Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing

Aravin Prince Periyasamy and Harun Venkatesan

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Plasma Technology in Textile Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Application of Plasma Technology in Textile Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Nanotechnology in Textile Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Nanoengineered Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Water- and Oil-Repellent Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Wrinkle-Resistant Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Antibacterial-Resistant, Self-Cleaning and UV-Resistant Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Flame-Retardant Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Wear/Impact-Resistant Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Biotechnology in Textile Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Biopolymers in Textile Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Herbal Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Environmental Standards in the Textile Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Global Organic Textile Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Bluesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Okeo-Tex Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

A.P. Periyasamy (*)

Departmental of Material Engineering, Faculty of Textile Engineering, Technical University
Liberec, Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
e-mail: aravinprince@gmail.com; aravin.prince.periyasamy@tul.cz
H. Venkatesan
Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon,
Hong Kong
e-mail: harun.venkatesan@connect.polyu.hk

# Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

L.M.T. Martínez et al. (eds.), Handbook of Ecomaterials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48281-1_55-1
2 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

Abstract
The textile finishing industry, which is the backbone of the fashion clothing
sector, creates the highest volume of waste water compared with other stages in
textile manufacturing. The expectations of modern consumers regarding the
textile products they use have increased dramatically; consumers want textiles
that suit their taste and are health-friendly. It is now very important for the textile
industries to reconsider the technologies and chemicals used, so that they can
satisfy environmental and consumer requirements. Enzymes, nature-based
finishing agents, nanotechnology and disruptive technologies such as plasma
finishing are gradually replacing conventional systems for finishing textile mate-
rials. Enzymes are used in textile finishing processes such as bio-stoning and are
good alternatives to toxic chemicals because they are specific in action and can be
broken down into simple by-products. Herbal textiles use plant extracts for
finishing and are becoming popular. This chapter discusses eco-friendly finishing
of textile materials using nanotechnology, plasma treatment, enzymes, biopoly-
mers and other nature-based finishing agents. We also discuss worldwide envi-
ronmental regulations and schemes for textile products and their production
processes.

Keywords
Textile finishing · Environmental protection · Plasma technology ·
Nanotechnology · Biopolymers · Enzymes · Herbal

Introduction

Textile finishing is the stage in textile production concerned with processing the
textile products to make them fit for end use. The processing stages involved in
textile finishing are the highest consumers of water and energy. The effluents
produced by textile processing industries during different operations cause signifi-
cant water and air pollution. Due to increasing awareness of the environment and
strict environmental regulations, the production of textile goods now demands
sustainability and environmental protection [1–3]. The expectation of modern con-
sumers that a textile product displays both aesthetic and functional properties is
increasing every day. To meet current needs, it is necessary for industry to switch to
sustainable production strategies. Recently, the textile processing industries have
shifted their focus towards the latest technologies involving less or no water along
with usage of environmentally friendly chemicals. In the past decade, technologies
involving supercritical fluids, plasma treatment and nanotechnology are gradually
replacing conventional processing techniques. The application of biotechnology and
chemicals extracted from natural sources for textile finishing processes has gained
considerable attention because of their ability to reduce the risk of consumers being
exposed to textiles finished using harsh chemicals.
Plasma technology is an environmentally friendly technique used to process
textile materials to enhance different functional properties. Plasma is a mixture of
Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing 3

activated ionized gases that is used for surface modification and coating of textiles.
At the nanoscale, the properties of materials can be easily manipulated. The use of
nanotechnology in surface treatment of textiles has increased greatly due to its
versatility in improving functionality. The recent focus on “green chemistry” strat-
egies has boosted the application of biopolymers derived from natural resources and
plant extracts in textile finishing to provide textiles with various functional proper-
ties. This chapter discusses the application of plasma, nanotechnology, biopolymers,
biotechnology and plant extracts in the finishing of textile materials.

Plasma Technology in Textile Finishing

Plasma technology is used to make surface modification of textiles with minimum

usage of water and energy. Unlike chemical processing of textiles, the modification
is restricted to first few atomic layers of fibre surface and does not change the
properties of the entire fibre. Plasma exists in different temperature and pressure
ranges. If the gas temperature is set at around room temperature, it is said to be
“cold” or “low” temperature plasma, which is commonly used for processing textile
materials. This is further divided into atmospheric pressure processes and low
pressure processes. Low pressure treatment requires an additional vacuum system,
which is not economical and makes the complex system unsuitable for high produc-
tion requirements. For this reason, the atmospheric pressure process is widely used.
Unlike traditional processing techniques, the textile materials processed using low
temperature plasma are dry, thus eliminating the need for drying processes. Also, the
overall process requires an extremely short treatment time and low temperature.
These advantages of plasma treatment reduce effluent generation and save energy.
Convincingly, plasma technology in textile finishing is an economical alternative to
traditional finishing systems.
Plasma processing utilizes polymerizable, non-polymerizable and chemically
inert gases such as air, oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), argon (Ar), helium (He), fluorine
(F), tetrafluoroethylene (C2F4) and hexamethyldisiloxane. Plasma induces different
properties in textile materials by surface activation, oxidation, surface energy mod-
ification, coating, altering roughness and developing micro/nanolevel structures.
These modifications result in improved absorbency, dyeability and fibre adhesion.
Special functional properties such as UV protection, antimicrobial properties, water
repellency and flame retardancy are achieved by functionalizing the surface with the
help of precursor molecules containing fluorocarbon, hydroxyl, vinyl or carboxyl
groups.
The common forms of atmospheric plasma used in the textile industry are corona
discharge and dielectric barrier discharge (DBD). Corona discharge occurs if an
asymmetrical electric field has an effect in gas and causes electric current to flow in
the microamp to milliamp range. A low frequency and high voltage of 10–15 kV
between two electrodes of different shapes and sizes are used to generate corona
discharge. In DBD plasma, one of the two electrodes is covered by a dielectric layer
or insulator, which accumulates the energy on its surface. This limits the quantity of
4 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

charge transported by a single microdischarge and distributes the charge over the
entire area of the electrode.
Even though the plasma treatment of textiles offers several advantages, its
application in the textile industry is limited because of the intrinsic properties of
textile materials. The following important factors influence the efficiency of plasma
treatment:

• Surface cleanliness: Contaminants or the surface texture of a textile may induce

significant negative effects.
• Fabric structure: The three dimensional (3D) and porous structure of a fabric may
prevent plasma from penetrating deeply into the fabric structure to ensure com-
plete treatment (e.g., in wet processing). The pressure at which plasma operates is
an important parameter for improving processing conditions.
• Surface area: Textile materials have a large surface area.

Application of Plasma Technology in Textile Finishing

Plasma is widely used to improve the hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of textile

materials. Several studies have been made related to improving the wettability of
synthetic fibres and their blends, including polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene
and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), polyamide, nylon-cotton, elastane, polyimide,
aramid and carbon fibres [4–7]. Studies attempting to improve the hydrophilicity of
natural fibres such as silk, cotton and wool have also been reported [8, 9]. Hydro-
philic functional groups such as –COOH, OH and –NH2 can be introduced to the
textile surface using plasma technology. Aramid fibres are functionalized using O2
and N2 plasma treatment to improve hydrophilicity; DBD plasma was used to obtain
similar results in meta-aramid fibres at atmospheric pressure [10, 11]. Polyethylene,
polyamide and PTFE fabrics showed a significant decrease in contact angle and an
increase in surface energy after DBD treatment using He–O2 gases [12]. The
influence of the intensity and duration of plasma treatment on the reduction in
contact angle of cotton fabric was studied by Karahan et al. [13]. The fabric showed
better results when treated at a power of 60 W for 40–60 s. Olivera et al. [14] studied
the effect of energy dosage in plasma treatment using DBD of different textile fabrics
(see Fig. 1).
Plasma treatment is used to remove the sizing agents applied to warp yarns to
withstand the mechanical forces introduced during weaving. Fabric treated with
DBD plasma in air showed an increase in quality of preparation of cotton fabric for
further processing. The plasma-treated fabric showed an increase in hydrophilicity,
which is an important requirement for scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing and
finishing processes [16]. Low pressure O2 plasma was used to treat PET fabric and
showed efficient removal of sizing agents such as polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylic acid
and their mixtures from fabric. Also, the desizing effluent from treated fabric gave
low values for chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) and total organic carbon (TOC). Plasma treatment is used to remove natural
Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing 5

Fig. 1 Different textile materials treated using dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma discharge
in air and their water contact angles at different energy dosages (Reproduced from Ref. [15] with
permission of John Wiley and Sons)

or synthetically occurring grease or wax in cotton, polyester, polyamide, polypro-

pylene and wool [8, 17–20]. This improves the dyeing rate, dye diffusion into fibre,
colour depth and washing fastness of the dyes. Cotton fabrics pretreated with plasma
under atmospheric pressure conditions showed improved dyeability with acid dyes
[17]. Plasma treatment improves the wettability of fibres and improves the interac-
tion of finishing chemicals by ultimately reducing the consumption of chemicals,
water and energy. Fig. 2 shows the K/S (colour strength, where K is the absorption
coefficient and S is the scattering coefficient) values of cotton fabric dyed with
Supranol Red BL01 dyes.
In addition to dyeing, plasma treatment is also used in the pretreatment of fabrics
for pigment inkjet printing. Atmospheric plasma treatment has been used to enhance
the colour yield of cotton, polyester and blended inkjet printed fabrics [21–23]. In
addition to improving colour yield properties such as sharpness of print, plasma
treatment also improved the antimicrobial properties and rubbing and washing
fastness of the prints [24–26]. Conventional anti-felting treatment of wool involves
treatment with chlorine-based chemicals. This results in discharge of waste water at
elevated temperatures, acidic pH and high chorine content. Low pressure plasma
treatment with non-polymerizing reactive gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and argon
induced an anti-felting effect and gave shrink-resistant properties to wool [27]. In
addition, the fabric also exhibited soft handle, low colour deviation and low strength
loss [28]. Plasma treatment also improved the wettability and dyeability of fabric.
6 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

Fig. 2 K/S values of untreated and plasma-treated cotton fabrics dyed with Supranol Red BL01
(milling acid dye) (Reproduced from Ref. [17] with permission of John Wiley and Sons)

Atmospheric plasma treatment of wool for anti-felting properties has also been
reported [21, 29].
Similar to inducing hydrophilicity to textile materials, hydrophobicity can be
obtained by introducing hydrophobic functional groups through coating or graft
copolymerization. To achieve hydrophobicity, fluorocarbons (fluorodecylacrylate,
hexafluoroethane, hexafluoro-propylene, tetrafluoromethane) or silicones were used
to carry out graft copolymerization [30, 31]. Plasma treatment can also be used to
introduce flame retardancy properties to polyamide fibres. The treatment uses
fluorinated acrylate monomer, which is grafted and polymerized under low pressure
conditions. The coated material showed 50% reduction in the rate of heat release
[32].
The drug release properties of Nylon 66 and nonwoven polypropylene materials
improved up to 10% after plasma treatment [33]. The antistatic properties of
polyester fabric were improved using low temperature plasma treatment. The
increase in moisture retention consequently improved the charge dissipation prop-
erties [23]. Cotton fabric was chemically modified by grafting cyclodextrin as a
wound healing agent, and its cytotoxicity studied [34]. Plasma treatment enhanced
chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of TiO2 films for photocatalytic applications; the
treated cotton exhibited bactericidal activity because of TiO2 photocatalysis initiated
by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation [35]. A cotton/polyester blended fabric was treated
using plasma-enhanced CVD deposition of fluorocarbon to obtain a hydrophobic
coating. Subsequent treatment with quaternary ammonium salts gave antimicrobial
properties [36]. DBD plasma discharge was used to finish cotton fabric with a low
formaldehyde crosslinking resin to improve the wrinkle recovery of cotton fabric. In
Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing 7

this study, less catalyst was used and controlled release of formaldehyde was
®
demonstrated [37]. The adhesion between Lyocell /poly(lactic acid) matrix was
improved after plasma treatment accompanied by a water vapour and ethylene
mixture. This treatment increased the interfacial shear strength of the composite
system [38].
Enzymes are environmentally friendly and used in the textile industry to achieve a
variety of finishing effects, such as surface cleaning, improved surface appearance,
anti-pilling, improve hand feel and softening [39]. The combined advantages of
plasma treatment and enzymes for various applications are being studied. Fatarella et
al. studied the influence of plasma treatment on fibre accessibility to the enzyme
transglutaminase. Plasma treatment improved enzyme penetration into the fibre
without affecting enzyme activity [40]. Low temperature plasma treatment following
anti-felting finishing of wool showed a good anti-felting effect.

Nanotechnology in Textile Finishing

Nanomaterials and new production technologies are driving research in textile

finishing [41]. Nanotechnologies that are developed and transferred to the textile
finishing process are aimed at reducing environmental impact. Nanotextiles can be
divided into the following three main categories (see Fig. 3):

• Surface-coated and finished textiles: The nanoscale property is added to the

textile substrate by nanocoating, nanoparticle treatment and engineering the
nanostructured surface of textile substrate (knitted, woven and nonwoven).
• Nanocomposite textiles: Nanomaterials are integrated directed into the polymer
matrix before being spun into fibres.
• Nanofibrous textiles: These are textiles made up of fibres with nanoscale
dimensions.

The use of nanotechnology in textile finishing processes can involve surface

coating, engineering the surfaces of fibres and enhancement of existing process
technologies. Aftercare of textiles in domestic and industrial applications requires
enormous quantities of energy, water and chemicals. Nanofinishing of textiles pro-
vides durable surface coatings that are sustainable and cost effective. Nanofinishing
produces textile materials with various functional properties, making the materials
water/oil repellent, self-cleaning, stain resistant, antibacterial or abrasion resistant,
which can help prolong the life of textile materials. These functional finishes also
reduce aftercare problems resulting from washing, dry cleaning or ironing. Also,
they save a lot of energy and water, and increase the life time of the textile product.
Nanocoating and finishing of textiles are applied using different finishing and
coating methods. Nanocoated or finished fabrics often require additional wet treat-
ment or plasma treatment to improve the effectiveness of the subsequent finishing or
coating treatment. Even though there are several finishing or coating methods
8 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

Surface coated and finished

Nanolayer Nanoparticle finished and coateded Nanostructured surface

TEXTILE SUBSTRATE TEXTILE SUBSTRATE TEXTILE SUBSTRATE

Nanocomposites Nanofibers

Fig. 3 Different kinds of nanotextiles

available, the most widely used methods are padding, sol–gel and layer-by-layer
(LbL) processing:

• Padding: The padding process is also known as the pad–dry–cure process, which
is used for chemical treatment of fabric. After being immersed in the active
ingredients, the fabric is squeezed by a pair of pressure rollers and then dried
and cured for permanent fixation. Fixation of the finishing agents is determined
by the speed and pressure of the squeeze rollers. Nanofinishing can be achieved
using this technique by addition of nanomaterials to the finishing agent.
• Sol–gel: In sol–gel processing, a colloidal suspension of metal oxides or organ-
ometallic compounds or particles generated from solution are transformed into a
gel through thermal treatment and finally into a gel network [42]. The sol–gel can
be applied to the fabric as a coating and has been used for various finishings, such
as antimicrobial, flame retardant and abrasion resistant coatings.
• Layer by layer: The layer-by-layer process is a thin film deposition method. In
this process, oppositely charged polyelectrolytes are sequentially absorbed. Mul-
tilayer coatings of nanometre-thick layers can be obtained using this technique. It
is a simple and cheap technique and provides a high degree of control over film
thickness. Nanoparticles and polymer nanocomposites can be deposited over the
textile material using the LbL method. Immersive and spray LbL are two widely
used methods in textile fabric processing [43].

Nanoengineered Textiles

Water- and Oil-Repellent Finishes

Water-repellent properties can be introduced to textile fabrics by forming hydrocar-

bon nanowhiskers that are three orders of magnitude smaller than cotton fibres [44].
Similar to a lotus effect, the surface tension between water droplets and
Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing 9

nanowhiskers is high enough to allow the water droplets to remain on the surface
[45]. Fabrics with nanowhiskers show excellent breathability because they allow the
vapour to permeate. Super-hydrophobicity can also be introduced by producing
roughness on the surface of a fabric without affecting softness and other mechanical
properties. Cotton fabrics treated with silica (SiO2) nanoparticles and coupling agent
perfluoro octylated quaternary ammonium silane (PQASCA) produce a water-repel-
lent fabric with contact angle of 145 . SiO2 produces the desired surface roughness,
whereas PQASCA reduces the surface energy. The treated fabric also exhibits oil
repellency, showing a contact angle of 131 for diiodomethane (CH2I2) [46]. The
nanostructure of a lotus leaf was mimicked by coating cotton fabric with surface-
modified carbon nanotubes. The fabric showed contact angles greater than 150 [47].
Oil repellency was achieved by coating with silicone nanofilaments, followed by
plasma fluorination to induce super-oleophobic properties. The resultant fabric
showed an oil repellency grade of 8 and repelled alkanes [31]. Both water repellency
and oleophobic properties were also achieved by impregnating cotton fabric with
SiO2 particles to produce dual-size roughness, followed by treatment with poly
(dimehysiloxane) (PDMS) for hydrophobization, resulting in a static water contact
angle of 155 . To impart oleophobicity to the SiO2-coated fabric, a perfluoroalkyl
chain was introduced, giving the textile a contact angle of 140 ; oil droplets showed
a roll-off angle of 25 [48].

Wrinkle-Resistant Finish

Cotton fabrics are more prone to develop wrinkles because of their semicrystalline
nature. The force applied to the fibre or fabric displaces the hydrogen bonds present
in the cellulosic chain from their original position; the bonds then re-form at new
positions. Nanocoating is capable of preventing crease formation without changing
the natural comfort properties of a fabric. Cotton fabrics were treated with TiO2
nanoparticles (using carboxylic acid as a catalyst) to induce wrinkle resistance and a
softer hand feel. The carboxylic acid forms crosslinks between cellulose molecules
and acidic groups. TiO2 nanoparticles with 1,2,3,4 butane tetracarboxylic acid
(BTCA) and succinic acid as crosslinking agents showed excellent dry and wet
crease recovery [49]. Dry and wet recovery angles of untreated silk improved from
235 to 267 and 178 to 250 , respectively, for silk treated with TiO2 nanoparticles
and chitosan by the crosslinking reactions between citric acid and maleic anhydride
[50]. SiO2 nanoparticles and maleic anhydrate as a catalyst are also used to improve
wrinkle resistance [51].

Antibacterial-Resistant, Self-Cleaning and UV-Resistant Finishes

Silver (Ag), titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles are used to
impart antibacterial and fungicidal properties to textiles [52, 53]. Silver nanoparticles
can diffuse through the cell wall and membrane into the cytoplasm. The antibacterial
10 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

Fig. 4 General mechanism coffee, wine

for producing oxidative
e-
radicals on TiO2 (Reproduced Stain- e-
from Ref. [55] with +
hυ
Stain TiO2
permission of Elsevier) Stain O2ads. O2-.
hu > 400 nm

O2– + RH (stain) HO2– + R

Decomposition
R. + O2 RO2+
to CO2 and H2O
RO2+ + RH ROOH + R
2ROOH RO.+H2O+RO2+
ROOH RO++HO+

mechanism of silver nanoparticles is based on interaction with the protein content of

the organism by affecting cellular function and inhibiting cell growth. The binding of
Ag+ ions to phosphate-containing proteins results in DNA condensation, leading to
reaction with sulphur-containing proteins and, ultimately, cell death. TiO2 is a
photocatalyst; when illuminated with energy above the band gap (3.2 eV), there is
a jump of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. As a result, the
hydroxyl radicals formed by water and O2 decompose the unstable substances on
the surface of the photocatalyst and produce CO2 and water. Through this mecha-
nism, odour molecules, bacteria and viruses are decomposed. This kind of catalytic
activity of TiO2 provides antibacterial and self-cleaning properties to textile mate-
rials. The photocatalytic effect can also be improved by preparing nanocomposites of
TiO2/SiO2 or gold-doped TiO2 in cotton fabrics with self-cleaning properties [51,
54]. Figure 4 shows the general mechanism for the self-cleaning effect of TiO2
photocatalyst [55]. ZnO nanoparticle-coated textiles show self-cleaning properties in
the presence of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. SiO2-coated silver nano-
particles with a core–shell structure are electrostatically arranged on the cotton
substrate with high packing density to achieve antimicrobial properties [56].
TiO2 and ZnO are nanoscale semiconductor oxides that can effectively absorb
and scatter UV radiation. The sol–gel method was used to form a thin layer of TiO2
on cotton substrate; the UV protection effect could withstand up to 50 washing
cycles [57]. ZnO nanorods of 10–50 nm were coated onto cotton to impart UV
scattering and showed a very high UV protection factor [58].

Flame-Retardant Finish

Nanoparticles used for flame retardancy are gaining more attention because of their
durability, environmental sustainability, and tolerance to chemicals and toxins. The
use of nanoparticles such as SiO2, TiO2, carbon nanotubes and clay nanoparticles in
fibre-forming polymers, surface treatments and coatings have shown good results
[59–61]. By incorporating 3% of SiO2 nanoparticles in polypropylene filaments, the
limiting oxygen index (LOI) increased from 18% to 22%, which can slow down the
burning of material [60].
Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing 11

Wear/Impact-Resistant Finish

For textile materials to withstand abrasion for long periods without significant loss in
mechanical properties or material failure, a wear-resistant finish is very important. Home
furnishings and industrial textile fabrics are coated and finished using nanoparticles of
silica or alumina to improve wear resistance. Carbon nanotubes and cellulosic nano-
materials are incorporated into textile materials to improve wear resistance. To withstand
a shock or high force, multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) can be mixed together
with coating matrices or as reinforcement for ballistic textile materials such as aramids
and ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) [62]. Several commercial
products use MWCNTs in combination with traditional ballistic layers. Nanotechnology
and advanced textile processing methods show great reliability and robustness in
improving the performance of textile materials. This provides a great opportunity for
innovation in enhancing the performance of materials and exploring new functionalities.
Nanofinishing shows a promising future in the textile sector and requires further
research and development efforts to improve its readiness for industrial use.

Biotechnology in Textile Finishing

Enzymes are used in various stages of textile processing, such as desizing, scouring,
bleaching, denim washing and biopolishing. Enzymes are task-specific, quick in
action and required in small quantities, which can save large amounts of raw
materials, energy and water. Enzymes have been used since the late 1980s in the
textile industry. The first significant innovation was the use of enzymes for denim
stonewashing in 1987. Enzymes are mainly used in textile finishing for denim
abrasion and finishing. Denim garments are subjected to wash treatments to produce
a worn look. In conventional processing, the denim is faded using pumice stones.
Cellulase enzyme was developed for this purpose and is usually used alone or
combined with pumice stones to produce a faded effect. Cellulase loosens the indigo
dye on the denim surface, and the process is termed “bio-stoning”. A small dose of
enzymes can replaced several pumice stones and make handling easier. The bio-
stoning process reduces the damage caused to denim fabrics, reduces the wearing of
processing machinery and generates less pumice dust. Pumice stone can lose up to
50% weight during the process and produces a large quantity of pumice grit, which
can produce pumice sludge. The replacement of pumice stones with enzymes has
been determined as environmentally sound [63–65].
Figure 5 shows the mechanism of bio-stoning a denim garment. The following
steps are involved in the mechanism of enzymatic stoning:

• Cellulase molecules bind to the exposed cellulose region.

• The cellulose surface is hydrolysed by cellulase where the indigo dye is fixed.
• Fibrils present in the hydrolysed loose surface are torn off by abrasive forces.
• This process continues making white patches by removing the fibrils fixed with
indigo dye in damaged areas.
12 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

Fig. 5 Mechanism of bio-

stoning a denim garment
(Reproduced from Ref. [66]
with permission of Elsevier)

Biopolymers in Textile Finishing

Biopolymers are derived from biological origins and are key resources. They are
suitable and renewable materials for the development of bioactive textiles. Poly-
saccharides, chitosan and sericin proteins are used for functional finishing of textile
materials. Biopolymers are suitable alternatives to chemical-based finishing agents.
Biopolymers are derived from different sources such as agricultural feed stock and
marine food resources. The key advantages of biopolymers include abundant avail-
ability, biocompatibility and biodegradability.
The use of polysaccharides in textiles has gained huge attention because their
unique properties are suitable for finishes with antimicrobial, UV protective, insect
repellent and flame retardant properties [67–70]. Chitosan is a polysaccharide
biopolymer obtained from alkaline deacetylation of chitin. The main sources of
chitosan are the exoskeleton of crabs, lobsters, shellfish, shrimps, prawns and some
fungi. Chitosan is widely used in textile finishing to impart antimicrobial properties.
The electrostatic interaction between positively charged amine groups at the C2
position of glucosamine monomers and negatively charged residues on the cell
surface is responsible for the antimicrobial behaviour of chitosan. Chitosan is used
to finish cotton, polyester and wool fabric, imparting antimicrobial behaviour [71].
To improve binding of chitosan to textile substrates, crosslinking agents based on
glutaric dialdehyde, formaldehyde, BTCA or citric acid can be used. Crosslinking
between the hydroxyl groups of chitosan and carboxylic groups of polycarboxylic
acids improves the durability of finishing [72–74]. Chitosan and other bioactive
ingredients are incorporated into pigment paste to develop antibacterial cellulose
fabrics. The modified pigment prints showed antibacterial activity against Staphy-
lococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and can withstand up to 20 washing cycles
[75]. Chitosan exhibits excellent metal binding properties. Metal ions such as
zirconium and titanium are combined with chitosan to impart antibacterial and UV
protection properties to the cotton fabric [76]. Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic
oligosaccharides produced as a result of enzymatic degradation of starch. CDs
have shown great potential in textile finishing because of their ability to form
inclusion complexes with other substances through host–guest interactions. CDs
Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing 13

Fig. 6 Host–guest interaction mechanism of cyclodextrin (Reproduced from Ref. [77] with
permission of Elsevier)

provide cavities for inclusion of a variety of molecules and can be converted into
polymer-like chains by a chemical crosslinking process [77]. The host–guest inter-
action of cyclodextrin is shown in Fig. 6. The most commonly available CDs are α-
CD, β-CD and γ-CD. CDs can be hosts for biologically active guests such as drugs,
antimicrobial agents and insect repellents. CD inclusion complexes are formed in
solution and in the solid state when CDs are linked to various surfaces. Textiles
finished with CDs on their surface can display fragrance release, odour absorption,
controlled release (antibacterial, insect repellent) or UV-resistant properties [78–81].
CDs cannot form covalent bonds with the textile fibres so the grafting of CDs to
textile fibres is done using polycarboxylic acids or other binding agents [80, 81].
These properties allow them to be used in diverse application areas such as medical
textiles, geotextiles and technical textile products. Silver ions incorporated into the
cavity of CDs provide slow-release antibacterial properties after being applied onto
the fabric [82].
14 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

Sericin is a natural protein derived from the Bombyx mori silkworm. It constitutes
around 30% of silk protein. Sericin possess inherent properties such as biocompat-
ibility, biodegradability, UV resistance, antibacterial activity and moisture absorp-
tion. Sericin has been used to improve the functional properties of synthetic fibres
[83]. Some recent studies have shown that use of sericin in finishing natural fibres
like cotton and wool imparts antimicrobial properties [84].
Alginate is another nontoxic sustainable biopolymer with excellent biocompati-
bility and bioactive properties. Alginate is specially used in textile finishing to impart
antimicrobial properties to wound dressings. The gel-forming capabilities of alginate
fibres make them potential candidates for wound dressings. Alginate is an insoluble
calcium salt; contact of alginate fibres with sodium ions of the exudates in the wound
causes ion exchange of sodium ions with calcium ion in the polymer. This process
transforms the alginate from an insoluble to soluble polymer and results in absorp-
tion of a large amount of water by the polymer. This gelation process moisturizes the
wound, which promotes healing [85, 86]. Sodium alginate/chitosan, calcium/sodium
alginate polymer and their mixture were used to coat bamboo, cotton and poly(lactic
acid) gauze fabrics, respectively, to improve the wound healing properties of bam-
boo and cotton [87]. Embedding L-cysteine between layers of chitosan and alginate
composites using the LbL method enhanced the antibacterial effect and is potentially
useful for wound dressing. Alginate–copper composites have been used to coat wool
fabric, giving excellent antibacterial activity and 100% reduction in bacteria after
24 h. The durability of finish was good for up to 50 washes [88].

Herbal Textiles

The growing focus of consumers on health, hygiene, fashion, comfort and luxury has
increased the demand for natural and synthetic fibres with speciality finishes. Similar
to the use of nanotechnology and biopolymers for textile finishing, plant/herbal
extracts have gained huge popularity for luxury textile products. Herbal extracts
are used to impart fragrance and antimicrobial, skin nourishing and moth-proofing
properties. Herbal extracts from aloe vera, neem, grape, mulberry fruit, banana
pseudostem, peel sap and citrus oil are used for finishing sustainable luxury textiles.
Microencapsulated aromatherapy finishes were given to textile fabrics to improve
the health of cancer patients by reducing the side effects caused by chemotherapy
and radiotherapy [89]. Aromas for apparel and home furnishing applications are
extracted from sandalwood, jasmine, lavender and champa, which contain com-
pounds such as santalols, fusanol, teresantol, benzyl acetate, linalool, benzyl benzo-
ate and geraniol. Apart from fragrance, these extracts are also helpful in activating
the immune, nervous and psychosocial systems, aiding cell regeneration; they also
act as antiseptic and antidepressive agents. Absorption of such molecules can
enhance the blood circulation and breathing of patients. Plant extracts containing
phenols and oxygen derivatives can act as antimicrobial and insecticidal agents.
Neem, pomegranate and prickly chaff flower possess active antimicrobial molecules.
The presence of limonoid-based azadirachtin, sallannin and nimbin in neem leaves
Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing 15

are responsible for their antimicrobial behaviour [90–92]. Ocimum Sanctum (Tulasi)
extract, which contains antimicrobial compounds such as caryophyllene, phytol and
germacrene, can be applied to cotton fabric by direct treatment, crosslinking or
micro-encapsulation [93].
Aloe vera is another biomaterial that possess antimicrobial properties, especially
against gram-positive bacteria. A textile specimen treated with aloe vera showed
antimicrobial activity that could withstand up to 50 washing cycles [94]. Aloe vera
has excellent skin care properties, such as moisturizing, anti-inflammatory and anti-
ageing properties. Dystar Auxiliaries developed a textile finishing agent comprising
vitamin E, aloe vera and jojoba oil in a silicon matrix for UV protection and a
moisturizing effect. Herbal nanocomposites of chitosan and Senna auriculata and
Achyranthes aspera are used to finish cotton fabric to impart antibacterial properties.
The composites increased the inhibitory zones of bacteria, and the antibacterial
activity was retained even after 10 washes [95]. Methanolic extract of Meconopsis
napaulensis D.C. leaves were used to dye cotton fabric to impart antifungal proper-
ties The fabric showed activities of 83.3% for Leptosphaerulin trifoli and Alternaria
brassicicola fungi and 46% antifungal activity against Trichoderma [96]. Denim
fabric treated with microencapsulated and nano-encapsulated extracts of Ricinus
communis, S. auriculata and Euphorbia hirta in the ratio of 1:3:2 showed excellent
antibacterial activity. The fabrics showed antimicrobial resistance up to 30 washing
cycles [97]. Ficus bengalensis, Cleome viscosa and Areca catechu extracts in the
ratio of 1:1:1 were used to finish plasma-treated polypropylene fabric. The fabric
showed antibacterial resistance up to 99%, as assessed by the AATCC 100 method;
the plasma treatment improved the hydrophilicity of polypropylene [98].

Environmental Standards in the Textile Industry

The textile industry has environmental impact at various production stages, from the
cultivation or production of fibres to disposal of textile products into the environ-
ment by the consumer. The following are some of the major environmental issues
related to the textile industry:

• High amounts of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers used during cultivation of

natural fibres.
• Huge consumption of water and energy for the production process.
• Consumption of non-renewable resources throughout the entire supply chain.
• Generation of huge amounts of waste and its disposal; emissions from industry
and associated pollution problems.
• Discharge of various pollutants.
• Hazardous chemicals used in the production process.

Due to these problems posed by textile industry, it is necessary to formulate

environmental standards to minimize the risks to the environment and consumer. A
16 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

number of standards have been established to tackle the environmental threat from
the textile industry.

Global Organic Textile Standard

The global organic textile standard (GOTS) was developed to monitor organic textile
products within the textile industry. GOTS is applicable to all textile products made
from organic fibres, and manufacturers can sell these products to various countries as
per this standard. To be GOTS certified, the textile product must contain at least 70%
organic fibres [99]. GOTS consists of two different parts, the standard and
certification:

• The GOTS standard covers the production process, manufacturing route, pack-
aging requirements, labelling, transportation and export/import compliance of
organic textile products. It covers the entire supply chain of an organic textile
product.
• GOTS certification can be obtained for any organic textile product (fibres, yarns,
fabrics, apparels, home furnishing).

To become GOTS certified, an organic textile product must comply with the
following:

• At least 70% of the fibre content must be organic.

• Chemicals used in the entire production process must meet specified environ-
mental and toxicological requirements.
• The product must comply with the standards set for fibre production, processing
and test requirements for various stages of production as per GOTS.
• The industry must have a proper waste water treatment plant in fully functioning
condition.
• Toxic substances, heavy metals and formaldehyde are not allowed in the product.

Bluesign

Bluesign is an independent environmental standard to meet the rising demand for

eco-friendly and sustainable textile products. Bluesign is an evaluative standard to
monitor the resource consumption and waste generated in the production of textile
products. Bluesign operates on the following principles [100]:

• Resource productivity: Reducing consumption of resources; ensuring that the

least amount of pollution is caused to air and water; reducing the ecological
footprint by employing eco-efficient products for production.
Eco-Materials in Textile Finishing 17

• Air emissions: Controlling harmful emissions throughout the supply chain; stan-
dardizing and optimizing energy needs and reducing the total amount of CO2
emitted.
• Occupational health and safety: Providing safety training for employees on
handling and storage of chemicals; safe work practices.
• Water emissions: Controlling hazardous effluents released into water and ensuring
proper functioning of a waste water system.
• Consumer safety: Ensuring the use of safer materials and processing methods in
the entire production process.

Okeo-Tex Standards

The Okeo-Tex standards mainly focus on the ecology of textile products. There are
three different standards:

• Okeo-Tex 100: This standard is used to test and ensure that the textile is free from
harmful substances and chemically safe. Successful products are given the Okeo-
Tex 100 label “Confidence in Textiles”.
• Okeo-Tex 1000: This certifies that the industry demonstrates eco-friendly mea-
sures and satisfies required criteria.
• Okeo-Tex 100 Plus: This is the combination of Okeo-Tex 100 and 1000. This
standard ensures that the textile is chemically safe and the product has been
manufactured under sustainable processing conditions.

Oeko-Tex 100 is the most popular of the three and is well known [101]. It focuses
on the use of dangerous substances such as heavy metals, toxic dyes, pesticides and
formaldehyde. The final product to be certified by Okeo-Tex must be free from
substances that are harmful to human health and the environment. Okeo-Tex 100 is
further divided into four classes depending on the degree to which the textile comes
into contact with skin. The parameters vary according to different classes [102]. The
four classes are the following:

• Class I: Textile products for babies up to 3 years

• Class II: Textile products worn close to the skin (underwear, shirts)
• Class III: Textile products worn away from the skin (jackets)
• Class IV: Home furnishing textiles

Conclusion

Currently, industries are adopting advanced technologies and increasing the use of
sustainable and renewable resources for manufacturing processes. Application of
nanotechnology and plasma technology in textile finishing has shown promising
results and can reduce the consumption of chemicals, energy and water. The
18 A.P. Periyasamy and H. Venkatesan

application of biopolymers and plant extracts in textile finishing has a wide scope in
healthcare textiles. The textile industry is currently not operating in an entirely eco-
friendly and sustainable manner; however, there are numerous ways in which this
can be improved. Integration of modern chemistry and advanced technologies will
play a major role in reaching this goal.

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