
from concentrations in its environment.
- e.g . the sodium potassium pump
- Which makes the negativity inside the
cell more evident by releasing 3 N a+
ions and accepting only 2 K +

Bulk Transport​ (Active Transport)

Exocytosis CELL JUNCTIONS
- Secretion of molecules through the fusion of Tight junctions (zonula occludens)
vesicles with the plasma membrane. - where the plasma membranes of neighboring
- Specific proteins rearrange the lipid cells are very tightly pressed against each
molecules of the two bilayers so that the two other bound together by specific proteins
membranes fuse. - Tight junctions form continuous seals around
- Ex.: insulin secretion, release of the cells which establish a barrier that
neurotransmitters prevents the leakage of extracellular fluid
Endocytosis - This also prevents lateral transport
- Active molecular uptake through the - Stabilized by tight junction proteins
formation of new vesicles in the plasma - Commonly seen in epithelial tissues due to
membrane. their function in absorption
- Occurs in three situations: ​Phagocytosis, Desmosomes (Macula adherens)
Pinocytosis, ​and ​Receptor Mediated - Consists of two dense granular attachment
Endocytosis​. plaques
- Fastens cells together into strong sheets
Phagocytosis - Intermediate filaments anchor desmosomes
- solid intake into the cytoplasm
- cell engulfs a particle by extending - Desmosomes attach muscle cells to each
pseudopodia and packaging it other
- ex: macrophages - Stabilized by actin fibers
Belt desmosomes (zonula adherens)
Pinocytosis - Fused membranes are 15-20 nm apart
- fluid intake - Electron-dense plaque
- cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid into - Protein complexes at cell to cell junctions
tiny vesicles which are more basal than tight junctions
- cell obtains molecules dissolved in the - Stabilized by actin fibers
droplets Gap junctions (nexus)
- Disk or patch-shaped structures
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis - Intercellular gap is 2 nanometers
- specialized type of pinocytosis
 - Each membrane contains a circular patch of
connexons
- Connexons are protein channels linked to form
continuous pores
- Like intercalated disks in heart for muscular
contractions; intercalated disks allow passage
of K​+ ​for repolarization and Na​+ for
depolarization
- Provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to
an adjacent cell

Channel Proteins in Plants

Plasmodesmata
- Responsible for the regulation of transport in
plants
In roots,
Symplast - transport of material through the
cytoplasm using the plasmodesmata (connected to
the other cells’ protoplasts)
Apoplast​ - transport of material through the cell wall

Cell Adhesion
Actin Filament
- Globular protein that joins together small
molecules to form long filaments
Integrin
- Main receptor proteins that cells use to bind
and respond to the ECM
Fibronectin
- Glycoprotein of the ECM that binds to the
membrane-spanning receptor proteins called
integrins
Elastin

End of Chapter 7