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Learning Corner

What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI),

And What Are Its Various
Applications?
August 10, 2019

AI emphasises on making intelligent machines work and react like human

beings, including speech recognition, planning, problem solving and learning.
It involves programming intelligence or making computers behave like
humans. AI-powered devices try to imitate the natural intelligence of
humans, mimicking the cognitive functions that humans use to perform
tasks.

There are many definitions of AI and one such definition given on Wikipedia
is, “In computer science, AI—which is sometimes called machine
intelligence—is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the
natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals.”

AI finds application in robotics, virtual assistants, the Internet, finance and

economics, exploration and research, healthcare, education, automotive,
video games, defence, businesses and on mobile devices. For more on its
applications, please refer to ‘The Latest In AI and Its Applications’ article
published in January issue.

There are many AI-based DIY projects using Arduino, NodeMCU and
Raspberry Pi available on the Internet.

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A simple example is ‘Artificial Intelligence-Based Chatbot For Appliance
Control’ DIY article published in November 2018 issue of EFY. It uses
NodeMCU and Arduino IDE along with Chatfuel platform to create an AI
chatbot. Wiring diagram of the project is shown in Fig. 2.

This AI-chatbot is used to control electrical appliances using voice commands

from Facebook Messenger. First, add AI rules in Chatfuel by writing all
permissible words or phrases a user may use—such as ‘Turn on the light’ or
‘Switch on the light’—for interaction. After the system is connected to the
Internet, open the chatbot from Facebook Messenger installed on your
cellphone and provide it with instructions using the microphone, to turn the
light off or on.

What Is An LTPS LCD?

August 10, 2019
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Low-temperature polycrystalline silicon (or LTPS) LCD—also called LTPS TFT

LCD—is a new-generation technology product derived from polycrystalline
silicon materials. Polycrystalline silicon is synthesised at relatively low
temperatures (~650°C and lower) as compared to traditional methods
(above 900°C).

Standard LCDs found in many consumer electronics, including cellphones,

use amorphous silicon as the liquid for the display unit. Recent technology
has replaced this with polycrystalline silicon, which has boosted the screen
resolution and response time of devices.

Row/column driver electronics are integrated onto the glass substrate. The
number of components in an LTPS LCD module can be reduced by 40 per
cent, while the connection part can be reduced by 95 per cent. The LTPS
display screen is better in terms of energy consumption and durability, too.

LTPS LCDs are increasingly becoming popular these days. These have a high
potential for large-scale production of electronic devices such as flat-panel
LCD displays or image sensors.

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Amorphous silicon lacks crystal structure, whereas polycrystalline silicon

consists of various crystallites or grains, each having an organised lattice
(Fig. 1).
 Fig. 1:
Amorphous silicon versus polycrystalline
silicon (Credit: Wikipedia)
Advantages of an LTPS LCD display are:

 Dynamic and rich colours

 Fast response and less reflective
 High picture resolution

Some of its disadvantages are:

 Deteriorates faster than other LCDs

 High cost
What Is A Piezoelectric Sensor?
August 5, 2019

2881

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A piezoelectric sensor, also known as a piezoelectric transducer, is a device

that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in pressure,
acceleration, temperature, strain or force by converting these into an
electrical charge. The prefix piezo is Greek for press or squeeze. The ability
of piezoelectric material to convert mechanical stress into electrical charge is
called a piezoelectric effect. Generated piezoelectricity is proportional to the
pressure applied to solid piezoelectric crystal materials.

Two main sensing materials used for piezoelectric sensors are piezoelectric
ceramics (such as PZT ceramic) and single-crystal materials (such as
quartz). The sensitivity of ceramic materials is higher than that of natural
single-crystal materials, but their high sensitivity degrades over time.

Natural single-crystal materials (quartz, gallium-phosphate, tourmaline, etc)

are less sensitive but have higher stability. A commonly-available quartz
piezoelectric sensor (without enclosure) is shown in Fig. 1.
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There are also new single-crystal materials commercially available, such as

lead-magnesium-niobate lead titanate (PMN-PT).

There are two types of piezoelectric sensors based on the lead connection
design: lead type and pin type, as shown in Fig. 2. Their specifications are
listed in Table I. Both are commonly available; choice depends on size and
other specifications.
Read other interesting articles: click here

What is a MOSFET | Basics,

Working Principle & Applications
A metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or
MOS FET) is a field-effect transistor (FET with an insulated gate) where the
voltage determines the conductivity of the device. It is used for switching or
amplifying signals. The ability to change conductivity with the amount of
applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.
MOSFETs are now even more common than BJTs (bipolar junction
transistors) in digital and analog circuits.

MOSFET structure
A MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in digital circuits, as
hundreds of thousands or millions of them may be included in a memory
chip or microprocessor. Since they can be made with either p-type or n-type
semiconductors, complementary pairs of MOS transistors can be used to
make switching circuits with very low power consumption, in the form
of CMOS logic.

Why MOSFET?

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Fet (Mosfet) from stooty s

MOSFETs are particularly useful in amplifiers due to their input impedance

being nearly infinite which allows the amplifier to capture almost all the
incoming signal. The main advantage is that it requires almost no input
current to control the load current, when compared with bipolar transistors.
MOSFETs are available in two basic forms:

 Depletion Type: The transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage (VGS) to

switch the device “OFF”. The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a
“Normally Closed” switch.
 Enhancement Type: The transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage(VGS) to
switch the device “ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a
“Normally Open” switch.

MOSFET structure

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It is a four-terminal device with source(S), gate (G), drain (D) and body (B)
terminals. The body is frequently connected to the source terminal, reducing
the terminals to three. It works by varying the width of a channel along
which charge carriers flow (electrons or holes).
The charge carriers enter the channel at source and exit via the drain. The
width of the channel is controlled by the voltage on an electrode is called
gate which is located between source and drain. It is insulated from the
channel near an extremely thin layer of metal oxide. A metal-insulator-
semiconductor field-effect transistor or MISFET is a term almost synonymous
with MOSFET. Another synonym is IGFET for insulated-gate field-effect-
transistor.

MOSFET Operation

The working of a MOSFET depends upon the MOS capacitor. The MOS
capacitor is the main part of MOSFET. The semiconductor surface at the
below oxide layer which is located between source and drain terminals. It
can be inverted from p-type to n-type by applying positive or negative gate
voltages.

When we apply positive gate voltage the holes present under the oxide layer
with a repulsive force and holes are pushed downward with the substrate.
The depletion region populated by the bound negative charges which are
associated with the acceptor atoms. The electrons reach channel is formed.
The positive voltage also attracts electrons from the n+ source and drain
regions into the channel. Now, if a voltage is applied between the drain and
source, the current flows freely between the source and drain and the gate
voltage controls the electrons in the channel. If we apply negative voltage, a
hole channel will be formed under the oxide layer.
P-Channel MOSFET

P-
Channel MOSFET

The drain and source are heavily doped p+ region and the substrate is in n-
type. The current flows due to the flow of positively charged holes also
known as p-channel MOSFET. When we apply negative gate voltage, the
electrons present beneath the oxide layer experience repulsive force and
they are pushed downward in to the substrate, the depletion region is
populated by the bound positive charges which are associated with the donor
atoms. The negative gate voltage also attracts holes from p+ source and
drain region into the channel region.

N-Channel MOSFET

N-
Channel MOSFET

The drain and source are heavily doped n+ region and the substrate is p-
type. The current flows due to the flow of negatively charged electrons, also
known as n-channel MOSFET. When we apply the positive gate voltage the
holes present beneath the oxide layer experience repulsive force and the
holes are pushed downwards in to the bound negative charges which are
associated with the acceptor atoms. The positive gate voltage also attracts
electrons from n+ source and drain region in to the channel thus an electron
reach channel is formed.

More basic articles available in the learning corner.

The article was first published on 19 July 2017 and was updated on 4 April 2019.

Inverting & Non-Inverting Amplifier

Basics
April 4, 2019

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An “ideal” or perfect operational amplifier is a device with certain special

characteristics such as infinite open-loop gain, infinite input resistance, zero
output resistance, infinite bandwidth and zero offset. Operational
amplifiers are used extensively in signal conditioning or perform
mathematical operations as they are nearly ideal for DC amplification. It is
fundamentally a voltage amplifying device used with external feedback
components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and input
terminals. An operational amplifier is basically a three-terminal device
consisting of two high impedance inputs, one called the inverting input (–)
and the other one called the non-inverting input (+). The third terminal
represents the operational amplifiers output port which can both sink and
source either a voltage or a current.

Negative feedback
While on the one hand, operational amplifiers offer very high gain, it makes
the amplifier unstable & hard to control. Some of this gain can be lost by
connecting a resistor across the amplifier from the output terminal back to
the inverting input terminal to control the final gain of the amplifier. This is
commonly known as negative feedback and produces a more stable op-amp.

Negative feedback is the process of feeding a part of the output signal back
to the input. But to make the feedback negative, it is fed to the negative or
“inverting input” terminal of the op-amp using a resistor. This effect
produces a closed loop circuit resulting in Closed-loop Gain. A closed-loop
inverting amplifier uses negative feedback to accurately control the overall
gain of the amplifier, but causes a reduction in the amplifiers gain.

Inverting amplifier
In an inverting amplifier circuit, the operational amplifier inverting input
receives feedback from the output of the amplifier. Assuming the op-amp is
ideal and applying the concept of virtual short at the input terminals of op-
amp, the voltage at the inverting terminal is equal to non-inverting terminal.
The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is connected to ground.
As the gain of the op amp itself is very high and the output from the
amplifier is a matter of only a few volts, this means that the difference
between the two input terminals is exceedingly small and can be ignored. As
the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is held at ground
potential this means that the inverting input must be virtually at earth
potential.

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Applying KCL at inverting node we can calculate voltage gain,

Voltage gain (A)= Vout/ Vin = – Rf/Rin

Non-Inverting Amplifier
The non-inverting amplifier is one in which the output is in phase with
respect to the input. The feedback is applied at the inverting input. However,
the input is now applied at the non-inverting input. The output is a non-
Inverted (in terms of phase) amplified version of input. The gain of the non-
inverting amplifier circuit for the operational amplifier is easy to determine.
The calculation hinges around the fact that the voltage at both inputs is the
same. This arises from the fact that the gain of the amplifier is exceedingly
high. If the output of the circuit remains within the supply rails of the
amplifier, then the output voltage divided by the gain means that there is
virtually no difference between the two inputs.
The voltage gain can be calculated by applying KCL at the inverting node.

Voltage gain (A) = Vout/ Vin = (1+ Rf/Rin)

Looking to get your hands dirty? Check out some sample questions

This article was first written on 7 November 2017 and was updated on 4 April
2019.

Top 30 Android Project Ideas

April 4, 2019

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There is a lot of confusion among students when it comes to projects.
Nowadays almost everybody is aware of Android and its features. Android
projects are a preferable option because of its fast-growing trend. Even
though there are a lot of Android projects over the internet, it is either too
complex or out of trend. So we have listed out the top 20 Android projects
which are simple to build and as well as in trend.

Android Smartphone-Based Function Generator

This Android-based function generator output is in the range of audio
frequency signals (20Hz-20,000Hz), available at the audio output port of
cellphones. Most cellphones have 3.5mm audio jack output ports. You can
use an audio cable with the audio jack between the cellphone and external
devices or any other applications.

More information about this project is available at: Android Smartphone-

Based Function Generator

Home Automation Using Arduino Through Android

Device
This project is based on the Android app and Arduino Uno using Bluetooth as
the wireless communication medium. It is a simple and flexible home
automation system with only a few electronic components, without complex
soldering. This project is designed to control three appliances, but it can be
extended to six or more.

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More information about this project is available at: Home Automation Using
Arduino Through Android Device
Software-Defined Radio with Android Smartphones
This project talks about how RTL-SDR dongles can easily perform the
function of an SDR receiver using an Android smartphone with on-the-go
(OTG) support.

More information about this project is available at: Software-Defined Radio

with Android Smartphones

Program Arduino With Your Android Device

This article explains how you can program an Arduino board using
ArduinoDroid app on your Android device like a smartphone or tablet.

More information about this project is available at: Program Arduino With
Your Android Device

IoT Based Notification System Using Android App

Presented here is a smart notification system for a door sensor, motion
detector, fire alarm and doorbell using Raspberry Pi (RPi) and Pushover app.
The project triggers an event through various sensors and sends
notifications to your smartphone.

More information about this project is available at: IoT Based Notification
System Using Android App

Surveillance Camera Using RaspiCam And Android App

This project describes how to build a surveillance camera based
on Raspberry Pi (Raspi) that records HD video only when something moves
in the monitored area. Live feed can be viewed from any Web browser,
including one on a mobile phone.

More information about this project is available at: Surveillance Camera

Using RaspiCam And Android App

Android Projects: Home automation system

The first android project is this home automation circuit built around an
Arduino board, Bluetooth module and a 3-channel relay board. The number
of channels depends on the number of appliances you wish to control. The
software program for home automation using Android app is written in
Arduino programming language called Processing. Arduino is programmed
using Arduino IDE software. The app on your Smartphone sends data when
you click on buttons or feed voice commands via Bluetooth in the mobile to
Bluetooth module connected with the Arduino board. Receive data pin of the
Bluetooth module is connected to Arduino. Arduino processes the received
data and controls the relay board accordingly.

More information about this project is available at: Home automation system
using Android

Android controlled robot

This is a robot that can be controlled using an app running on an Android
phone. The software for the robot is written in Arduino programming
language. The Arduino UNO is programmed using Arduino IDE. The control
commands for the robot are sent from the phone using the app. The related
data corresponding to control commands is sent through Bluetooth. Data
transmitted by the phone is received by Bluetooth module in the robot. The
received data is fed to the microcontroller which processes the data and
drives motors accordingly.

More details are available at: Android phone controlled Robot

Arduino-Controlled 12V Battery Charger

The circuit presented here can automatically charge a 12V, 7Ah battery, or
above. Special features of the charger are as follows. It automatically
controls the charging current as per the status of the battery. Battery
voltage level, as well as charging status, are indicated on the LCD display.

More details are available at: Arduino-Controlled 12V Battery Charger

Interfacing Multiple LCDs With Arduino

The circuit here describes interfacing of three 16×2 LCDs with common data
lines to an Arduino Uno board. Four data lines of all the three LCDs are
connected to digital pins of the Arduino Uno board but data displayed on
each LCD is different.

More details are available at: Interfacing Multiple LCDs With Arduino

Arduino-based Front Office Visitor Alarm

This Arduino based visitor alarm is useful for offices, clinics and shops. It
alerts you to the entry of a visitor by producing a beep sound every time the
door is opened. The alarm automatically switches off after a few seconds.

More details are available at: Arduino-based Front Office Visitor Alarm
Interfacing a Laser LED with Arduino
This project turns on and turns off a laser LED after every second. It can
also monitor its own supply voltage level. The circuit can be extended for
use as an audio-visual alarm system for security applications.

More details are available at: Interfacing a Laser LED with Arduino

GPS Clock using Arduino

Here we describe a GPS clock based on Arduino Uno R3—an AVR
ATmega328-based microcontroller board with six analogue inputs pins and
14 digital input/output (I/O) pins. The microcontroller has 32kB ISP flash
memory, 2kB RAM and 1kB EEPROM. The board provides serial
communication via UART, SPI and I2C.

More details are available at: GPS Clock using Arduino

DC motor control by Android

DC motor controller by Android is developed to control the speed of the DC
motor in both clockwise and anticlockwise direction. For this, DC motor is
interfaced to the 8051 microcontroller. A Bluetooth modem is used to
receive direction commands and PWM commands. When an Android device
sends commands, it is received by the Bluetooth modem which then sends
the commands to the microcontroller. The microcontroller controls the DC
motor through motor driver. LCD display is used to show the status and the
speed of the DC motor. The android application is used to control the entire
system. The start button is first clicked to start the motor and then the
motor can run in both clockwise and anticlockwise direction.
More details are available at: DC motor control by android

Railway level gate control

The system allows user to easily open and close the railway gate through the
use of a simple android based application. It operates by providing the
opening and closing functionality of a railway gate by sending commands
through an android application. The remote controlling application is
provided through an android application. A Bluetooth device attached to the
railway gate is used to receive commands. These commands are then
passed on to an 8051 microcontroller which then performs the required
action. On receiving opening command, it drives the motors to open the gate
and closes the gate on receiving the close commands. It does this by driving
the motor through a driver IC to achieve this functionality.

More details are available at: Android controlled Railway Level Gate Control

Voice controlled robotic vehicle

The integration of control unit with Bluetooth device is done to capture and
read the voice commands. The robotic vehicle then operates as per the
command received via android application. The android controlling system
provides a good interactive GUI that makes it easy for the user to control
the vehicle. The transmitter uses an android application required for
transmitting the data. The receiver end reads these commands and
interprets them into controlling the robotic vehicle. The android device sends
commands to move the vehicle in forward, backward, right and left
directions. After receiving the commands, the microcontroller operates the
motors in order to move the vehicle in four directions.
More details about this project is available at: Voice controlled Robotic
Vehicle

Wireless robotic arm

The commands are sent to the receiver to control the movement of the robot
either to move forward, backward and left or right using android application
device. Four motors are interfaced to the microcontroller where two motors
are used for arm and gripper movement of the robot while the other two
motors are used for the body movement. The android application device
transmitter acts as a remote control that has the advantage of adequate
range, while the receiver end Bluetooth device is fed to the microcontroller
to drive DC motors via motor driver IC for necessary work. Remote
operation is achieved by any smartphone/tablet etc. This system can be
enhanced by interfacing it with a wireless camera so that the person
controlling it can view operation of the arm and gripper remotely.

More information is available at: Robotic Arm wirelessly controlled by

android

Military spying and bomb disposal robot

This system makes use of robotic arm as well as robotic vehicle which helps
not only to enter an area involving high risk but also to pick whatever object
it wants to. The system also includes night vision camera which will not only
allow viewing whatever will be recorded in day time but also during night.
It sends commands to the receiving circuit mounted on the vehicle through
android device application. The receiving circuit involves 8051
microcontroller and a Bluetooth device which receives commands sent by the
Android app. This application involves both robotic arm and robotic vehicle
so that the system can not only be used to enter a high risk area but also to
pick, move and place whichever objects it wants to. Each and every
movement of the vehicle will be recorded and can be viewed in a PC
wirelessly.

More about this is available at: Android Military Spying and Bomb disposal
Robot

Remote password security

The system is configured to allow authorized person with a password. A
password changing provision is also provided along with it. The password
entering feature is providing through remote access. Remote access is
provided with the use of an android application that can run on any android
device. The app provides an interactive GUI for this system. The system is
operated using a microcontroller. An EEPROM is used to store the user
password. The password entered through the android device is received
through Bluetooth receiver and then passed on to microcontroller which then
processes it and then checks its validity by comparing against user stored
password. Our system uses a door that would be unlocked on entering the
right password.

More details about this are available at: Android controlled Remote Password
Security

Circuit breaker
The main component in the circuit is a microcontroller. A 4×3 keypad is used
to enter the password. The password which is entered is compared with the
predefined password. If entered password is correct then the corresponding
electrical line is turned ON or OFF. In this project a separate password is
provided to each electrical line. Activation and deactivation of the line (circuit
breaker) is indicated by the load. Lamps are connected through the relays. A
16*2 LCD is used to display the information.

More details about this is available at: Android circuit breaker

Induction motor with 7 segment display

Android mobile or any device acts as a transmitter through Bluetooth, which
is then received by Bluetooth receiver interfaced to a microcontroller. Each
time, data sent by android application is executed by the microcontroller to
deliver delayed firing pulses to the thyristor through optical isolation. The
power to the load connected in series with the thyristor is controlled, based
on the received signal. Also, the firing angle is displayed on a 7-segment
display. A lamp load shall be provided in place of a motor whose varying
intensity demonstrates the varying power to the motor for speed control.

More details are available at: Android controlled induction motor with 7
segment display

For more Android projects turn over to the next page.

Android Projects: Firefighter robot

The commands sent from the android device can control the movement of
the vehicle to move in all directions. The receiver consists of a Bluetooth
receiver, Bluetooth decoder, microcontroller, 2 motor drivers and a relay.
The Bluetooth receiver receives the signal transmitted by the phone and
decodes the received signal. The decoded signal is further processed by the
microcontroller. The microcontroller then drives the motor drivers to move
the robot left, right, forward and backward. The water sprinkle nozzle
movement of the robot can also be controlled by the user. The water pump
is connected to the relay which is controlled by microcontroller to turn
ON/OFF the water pump to extinguish the fire.

More details are available at: Android controlled fire fighter robot

Remote AC power control

This project is used to control AC power to a load by using firing angle
control of thyristor. Remote operation is achieved by any smart interface
based touch screen operation. Comparator whose output is then fed to the
microcontroller. The triggering control to a pair of SCRs through isolator
interface. Finally, power is applied to the load through SCRs in series.
Microcontroller is interfaced with a Bluetooth device. It receives signal from
android application. A lamp is used in place of an induction motor whose
varying intensity demonstrates the varying power to the motor.

More details are available at: Android controlled Remote AC Power Control

Antenna positioning system

The system uses 8051 family microcontroller and LCD. This LCD is used to
display the status of the angle of the antenna. The system makes use of
stepper motor to demonstrate as the antenna motor is used to move the
antenna in proper direction. Antenna is moved by the user commands
received through the android application. These user commands are then
received by the Bluetooth receiver modem. As the system receives user
commands, it moves the antenna on the basis of input parameters provided.
The input parameters include number of steps i.e. the angle in which the
antenna is to be moved. Second parameter specifies whether to move the
antenna in clockwise or anticlockwise direction. The third input parameter
specifies the speed in which the antenna should move. The speed parameter
includes L for low, M for medium and H for high speed.

More details about this are available at: Android Antenna positioning system

Hovercraft controlled by android

Here, we have an advanced hovercraft that uses high rpm motors interfaced
with an AVR family microcontroller to achieve desired functionality is used.
The motor below hovercraft rotates at a very high RPM that allows it to
generate a force enough to make it hover on the surface thus reducing the
friction below it to minimum. There is a motor propeller mounted behind it to
push the hovercraft in forward direction. A servo motor is attached to the
hovercraft rudder that helps the hovercraft to move in desired directions by
bending the air at accurate angles. The android application sends movement
commands to the hovercraft circuit. The circuit consists of a Bluetooth
receiver to receive and process these commands. The commands received
by receiver are now processed by the microcontroller and it then operates all
three motors accordingly as desired by the user.

More details are available at: Hovercraft Controlled by Android

Voice controlled robotic vehicle

The project is designed to control a robotic vehicle by voice commands for
remote operation. An 8051 series of microcontroller is used together with
a Bluetooth device interfaced to the control unit for sensing the signals
transmitted by any Android application running cell phone. The transmitting
end uses an Android application through which the voice commands are
transmitted to digital bits. At the receiver end, these commands are used for
controlling the robot to make it move forward, backward, left or right. At the
receiving end, two motors are interfaced to the microcontroller where they
are used for the movement of the vehicle. Serial communication data sent
from the Android application is received by the Bluetooth receiver interfaced
to the microcontroller.

More details are available at: Voice controlled Robotic Vehicle

Voice-based notice board

Main concept behind voice operated electronic notice board using rolling
display is to show scrolling messages and to control them by using our own
voice. User has to give voice command in his/her own voice to control the
scrolling messages displayed on electronic notice board. Voice recognition is
done in the Android application. User has to install this Android application in
his/her smartphone or tablet. Then user has to give voice commands to this
android app. Android app then passes these commands to the
microcontroller using wireless communication. Wireless communication
technique used in this project is Bluetooth technology. Messages to be
displayed are stored in electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM). It holds data even after the circuit is reset.
Microcontroller receives these commands with the help of Bluetooth receiver
and decoder. Then it passes these commands to the rolling display which is
made up of matrix LEDs.

More details about this are available at: Voice based notice board using
Android
Android password based remote door opener system
The system tends to make a secure door opening mechanism such that the
door only unlocks when a security personnel opens it by entering the right
password through an android application. The command sending
functionality is achieved through an android application. The application
provides an interactive user friendly GUI for this purpose. The android
application can be operated from any device running on android OS and uses
Bluetooth as a medium for sending commands. As soon as commands are
sent through the android device, a Bluetooth receiver is used to receive
those commands. The microcontroller processes these commands and then
tallies the password to check its correctness. If the right password is
encountered it sends command to open the door.

More details are available at: Android password based Remote door opener
system.

Ultrasonic distance meter with buzzer indication

Android based ultrasonic distance meter is used to measure the distance of a
object. This distance is shown on LCD as well as on Android mobile
application. A buzzer is turned on when the distance of object is less than 10
centimeters. The system uses a Bluetooth transmitter, a LCD display and
microprocessor which does the operations according to the received
command. This project can be used in industries, companies and the like.
This project also has application in robotics.

More about this is available at: Android based Ultrasonic distance meter with
Buzzer Indication
Metal detector robotic vehicle
This project develops a robotic vehicle with a metal detector system
embedded on it which can sense the presence of metals ahead of it. The
control signals are transmitted to a Bluetooth device interfaced to the
microcontroller and as per the program, the microcontroller gives logic
signals to the motor driver to rotate the motors in the desired direction or
stop the motor. A metal detector consisting of a coil in resonance is
embedded on the circuit and when a metal comes near it, because of
faraday’s law of induction, the resonance is disturbed that gives the
indication of the metal being detected and accordingly this indication is
shown by a LED glowing with an audible buzzer sound.

More details about this is available at: Metal Detector Robotic Vehicle
Operated by Android Application

We hope these Android projects helped you. You can pitch in more of your
Android projects in the comments section below.

This article was first published on 20 December 2016 and was recently
updated with new projects on 4 April 2019.

Basics and Overview of Flip Flops

April 3, 2019

395999
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A flip flop is an electronic circuit with two stable states that can be used to
store binary data. The stored data can be changed by applying varying
inputs. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital
electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other
types of systems. Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements.
It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. But first, let’s clarify the
difference between a latch and a flip-flop.

Flip flop v/s Latch

The basic difference between a latch and a flip-flop is a gating or clocking
mechanism.

Read the full comparison of Flip Flop v/s latch here

For example, let us talk about SR latch and SR flip-flops. In this circuit when
you Set S as active the output Q would be high and Q’ will be low. This is
irrespective of anything else. (This is an active-low circuit so active here
means low, but for an active high circuit active would mean high)

SR Latch
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A flip flop, on the other hand, is synchronous and is also known as gated or
clocked SR latch.

SR Flip-Flop

In this circuit diagram, the output is changed (i.e. the stored data is
changed) only when you give an active clock signal. Otherwise, even if the S
or R is active the data will not change. Let’s look at the types of flip-flops to
understand better.

SR Flip Flop
There are majorly 4 types of flip flops, with the most common one being SR
flip flop. This simple flip flop circuit has a set input (S) and a reset input (R).
In this circuit when you Set “S” as active the output “Q” would be high and
“Q‘‘” will be low. Once the outputs are established, the wiring of the circuit is
maintained until “S” or “R” go high, or power is turned off. As shown above,
it is the simplest and the easiest to understand. The two outputs, as shown
above, are the inverse of each other. The truth table of SR Flip Flop is
highlighted below.

S R Q Q’
0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 ∞ ∞

JK Flip-flop
Due to the undefined state in the SR flip flop, another flip flop is required in
electronics. The JK flip flop is an improvement on the SR flip flop where
S=R=1 is not a problem.

JK Flip-Flop

The input condition of J=K=1, gives an output inverting the output state.
However, the outputs are the same when one tests the circuit practically.

In simple words, If J and K data input are different (i.e. high and low) then
the output Q takes the value of J at the next clock edge. If J and K are both
low then no change occurs. If J and K are both high at the clock edge then
the output will toggle from one state to the other. JK Flip Flop can function
as Set or Reset Flip flop

J K Q Q’

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1

1 1 0 1

0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0

D Flip Flop
D flip flop is a better alternative that is very popular with digital electronics.
They are commonly used for counters and shift-registers and input
synchronisation.

D Flip-Flop
In a D flip flop, the output can be only changed at the clock edge, and if the
input changes at other times, the output will be unaffected.

Clock D Q Q’

↓»0 0 0 1

↑»1 0 0 1

↓»0 1 0 1

↑»1 1 1 0

The change of state of the output is dependent on the rising edge of the
clock. The output (Q) is same as the input and can only change at the rising
edge of the clock.

T Flip Flop
A T flip flop is like JK flip-flop. These are basically a single input version of JK
flip flop. This modified form of JK flip-flop is obtained by connecting both
inputs J and K together. This flip-flop has only one input along with the clock
input.
 T Flip-Flop

These flip-flops are called T flip-flops because of their ability to complement

its state (i.e.) Toggle, hence the name Toggle flip-flop.

T Q Q (t+1)

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 0

Applications of Flip-Flops
These are the various types of flip-flops being used in digital electronic
circuits and the applications of Flip-flops are as specified below.

 Counters
 Frequency Dividers
 Shift Registers
 Storage Registers
This article was first published on 17 August 2017 and was updated on 3
April 2019

Half & Full Wave Rectifier | Rectifier

Basics
March 27, 2019

72983

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Power conversion is very common with today’s electronics. We constantly

switch from AC to DC and vice-versa. The common source of AC is the power
supply whereas, batteries are used for DC power as and when required. The
conversion from AC to DC is, however, an easier way instead of buying a
new battery every time you need DC. A rectifier is an electrical device that
converts AC to DC, and is often used in many devices used around us.
However, a single stage rectifier does not produce a smooth DC that is
usable. Multistage rectification and additional circuitry is required for
smoother or usable DC. Let’s look at how that happens.

Rectification Basics
The simplest rectifier is a diode connected to AC power supply. This is also
known as a half wave rectifier. A simple half wave rectifier is a single p-n
junction diode connected in series to the load resistor. The operation of a
half wave rectifier is easy to understand a p-n junction diode conducts
current only when it is forward biased.

Half Wave Rectifier

1 of 2

Half wave rectifier circuit

Half wave rectifier output

This principle is used in a half wave rectifier to convert AC to DC. The input
provided here is an alternating current. This input voltage is stepped down
using a transformer. A p-n junction diode conducts current only when it is
forward biased. The same principle is made use of in a half wave rectifier to
convert AC to DC. The input here is an alternating current. This input voltage
is stepped down using a transformer. Since the diode is forward biased for
half cycle of the AC, the output is available only during that half cycle.

Full wave rectifier

Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output
voltage or current which is purely DC or has some specified DC component.
Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental advantages over their half wave
rectifier counterparts. The average output voltage is higher than for half
wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has lesser ripple than that of the
half wave rectifier producing a relatively smoother output waveform.

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There are two major types of full wave rectifier designs used frequently. The
smaller design uses two diodes instead of the single diode used in half wave
diode, i.e. one for each half of the cycle. A multiple winding transformer is
used where secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a centre
tapped connection. The connection for a centre tapped full wave rectifier are
shown below.

Full wave rectifier

1 of 3
Center tap full wave rectifier circuit

Bridge full wave rectifier circuit

full wave rectifier waveform

Another configuration requires four diodes connected in an H-bridge

configuration. The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series
pairs” with only two diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During
the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the
load. During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct
in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse
biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.
Filtering the rectified voltage
The output across the diodes in the above steps is neither complete nor is it
completely DC. The output is not steady DC and is not practical to use with
circuits. A filter circuit also known as a smoothing capacitor is added to the
rectifier circuit to improve the output. Smoothing capacitors are connected in
parallel with the load across the output of the full wave bridge rectifier. This
filter circuit increases the average DC output level as the capacitor acts like
a storage device. The smoothing capacitor converts the rippled output of the
rectifier into a smoother DC output.

Capacitor
output

However, there is still a minor ripple in the output can be smoothened out by
the varying the capacitor values. The ripple voltage is inversely proportional
to the value of the smoothing capacitor. These two are related by the
following formula:

Vripple = Iload/(fxC)

An alternative is to use a voltage regulator IC for a constant DC supply.

This article was first published on 8 August 2017 and was recently on 27 March
2019.

Capacitive Reactance
March 27, 2019

90756

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A capacitor by structure consists of two conductors separated by an insulator

that is often referred to as a dielectric. It is often used to filter out DC
component in electronics circuits as it only allows DC component to pass
through. Meaning, for very low frequencies (high DC component low AC
component), the capacitor acts as an open circuit. Inversely for high
frequencies (high AC component, low DC component), it acts a closed
circuit. This phenomenon is better by capacitive reactance.

Calculating capacitive reactance

The lower the frequency of the applied voltage, the more time capacitor
takes to be charged fully, before the voltage reverses its polarity and begins
to discharge the capacitor again. The capacitor therefore spends more time
fully charged and passing much less current, resulting in less current flow at
low frequencies. When a higher frequency is applied, the capacitor changes
from charging to discharging faster allowing more current to flow. The
opposition to current flow in any capacitor is inversely proportional to the
frequency and is represented by the formula:

Capacitive reactance graph

Graphical representation of
Capacitive reactance w.r.t. Frequency

Capacitive reactance (symbol XC) is a measure of a capacitor’s opposition to

AC (alternating current). Like resistance it is measured in ohms, but
reactance is more complex than resistance because its value depends on the
frequency (f) of the signal passing through the capacitor. Reactanceis also
inversely proportional to the value of capacitance (C), i.e. the value of XC at
any frequency will be less in larger capacitors than in smaller ones. All
capacitors have infinitely high values of reactance at 0Hz, but in large
capacitors, the reactance falls to a low level at much lower frequencies than
in smaller capacitors. Hence, larger capacitors are preferred in low frequency
applications.

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Feel interested? Check out other electroncis basic articles in the learning
corner.

This article was first published on 4 November 2017 and was updated on 27
March 2019.

IR LED | Infrared LED | Infrared

Sensor
March 12, 2019

129927

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An Infrared light emitting diode (IR LED) is a special purpose LED

emitting infrared rays ranging from 700 nm to 1 mm wavelength. Different
IR LEDs may produce infrared light of differing wavelengths, just like
different LEDs produce light of different colors.
IR LEDs are usually made of gallium arsenide or aluminium gallium arsenide.
In complement with IR receivers, these are commonly used as sensors.

The appearance of IR LED is same as a common LED. Since the human eye
cannot see the infrared radiations, it is not possible for a person to identify if
an IR LED is working. A camera on a cell phone camera solves this problem.
The IR rays from the IR LED in the circuit are shown in the camera.

Pin Diagram of IR LED

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An IR LED is a type of diode or simple semiconductor. Electric current is

allowed to flow in only one direction in diodes. As the current flows,
electrons fall from one part of the diode into holes on another part. In order
to fall into these holes, the electrons must shed energy in the form of
photons, which produce light.

It is necessary to modulate the emission from IR diode to use it in electronic

application to prevent spurious triggering. Modulation makes the signal from
IR LED stand out above the noise. Infrared diodes have a package that is
opaque to visible light but transparent to infrared. The massive use of IR
LEDs in remote controls and safety alarm systems has drastically reduced
the pricing of IR diodes in the market.

IR sensor
An IR sensor is a device that detects IR radiation falling on it. Proximity
sensors (used in touchscreen phones and edge avoiding robots), contrast
sensors (used in line following robots) and obstruction counters/sensors
(used for counting goods and in burglar alarms) are some applications
involving IR sensors.

Principle of Working
An IR sensor consists of two parts, the emitter circuit and the receiver
circuit. This is collectively known as a photo-coupler or an optocoupler.

The emitter is an IR LED and the detector is an IR photodiode. The IR

phototdiode is sensitive to the IR light emitted by an IR LED. The photo-
diode’s resistance and output voltage change in proportion to the IR light
received. This is the underlying working principle of the IR sensor.

The type of incidence can be direct incidence or indirect incidence. In direct

incidence, the IR LED is placed in front of a photodiode with no obstacle in
between. In indirect incidence, both the diodes are placed side by side
with an opaque object in front of the sensor. The light from the IR LED hits
the opaque surface and reflects back to the photodiode.
Step by step details to build an IR sensor are available at: DIY- IR Sensor

IR sensors find a wide variety of applications in various fields. Let’s take a

look at few of them.

Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors employ reflective indirect incidence principle. The
photodiode receives the radiation emitted by the IR LED once reflected back
by the object. Closer the object, higher will be the intensity of the incident
radiation on the photodiode. This intensity is converted to voltage to
determine the distance. Proximity sensors find use in touchscreen phones,
among other devices. The display is disabled during calls, so that even if the
cheek makes contact with the touchscreen, there is no effect.
Line Follower Robots
In line following robots, IR sensors detect the color of the surface
underneath it and send a signal to the microcontroller or the main circuit
which then takes decisions according to the algorithm set by the creator of
the bot. Line followers employ reflective or non-reflective indirect incidence.
The IR is reflected back to the module from the white surface around the
black line. But IR radiation is absorbed completely by black color. There is no
reflection of the IR radiation going back to the sensor module in black color.

The projects is available at: line follower robot

Item Counter
Item counter is implemented on the basis of direct incidence of radiation on
the photodiode. Whenever an item obstructs the invisible line of IR radiation,
the value of a stored variable in a computer/microcontroller is incremented.
This is indicated by LEDs, seven segment displays and LCDs. Monitoring
systems of large factories use these counters for counting products on
conveyor belts.

The projects is available at: Infrared Object Counter

Burglar Alarm
Direct incidence of radiation on the photodiode is applicable in burglar alarm
circuit. The IR LED is fit on one side of the door frame and the photodiode on
the other. The IR radiation emitted by the IR LED falls on the photodiode
directly under normal circumstances. As soon as a person obstructs the IR
path, the alarm goes off. This mechanism is used extensively in security
systems and is replicated on a smaller scale for smaller objects, such as
exhibits in an exhibition.

The projects is available at: Infrared Burglar Alarm

IR Music Transmitter and Receiver

Using IR transmitter/receiver & music generator, audio musical notes can be
generated and heard up to a distance of 10 metres. The IR music
transmitter works off a 9V battery, while the IR music receiver works off
regulated 9V to 12V.

The projects is available at: IR Music Transmitter and Receiver

Playing With IR Sensors

There are various applications of IR sensors such as TV remote controllers,
burglar alarms and object counters. Here we have used IR sensors (infrared
LEDs) to make an object-detection circuit and also a proximity sensor for
path-tracking robots.

The projects is available at: Playing With IR Sensors

This article was first published on 30 October 2017 and was updated on 12
March 2019
What Are The Components Used In
Drone Design?
March 5, 2019

3770

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An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or drone is an aircraft without a human

pilot aboard. Components required for its design depending on type. There
are different types of drones depending on technology and application.
Applications include civil, commercial and military. While Chinese DJI is a
leading manufacturer of commercial and civilian drones, many other
people/companies around the world are also developing drones. Hence,
there is no comprehensive list of drone systems.

Most common drones have two units: transmitter and receiver. The receiver
unit consists of the drone, and the transmitter unit is normally a ground-
based controller system using which the user can send commands
(operations to be performed) to the drone.

The transmitter is first calibrated and tested using commands, which the
drone has to perform. There may be drones that do not require the
traditional remote transmitter unit. Flight of the drone may operate with
various degrees of autonomy, either under remote control of a human
operator or autonomously by onboard computer.

Given below is a list of common components used in drone design:

Body and chassis

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There are mainly three types of drones: tail-less multi-copter, tailed mono-
and bi-copters, and fixed wings. Quadcopters are the most popular multi-
copter drones. Drone body shells for these are available in various online
stores.

Power supplies

There are different power sources for a drone, including battery, solar, hydro
fuel cell, combustion engine, cable-tethered power supply and laser beam
power. The most common source of power is a lithium-polymer battery.

Actuators and motors

These include digital electronic speed controllers linked to engines,

propellers, servomotors and others.

Sensors

Various sensors are used in a drone as per requirement and application.

Position and movement sensors give information about the state of the
aircraft. Common sensors are laser, radar, camera, gyroscope,
accelerometer, compass, barometer and GPS receiver.

Computing

Drones use advanced computing technology, from analogue controls to

microcontrollers, systems-on-chip and single-board computers.
Software

Flight stack or autopilot software are used in drone applications. Open

source software like ArduPilot, OpenPilot, Paparazz and others are easily
available.

Also, there are many smartphone apps available for drones.

Remote control

Most drones use radio frequency to communicate between the remote and
the drone, which may be capable of autonomous or semi-autonomous
operations. Remote control signals from the operator side can be issued
from one of the following:

 Ground control, which is a human operating a radio transmitter, smartphone,

computer or other similar control system.
 Remote network system, like satellite duplex data links, cellular mesh and LTE
network.
 Another aircraft serving as a relay or mobile control station.

There are many websites for hobbyists to start with drone design using
Raspberry Pi and Arduino. For Raspberry Pi, you may refer to this website.

For Arduino, you may check out this website.

15 Free eBooks On Electronics!

Get inside the big vast world of circuits, semi-conductors and controllers with these
free ebooks on electronics. -- Atithya Amaresh
January 31, 2019
128012

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Hardware engineers out there can not ignore the importance of learning
electronics as a subject. From designing and programming chips and circuits
to assembling, knowledge on electronics is a indispensable requisite! So here
we bring to you a sorted collection of free electronics ebooks on semi-
conductors, circuits, controllers and various other aspects of electronics.
Enjoy!

1. Engineer’s Mini-Notebook: Formulas, Tables and

Basic Circuits
Author/s: Forrest M. Mims III
Publisher: Radio Shack, 1993

This book includes standard application circuits and circuits designed by the
author. Each circuit was assembled and tested as the book was developed.
After the book was completed, the author reassembled each circuit to check
for errors.

2. Practical Electronics
Author/s: Wikibooks, 2012

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The aim of this book is to teach you simple analogue and digital electronics
at a practical level. By the end of this book, you should be able to combine
circuit elements to create more complex circuits, and have an understanding
of how it works.

3. Analog Circuits
Author/s: Yuping Wu (ed.)
Publisher: InTech, 2013

In this book, a new architecture for a SAR ADC is proposed to eliminate the
process mismatches and minimize the errors. The automated system for a
passive filter circuits design is presented with the local searching engaging…

4. Photodiodes: From Fundamentals to Applications

Author/s: Ilgu Yun
Publisher: InTech, 2012

This book represents recent progress and development of the photodiodes

including the fundamental reviews and the specific applications developed by
the authors themselves. The book is intended for graduate students,
engineers, and researchers.

5. Electronics
Author/s: Wikibooks
Publisher: Wikibooks, 2012

The aim of this textbook is to explain the design and function of electronic
circuits and components. The text covers electronic circuit components, DC
analysis, and AC analysis. It should be useful to hobbyists as well as
engineering students.

6. Digital Circuits
Author/s: Wikibooks
Publisher: Wikibooks, 2012

This book will serve as an introduction to Digital Circuits. It will rely heavily
on the concepts of Discrete Math, but will not require any previous
knowledge of the subject because all necessary math concepts will be
developed in the text.

7. Introduction to Physical Electronics

Author/s: Bill Wilson
Publisher: Connexions, 2010

An introduction to solid state device, transmission lines and propagating

electromagnetic waves. Contents: Conductors, Semiconductors and Diodes;
Bipolar Transistors; FETs; IC Manufacturing; Transmission Lines; AC Steady-
State Transmission.

8. Advances in Solid State Circuit Technologies

Author/s: Paul K Chu
Publisher: InTech, 2010

This book describes the current status of important topics in solid-state

circuit technologies. The chapters are grouped under the following
categories: general information, circuits and devices, materials, and
characterization techniques.

9. Introduction to Electronic Engineering

Author/s: Valery Vodovozov
Publisher: BookBoon, 2010

This work introduces a reader to the basics of electronic engineering. Here,

students may get their first knowledge of electronic concepts and basic
components. Emphasis is on the devices used in day-to-day consumer
electronic products.

10. Circuit Analysis

Author/s: John E. Whitehouse
Publisher: Horwood Publishing Limited, 1997

Contents: Network Equations; Network Theorems; Networks with Inductors

and Capacitors; Network Analysis using Phasors; The Laplace Transform in
Network Analysis; The Fourier Series and Fourier Transform; The Frequency
Response of Networks; etc.

11. Concepts in Electric Circuits

Author/s: Wasif Naeem
Publisher: BookBoon, 2009

This book covers fundamental aspects of electric circuits that form the core
of many engineering disciplines. Techniques to analyze and solve electric
circuits are explained in a simple manner and examples are shown to
demonstrate each strategy.

12. Principles of Semiconductor Devices

Author/s: Bart Van Zeghbroeck, 2007

This book explores the behavior of semiconductor devices, to show the

relation between the device material parameters, and the resulting electrical
characteristics. The text provides the link between the physics and the
design of electronic circuits.

13. Socratic Electronics

Author/s: Tony R. Kuphaldt, 2008

Questions and answers about electronics covering several topics: basic

electricity, simple circuits, Ohm’s Law, op-amps. A tested way of centering
instruction around students is to teach by asking questions, generally called
the ‘Socratic method’.

14. Lessons In Electric Circuits

Author/s: Tony R. Kuphaldt
Publisher: openbookproject.net, 2008

The goal was to put readable, high-quality information of industrial

electronics into the hands of students. The book was written without delving
too heavy on the math, while still maintaining a lot of important information.
15. OrCAD PSpice A/D Reference Manual
Author/s: OrCAD, 1998

This manual is the reference needed when working with special circuit
analyses in PSpice A/D. It covers detailed command descriptions, definitions
of start-up option, and a list of supported devices in the digital and analog
device libraries.

Let us know if these free electronics ebooks helped you out in the comments
below. If you are looking for something else, check out some cool stuff.

This article was first published on 23 September 2017 and was recently updated
on 31 January 2019.

All You Wanted to Know About

GSM Module and GPRS Module
January 30, 2019

116037

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Before we get into what a GSM module is, let us get our fundamentals right
and understand what GSM and GPRS are. A GSM module or a GPRS module
is a chip or circuit that will be used to establish communication between a
mobile device or a computing machine and a GSM or GPRS system.

Contents

 What is GSM/GPRS?
 What is GSM Module?
 Modems, Modules and Mobile
 Applications of GSM module
 Points to Consider
 Interface example

What is GSM?
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spécial
Mobile), is a standard developed by the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI).

It was created to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G) digital

cellular networks used by mobile phones and is now the default global
standard for mobile communications – with over 90% market share,
operating in over 219 countries and territories.

What is GPRS?
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data
service on the 2G and 3G cellular communication system’s global system for
mobile communications (GSM). GPRS was originally standardised by
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in response to the
earlier CDPD and i-mode packet-switched cellular technologies. It is now
maintained by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
What is this GSM Module you speak of?

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A GSM module or a GPRS module is a chip or circuit that will be used to

establish communication between a mobile device or a computing
machine and a GSM or GPRS system. The modem (modulator-demodulator)
is a critical part here.

These modules consist of a GSM module or GPRS modem powered by

a power supply circuit and communication interfaces (like RS-232, USB
2.0, and others) for computer. A GSM modem can be a dedicated modem
device with a serial, USB or Bluetoothconnection, or it can be a mobile
phone that provides GSM modem capabilities.

The difference between modems, modules and mobiles

A GSM module or GPRS modules are similar to modems, but there’s one
difference: A GSM/GPRS Modem is an external equipment, whereas the
GSM/GPRS module is a module that can be integrated within an equipment.
It is an embedded piece of hardware.

A GSM mobile, on the other hand, is a complete system in itself with

embedded processors that are dedicated to provide an interface between the
user and the mobile network.

Understanding Modems
Wireless modems generate, transmit or decode data from a cellular network,
in order to establish communication.
A GSM/GPRS modem is a class of wireless modem, designed for
communication over the GSM and GPRS network. It requires a SIM
(Subscriber Identity Module) card just like mobile phones to activate
communication with the network. Also, they have IMEI (International Mobile
Equipment Identity) number similar to mobile phones for their identification.

1. The MODEM needs AT commands, for interacting with processor or controller,

which are communicated through serial communication.
2. These commands are sent by the controller/processor.
3. The MODEM sends back a result after it receives a command.
4. Different AT commands supported by the MODEM can be sent by the
processor/controller/computer to interact with the GSM and GPRS cellular
network.

It’s functions include:

 Read, write and delete SMS messages.

 Send SMS messages.
 Monitor the signal strength.
 Monitor the charging status and charge level of the battery.
 Read, write and search phone book entries.

What is a mobile station?

A mobile phone and Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) together form a
mobile station. It is the user equipment that communicates with the mobile
network. A mobile phone comprises of Mobile Termination, Terminal
Equipment and Terminal Adapter.

Mobile Termination is interfaced with the GSM mobile network and is

controlled by a baseband processor. It handles access to SIM, speech
encoding and decoding, signalling and other network related tasks. The
Terminal Equipment is an application processor that deals with handling
operations related to keypad, screen, phone memory and other hardware
and software services embedded into the handset. The Terminal Adapter
establishes communication between the Terminal Equipment and the Mobile
Termination using AT commands. The communication with the network in a
GSM/GPRS mobile is carried out by the baseband processor.

Applications of GSM module or GPRS module

They can feature all the functionalities of a mobile phone through computer like
making and receiving calls, SMS, MMS etc. These are mainly employed for
computer based SMS and MMS services.

The GSM/GPRS module demonstrates the use of AT commands. They can

feature all the functionalities of a mobile phone through computer like
making and receiving calls, SMS, MMS etc. These are mainly employed for
computer-based SMS and MMS services.

GSM Example: Arduino Projects: Sending SMS using GSM

Pay attention!
They are known as AT commands because every command line starts with
“AT” or “at”. AT commands are instructions used to control a modem. AT is
the abbreviation of ATtention.

GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones support an AT command set that is

specific to the GSM technology, which includes SMS-related commands like
AT+CMGS (Send SMS message), AT+CMSS (Send SMS message from
storage), AT+CMGL (List SMS messages) and AT+CMGR (Read SMS
messages).

Note that the starting “AT” is the prefix that informs the modem about the
start of a command line. It is not part of the AT command name. For
example, D is the actual AT command name in ATD and +CMGS is the actual
AT command name in AT+CMGS. However, some books and websites use
them interchangeably as the name of an AT command.

Tasks that can be done by AT commands

Here are some of the tasks that can be done using AT commands with a
GSM/GPRS modem or mobile phone:

 Get basic information about the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, name of manufacturer (AT+CGMI), model number (AT+CGMM),
IMEI number (International Mobile Equipment Identity) (AT+CGSN) and
software version (AT+CGMR).
 Get basic information about the subscriber. For example, MSISDN (AT+CNUM)
and IMSI number (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) (AT+CIMI).
 Get the current status of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For
example, mobile phone activity status (AT+CPAS), mobile network
registration status (AT+CREG), radio signal strength (AT+CSQ), battery
charge level and battery charging status (AT+CBC).
 Establish a data connection or voice connection to a remote modem (ATD,
ATA, etc).
 Send and receive fax (ATD, ATA, AT+F*).
 Send (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS), read (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL), write (AT+CMGW)
or delete (AT+CMGD) SMS messages and obtain notifications of newly
received SMS messages (AT+CNMI).
 Read (AT+CPBR), write (AT+CPBW) or search (AT+CPBF) phonebook entries.
 Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks
(AT+CLCK), checking whether a facility is locked (AT+CLCK) and changing
passwords (AT+CPWD).
 (Facility lock examples: SIM lock [a password must be given to the SIM card
every time the mobile phone is switched on] and PH-SIM lock [a certain SIM
card is associated with the mobile phone. To use other SIM cards with the
mobile phone, a password must be entered.])
 Control the presentation of result codes / error messages of AT commands.
For example, you can control whether to enable certain error messages
(AT+CMEE) and whether error messages should be displayed in numeric
format or verbose format (AT+CMEE=1 or AT+CMEE=2).
 Get or change the configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem.
For example, change the GSM network (AT+COPS), bearer service type
(AT+CBST), radio link protocol parameters (AT+CRLP), SMS center address
(AT+CSCA) and storage of SMS messages (AT+CPMS).
 Save and restore configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem.
For example, save (AT+CSAS) and restore (AT+CRES) settings related to SMS
messaging such as the SMS center address.

Note

Mobile phone manufacturers usually do not implement all AT commands,

command parameters and parameter values in their mobile phones. Also,
the behaviour of the implemented AT commands may be different from that
defined in the standard. In general, GSM/GPRS modems designed for
wireless applications have better support of AT commands than ordinary
mobile phones.

In addition, some AT commands require the support of mobile network

operators. For example, SMS over GPRS can be enabled on some GPRS
mobile phones and GPRS modems with the +CGSMS command (command
name in text: Select Service for MO SMS Messages). But if the mobile
network operator does not support the transmission of SMS over GPRS, you
cannot use this feature.
How to interface a mobile phone with the Microsoft
Windows platform
The Windows (XP and lower versions) comes with an application called
HyperTerminal for data communication through serial port of the computer.
The interfacing of the GSMmodule or GPRS module with the serial port of the
computer involves following steps:

1) Connect RS-232 port of GSM module with the serial port of the computer.
Insert a SIM card in the module.
2) Open HyperTerminal from Start -> All Programs -> Accessories ->
Communications -> HyperTerminal.
3) Enter a name for the connection and press OK.
4) Now select the communication port (COM) at which GSM module is
connected.
5) Create a new connection set on HyperTerminal. Set parameters, like baud
rate as 9600, handshaking mode as none, parity bit as none, stop bit as 1
and data bit as 8.

If you liked this article, you might also like our story on the journey from 1G
to 4G.

This article was first published on 28 May 2016 and was recently updated on 30
January 2019.
Filters Using Op-Amps | Band Pass,
Band Stop, High Pass & Low Pass
Filter
December 22, 2018

62604

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A filter is often used in electronic circuits to block (or allow) a select

frequency to the circuit. For example, if the circuit in question works on DC
power, we could use a low pass filter (LPF) and only allow low frequencies to
pass through. The filter is designed around a cut off frequency, and only
allows the low frequencies to pass through. Now, while designing we can set
the cut off frequency as required. The same can be done for high pass, band
pass and band stop filters. Let’s look at each of them in detail.
Low pass filter

Figure:
First-order Active Low Pass Filter Circuit

A LPF is used in circuits that only allow low frequencies to pass through. It is
often used to block high frequencies and AC current in a circuit. Given below
is a sample LPF circuit using op-amp.Ideally, the frequency output of a LPF is
like this,
But this is not the case with real circuits. As there is a slight attenuation.
 This attenuation can be further
minimised by adding multiple stages as below.
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LPF is popular with speakers to block high pitches, some electric guitars and
radio transmitters.

High pass filter

A high pass filter is used in circuits that only require high frequencies to
operate. It blocks most low frequencies & DC component. Given below is a
sample high pass filter circuit using op-amp.

Figure: Circuit for High pass

filter

Ideally, the frequency output of a high pass filter is like this,

Figure: Frequency Output of a High Pass Filter

But this is not the case with practical circuits. As there is a slight
attenuation.
This attenuation can be further minimised by adding multiple stages as with
LPF.

Band pass filter

A band pass filter is a combination of a high pass and a LPF. It allows only a
select range of frequencies to pass through. It is designed such a way that
the cut off frequency of the LPF is higher than the cut off frequency of the
high pass filter, hence allowing only a select range of the frequencies to pass
through. Presented here is a sample band pass filter circuit using op-amp.
 Figure: Circuit
for Band Pass Filter

Ideally, frequency output of a band pass filter is like this,

Figure: Frequency Output of a Band Pass Filter

But this is not the case with practical circuits. As there is a slight
attenuation.
Band pass filter is popularly with speakers to block high pitches, some
electric guitars and radio transmitters.

Band stop filter

A band stop filter also known as notch filter is used in circuits that block only
a select range of frequencies and allows others to pass through. It would be
an inverse of the band pass filter, and can be created by using the same
input at a high pass and a LPF.
 Figure: Circuit
for Band stop Filter

Note: All graphs are plotted in the frequency domain

This article was first published on 17 November 2017 and was recently updated
on 22 December 2018.

Op-amp Basics: What is an

Operational Amplifier?
December 21, 2018

108643
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An Operational Amplifier or op-amp is a voltage amplifying device designed

to be used with external feedback components such as resistors and
capacitors between its output and input terminals. It is a high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and usually a single-ended output.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being
used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices.

Operational Amplifier

However, an op-amp is just one type of differential amplifier. Other includes,

 A fully differential amplifier which is like an op-amp, but with two outputs.
 The instrumentation amplifier which is usually built from three op-amps,
 The isolation amplifier which is like an instrumentation amplifier, but with
tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp
 A negative-feedback amplifier which is usually built from one or more op-
amps and a resistive feedback network.
Op-amp operation
The amplifier’s differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input with
voltage (V+) and an inverting input with voltage (V−). Ideally, an op-amp
amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, also called
differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp Vout is given by
the equation,

Vout = AOL (V+ – V–)

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where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier.

In a linear operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification factor,

known as the amplifiers gain (A) multiplied by the value of the input signal.
Op-amp parameters
 Open-loop gain is the gain without positive or negative feedback. Ideally, the gain should be
infinite, but typical real values range from about 20,000 to 200,000 ohms.
 Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current. It is assumed to be infinite to prevent
any current flowing from the source to amplifiers.
 The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be zero. This impedance is
in series with the load, thereby increasing the output available for the load.
 The bandwidth of an ideal operational amplifier is infinite and can amplify any frequency signal
from DC to the highest AC frequencies. However, typical bandwidth is limited by the Gain-
Bandwidth product. GB product is equal to the frequency where the amplifiers gain becomes unity.
 The ideal output of an amplifier is zero when the voltage difference between the inverting and the
non-inverting inputs is zero. Real world amplifiers do exhibit a small output offset voltage.

An op-amp only responds to the difference between the two voltages

irrespective of the individual values at the inputs. External resistors or
capacitors are often connected to the op-amp in many ways to form basic
circuits including Inverting, Non-Inverting, Voltage Follower, Summing,
Differential, Integrator and Differentiator type amplifiers. Op-amp is easily
available in IC packaging, the most common os whom is the μA-741.

Commonly available op-amp IC

1 of 2
Internal circuit of IC 741

Pin diagram

Op amp(operational amplifier) from Kausik das

You can view the video tutorial on Operational Amplifier is here.

More interesting tutorials available at the learning corner.

This article was first published on 17 July 2017 and was recently updated on 21
December 2018.

IT Researchers Develop Battery-

Less Sensor For Underwater IoT
By

Vinay

August 21, 2019

364

 It works on the principle of piezoelectric effect in which data is generated

due to vibrations.
 Plans are also in place to incorporate it in future space exploration
programs for observing water samples in other planets.
 Image courtesy MIT
Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have
devised a battery-less sensor and communication system
forunderwater Internet of Things. According to MIT, this would prove to be
highly beneficial for monitoring real-time sea temperature and keep track of
marine life. In future, the sensor can even be used to observe water bodies
on distant planets (NASA has announced to send a rover in 2026 to explore
Saturn’s moon, including water reservoirs).

About

The developed system transmits underwater sound waves, which is then

received by a piezoelectric sensor placed underwater. This causes it to
deform and store the incoming energy. To communicate back, the sensor
uses this stored energy to generate a binary code (1 or 0) – corresponding
to a yes or no. The only energy required for this entire process comes from
the sound wave sent by the transmitter.

Fadel Adib, assistant professor in the MIT Media Lab and founding director of
the Signal Kinetics Research Group says, “Once you have a way to transmit
ones and zeros, you can send any information. Basically, we can
communicate with underwater sensors based solely on the incoming sound
signals whose energy we are harvesting.”
The researchers demonstrated their newly developed sensor and
communication system in an MIT pool, using it to collect water temperature
and pressure measurements. During the testing process, data was
transferred between the sensor and the receiver at 3 kB/s at a distance of
10 meters.

Piezoelectric sensors have been used in microphones for more than a

century. These sensors deform or retain their shape in response to the
incoming sound wave. Thus, a voltage is generated which is then converted
back into mechanical signal to obtain the required information.

The MIT work is in collaboration with the U.S Office of Naval Research

18 Free eBooks on Robotics And

Automation
June 23, 2014

71064
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Robotics and Automation are undoubtedly the most happening things in the
industry. Here’s bringing 18 free ebooks!

Atithya Amaresh

Robot Localization and Map Building

Author: Hanafiah Yussof
Published by: InTech, 2010
The book is a great help to those looking for theories and applications
related to localization, positioning and map building in mobile robot and
autonomous vehicle platforms.
Remote and Telerobotics
Author: Nicolas Mollet
Published by: InTech, 2010
Read the book to read the works about controlling distant robotics entities
i.e. telerobotics, it proposes advanced techniques concerning time delay
compensation, error handling, autonomous systems, secured and complex
distant manipulations, etc.

Robot Manipulators: Trends and Development

Author: Agustin Jimenez, Basil M Al Hadithi
Published by: InTech, 2010
Interesting book to read the recent research developments in robot
manipulators. The book caters a survey to the kinematic and dynamic
modelling, computer vision, software engineering, optimization and design of
control algorithms applied for robotic systems.

Mobile Robots Navigation

Author: Alejandra Barrera
Published by: InTech, 2010
For those looking for study material on Mobile Robotics, this is the ideal
read. It explains the progress of devices, systems, models and architectures
in supporting the navigational behavior of mobile robots. Covers subjects
like sensory perception; Robot localization; Path planning; Obstacle
avoidance; and more.

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Cutting Edge Robotics 2010

Author: Vedran Kordic
Published by: InTech, 2010
Robotics research, especially mobile robotics is a young field. This book is a
result of inspirations and contributions from many researchers worldwide. It
presents a collection of a wide range of research results in robotics scientific
community.

Service Robot Applications

Author: Yoshihiko Takahashi
Published by: InTech, 2008
This book provides new ideas, original results and practical experiences
regarding service robotics. The text provides only a small example of this
research activity, but it covers a great deal of what has been done in the
field recently.

11 Awesome ESP8266 Projects

for Electronics DIYers
April 4, 2019

123222

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ESP8266 is gaining popularity in the field of electronics because of its

low-cost, reliability and easily availability in the market. Most
documents related to this module are in Mandarin and information
provided in the data sheet is not enough to use ESP8266 for an
application. To fill the gap, people from various countries have formed
an ESP8266 community forum, which gives necessary details about
programming and other related issues concerning this module. Before
we move to ESP8266 projects, let’s look at some features of the
ESP8266 module.

ESP8266 contains a built-in 32-bit low-power CPU, ROM and RAM. It is

a complete and self-contained Wi-Fi network solution that can carry
software applications as a stand-alone device or connected with a
microcontroller (MCU). The module has built-in AT Command firmware
to be used with any MCU via COM port. Let’s look at some ESP8266
projects now.

Smallest IoT Home Automation using ESP8266 –

01 with Videos (Hindi & English)
In this project, we will be using the ESP8266 – 01 Wi-Fi Development
board to make a small home automation that has Wi-Fi featured in it.
The system operates on a local web server and is easy to use for the
novice. With this project, we can control at most two AC appliances
which suit best for your small IoT projects.

This project is available at: Smallest IoT Home Automation using

ESP8266 – 01 with Videos (Hindi & English)

Geolocation using ESP8266

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Ever wanted to know if geolocation was possible without using a GPS

module? Check out this project for checking your location using
ESP8266 Wi-Fi module. This is possible with Google’s Geolocation API.
Google provides an API for taking data from our nearby Wi-Fi routers
and giving us our coordinates. But before using that API you need to
get your API key working. Check out this ESP8266 project for more
details.

This project is available at: Geolocation using ESP8266

ESP8266 Projects: Wireless Web Server

This ESP8266 based wireless web server project is built around an
Arduino. Arduino IDE is used for compiling and loading programs in
this ESP8266 based wireless web server. ESP8266 community has
developed a suitable plugin for ESP8266 to use with Arduino IDE. Step
by step details are available within the article to build a web server.

This project is available at: ESP8266 based wireless server

World’s smallest IoT project

In this project we push the limits of how the IoT project can be shrunk
in size without compromising its ability to work. There may be
products which are way smaller than this one. This is the simplest IoT
project, IoT button with rechargeable battery having dimension of 4 x
2 x 1 cm.

This project is available at: World’s smallest IoT project.

Pressure Sensors on Railway Tracks
Every year thousands of animals die after being hit by trains. Animals
on train tracks are dangerous for both animals and the train as well.
Animals are affected very badly. Besides animals, if the tracks are not
cleared i.e. boulders on tracks, accidents tend to occur. This
phenomenon becomes particularly dangerous in hilly areas. Trains
cannot be stopped from moving on these tracks, but something surely
can be done. Using pressure sensors, a system can be built that
provides alarm and helps avoid any unfortunate accidents.

This project is available at: Pressure sensors on railway tracks

Air Pollution Meter

Presented here is a IoT enabled air pollution meter to monitor air
quality on your smartphone using Blynk application and Arduino board.
Blynk is an Internet of Things (IoT) platform to control Arduino,
Raspberry Pi and the like over the Internet. In this project Blynk
provides a digital dashboard on your smartphone that displays real-
time air quality readings for the immediate surroundings.

This project is available at: Air pollution meter

Humidity and temperature monitoring

Presented here is a humidity and temperature monitoring system
using Arduino. In this article, humidity and temperature information
from DHT-11 sensor is analysed graphically on ThingSpeak platform
using Arduino MCU and ESP8266 Wi-Fi module.

This project is available at: Humidity & Temperature monitoring

Wi-Fi controlled robot

Control your Robot from anywhere using the ARMA IoT shield for UNO
and the Blynk App which provides the user interface. This project uses
an Arduino Uno connected to the WiFi using an ARMA IoT shield and
controlled using Blynk app which is available for both iOS as well as
Android. The chassis is a simple one made from pressed sheet metal
with high gauge thickness.

This project is available at: Wi-Fi controlled robot

Temperature logging system

Here is a temperature logging system based on PIC16F887
microcontroller (MCU), Wi-Fi and ThingSpeak application programming
interface (API). ThingSpeak is an open source Internet of Things (IoT)
application and API to store and retrieve data from things over the
Internet. It enables you to collect, store, analyse, visualise and act on
the data received from sensors or electronic circuits.

This project is available at: Temperature logging system

M2M using ESP8266
This project takes you through the interaction of your developments
among one another. ESP8266 development board is used to connect
via wireless & talk to each other when needed. The presenter has
made this project to solve a problem in his own room. A video
explaining the detailed project is also available.

This project is available at: M2M using ESP8266

ESPSMS | Make your personal assistant

We all have heard about personal assistants like SIRI, Google
Assistant, Alexa, etc. But ever wondered how this all works? And
further do you know how to make a personal assistant of your own? In
this project the developer has tried to make an assistant using
ESP8266 12E development board.

This project is available at: Making your personal assistant

Feel interested? Let us know what other ESP8266 projects you have
worked on. If there are some ESP8266 projects that are not featured
here, send them in and we can feature these on our website.

This article was first published on 20 November 2017 and was updated
with new projects on 4 April 2019.
Graphene Sensor Developed By
Team Of Deakin University
Researchers
By

Vinay

September 11, 2019

197

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The sensor is nothing but a smart material that can be implemented for home
care systems.

In a research conducted at Deakin

University’s Mediated Intelligence in Design (MInD) Lab, a new smart material has been
developed whose application can be for in-home care systems for the elderly.
The project was successfully completed in collaboration with Imagine, a Geelong-based
intelligent materials manufacturer.

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Chris Gilbey, CEO, Imagine, said, “There is a limited understanding of the potential for
this technology inside public and private buildings.”

About
The material is a graphene-based sensor and could be installed on surfaces such as
walls and floors to provide information on temperature, pressure, and humidity levels of
environments where occupants require supervision.

According to MInD Lab director, Professor Tuba Kocatyrk, “With these (graphene)
coatings, the surface becomes ‘smart’ and information captured through these surfaces
is then delivered into an Internet of Things (IoT) connected world through cloud
computing. It will allow operators to collate and analyse data from large surfaces in
buildings simultaneously and develop efficient responses in real-time, with the potential
to significantly advance efficiency and safety in our buildings.”

Via the variable which the smart sensors read, information on the status of those inside
the building can be understood.

“We are exploring how this technology can be used to create an intelligent home care
system so that behavioural information can be recorded, analysed and shared in real-
time,” said Chris Gilbey.

With demographic shifts seeing more elderly people, thanks to improved healthcare,
the requirement for better in-home care for longer periods has become a necessity.

“We are exploring how this technology can be used to create an intelligent home care
system so that behavioural information can be recorded, analysed and shared in real-
time,” said Dr Rui Wang, research fellow at MInD Lab.
The above article was originally published in the ChipsNWafers website of EFY. It can be
found here.

All About IC 7805 | Voltage

Regulator
April 4, 2019

409523

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Voltage sources in a circuit may have fluctuations resulting in not providing

fixed voltage outputs. A voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at
a constant value. 7805 IC, a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage
regulators used to maintain such fluctuations, is a popular voltage regulator
integrated circuit (IC). The xx in 78xx indicates the output voltage it
provides. 7805 IC provides +5 volts regulated power supply with provisions
to add a heat sink.
 7805 IC Rating
 Input voltage range 7V- 35V
 Current rating Ic = 1A
 Output voltage range VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V

Pin Details of 7805 IC

Pin
Pin Function Description
No.

In this pin of the IC positive unregulated

1 INPUT Input voltage (7V-35V)
voltage is given in regulation.

In this pin where the ground is given.

2 GROUND Ground (0V) This pin is neutral for equally the input
and output.

Regulated output; 5V (4.8V- The output of the regulated 5V volt is

3 OUTPUT
5.2V) taken out at this pin of the IC regulator.

As you may have noticed, there is a significant difference between the input
voltage & the output voltage of the voltage regulator. This difference
between the input and output voltage is released as heat. The greater the
difference between the input and output voltage, more the heat generated.
If the regulator does not have a heat sink to dissipate this heat, it can get
destroyed and malfunction. Hence, it is advisable to limit the voltage to a
maximum of 2-3 volts above the output voltage. So, we now have 2 options.
Either design your circuit so that the input voltage going into the regulator is
limited to 2-3 volts above the output regulated voltage or place an
appropriate heatsink, that can efficiently dissipate heat.

What to do with all the heat?

7805 is not very efficient and has drop-out voltage problems. A lot of energy
is wasted in the form of heat. If you are going to be using a heatsink, better
calculate the heatsink size properly. The below formula should help in
determining appropriate heatsink size for such applications.

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Heat generated = (input voltage – 5) x output current

If we have a system with input 15 volts and output current required is .5

amperes, we have: (15 – 5) x 0.5 = 10×0.5 =5W;

5W energy is being wasted as heat, hence an appropriate heatsink is

required to disperse this heat. On the other hand, energy actually being
used is: (5 x 0.5Amp) = 2.5W.

So twice the energy, that is actually utilized is wasted. On the other hand, if
9V is given as input at the same amount of load: (9-5) x 0.5 = 2W

2W energy will be wasted as heat.

What we learn: Higher the input voltage, less efficient your 7805 will be.

An estimated efficient input voltage would be at about 7.5V.

Other circuit components?

If your voltage regulator is situated more than 25cm (10 inches) from the
power supply, capacitors are needed to filter residual AC noise. Voltage
regulators work efficiently on a clean DC signal being fed. The bypass
capacitors help reduce AC ripple. Essentially, they short AC noise from the
voltage signal and allow only DC voltage into the regulator. The two
capacitors are not necessarily required and can be omitted if you are not
concerned about line noise.

However, for a mobile phone charger or logic assessment, you require a nice
clean DC line. Capacitors will be beneficial in this case as they are good at
maximizing voltage regulation. The values of capacitors can also be changed
slightly.

Let’s take a look at what makes the IC tick.

Schematic of 7805 IC

The heart of the 7805 IC is a transistor (Q16) that controls the current
between the input and output and thus controlling the output voltage. The
bandgap reference (yellow) keeps the voltage stable. It takes the scaled
output voltage as input (Q1 and Q6) and provides an error signal (to Q7) for
indication if the voltage is too high or low. The key task of the bandgap is to
provide a stable and accurate reference, even as the chip’s temperature
changes.

The error signal from the bandgap reference is amplified by the error
amplifier (orange). This amplified signal controls the output transistor
through Q15. This closes the negative feedback loop controlling the output
voltage. The startup circuit (green) provides initial current to the bandgap
circuit, so it doesn’t get stuck in an “off” state. The circuit in purple provides
protection against overheating (Q13), excessive input voltage (Q19) and
excessive output current (Q14). These circuits reduce the output current or
shutdown the regulator, protecting it from damage in case of a fault. The
voltage divider (blue) scales down the voltage on the output pin for use by
the bandgap reference.

Scaling the output

The 7805’s scaled output provides the input voltage (Vin) to the bandgap
reference and the bandgap provides an error signal as the output. The
7805’s bandgap circuit removes the feedback loop that exists inside a
traditional bandgap reference. Instead, the entire chip becomes the
feedback loop.

If the output voltage is correct (5V), then the voltage divider provides 3.75V
at Vin. Any change in output voltage propagates through Q6 and R7, causing
the voltage at the base of Q7 to rise or fall accordingly. This change is
amplified by Q7 and Q8, generating the error output. The error output, in
turn, decreases or increases the current through the output transistor.
The negative feedback loop adjusts the output voltage until it is correct.

Application areas for 7805 IC

7805 IC is used in a wide range of circuits. The major ones being:

 Fixed-Output Regulator
 Positive Regulator in Negative Configuration
 Adjustable Output Regulator
 Current Regulator
  Adjustable DC Voltage Regulator
 Regulated Dual-Supply
 Output Polarity-Reversal-Protection Circuit
 Reverse bias projection Circuit

7805 IC also finds usage in building circuits for inductance meter, phone
charger, portable CD player, infrared remote control extension and UPS
power supply circuits.

More detailed information about 7805 IC can be found in the datasheet.

The slideshow below also highlights some points with voltage regulators.
Have a look.

Voltage regulator from niiraz

More tutorials available at learning resources

This article was first published on 14 October 2017 and was updated on 4 April
2019.

RF-based Dual mode Robot

Which Current Is More Dangerous,
AC Or DC?
By Krunal Shah
July 1, 2019

38776
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Have you ever had an electric shock? Well, many people think that DC
current is more dangerous than AC current as far as an Electric shock is
concerned. To find out which one is more dangerous, let us go back to the
basics of AC current and DC current.

AC Current
An alternating current flow in sinewave (as shown in the figure below)
pattern. The current switches direction back and forth. We can find an AC
current in household appliances, lights, fans etc.
DC Current

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Direct current flows in only one direction (shown below). It can be found in
electronic circuits, batteries etc.

Let me tell you that apart from the type of current, the severity of an electric
shock depends on other factors also. Such as,
The amount of current

For example, an electric shock with an alternating current of 15 to 20

milliamperes can be extremely painful. However, an electric shock with 100
milliamperes may cause death.

The path of current

The current passing from the right hand to the right leg can be painful. But
when it passes from right hand to left hand through the heart may cause
ventricular fibrillation. This condition is usually fatal.
Time duration

An electric shock with a small amount of current say; 0.3 milliamperes can
also cause painful effect if it is held for the longer duration.
Body Resistance

The resistance offered by the wet body to electric shock is less as compared
to the dry body.

Why does the Human body feel an electric shock?

This is quite interesting to know. The current penetrates inside the body
through the skin. The outermost layer of skin epidermis is composed of a
protein material called keratin.
Keratin offers the highest resistance to the passage of electricity. After the
epidermis layer, we have sweat glands and then blood vessels. These sweat
glands and blood vessels constitute of various ions, which are a good
conductor of electricity. Hence, blood vessels and sweat glands offer low
resistance to the passage of electricity.

Now the question arises, how current reaches and travels through the body.

Answering the above question, the outermost layer of skin epidermis acts as
a dielectric, the internal sweat glands and tissues acts like one plate of
capacitor and metal piece carrying electric current acts like another plate of
the capacitor. Due to this capacitive-effect, current passes through the body.
Rapidly changing voltage allows more current to pass through the body.

Which current is more dangerous, AC or DC?

There are arguments in favour of both AC current and DC current. These
arguments are based on experiments and studies carried out on human
beings (including men and women) and industry professionals who have
experience of working with both the types of currents.

The argument in favour of DC current

Victims who have experienced the electric shock with DC current says that
they are unable to pull their hand back because DC current flows
continuously. This effect is similar to an electric doorbell supplied with DC
current. Hence, it is believed that the DC current shock is more dangerous.

Whereas, in the case of AC current, the person experiencing the electric

shock can pull their hand back as the current goes to zero. Hence, it is
believed that the AC current shock is least dangerous than DC current.
The argument in favour of AC current

When the person is experiencing an electric shock, the focus of that person
is to get rid of it and save the life. What is happening internally to the
muscles cannot be known.

According to Charles Dalziel experiments on men and women, muscles

contraction is continuous in case of an electric shock with DC current.
Whereas in the case of AC current, a person experiencing electric shock
undergoes a series of muscle contraction. Series of muscle contraction
causes very severe damage to the muscles.

Due to the capacitive behaviour of the skin coming in contact with the
current carrying conductor, more current can pass through the body if the
voltage is rapidly changing. Studies have shown that twofold of increase in
the voltage increases sevenfold increase in the current.

DC current “let-go” threshold is higher than the AC “let-go” threshold. More

DC current is required to produce a similar effect as of AC current.

These arguments are not only based upon experiments being carried out on
men and women but also have been studied medically. Hence, the argument
in favor of AC current holds the truth.

Now, it can be summarised that AC Current is more dangerous than DC

Current. Well, one should not be afraid of electricity, but one must
remember that both AC current and DC current can be dangerous to the
human body and safety measures must be taken into the consideration
when working with any of them.
References
 W. B. Kouwenhoven and O. R. Langworthy, “Effects of Electric Shock-II”. IEEE
Transaction (A.I.E.E.).
 Charles F. Dalziel, “Effects of Electric Shock on Man”.
 W. B. Kouwenhoven and D. R. Hooker, “Electric Shock Effects of Frequency”.
 John Cadick, “Electrical Safety Handbook”, 3rd edition, Mcgraw Hill.
 Raymond M. Fish and Leslie A. Geddes, “Conduction of Electrical current to
and Through the Human Body”, Open Access Journal of Plastic Surgery.
 Charles F. Dalziel and Eric Odgen, “Effects of Frequency on Let-Go Currents”,
IEEE Transaction.
 Mark W. Kroll and Dorin Panescu, “Physics of Electrical Injury”, Springer
Science+Business Media New York, 2012.

Krunal Shah is a passionate educator and career-counsellor with experience

as an Entrepreneur. Currently, he is working as Director of Subodh Tech
Private Limited, where he is involved in providing job-oriented training and
Engineering Consultancy.

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