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5R-99
State-of-the-Art Report on
Partially Prestressed Concrete
Reported by Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 423
*Subcommittee preparing report (Michael Barker contributed to writing Chapters 4 and 5 of this report).
Partially prestressed concrete construction uses prestressed, or a combina- partially prestressed. This report is presented as an overview of the current
tion of prestressed and nonprestressed, reinforcement. Partially prestressed state of the art for partial prestressing of concrete structures. Research
concrete falls between the limiting cases of conventionally reinforced con- findings and design applications are presented. Specific topics discussed
crete and fully prestressed concrete, which allows no flexural tension under include the history of partial prestressing, behavior of partially prestressed
service loads. When flexural tensile stresses and cracking are allowed concrete members under static loads, time-dependent effects, fatigue, and
under service loads, the prestressed members have historically been called the effects of cyclic loadings.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Keywords: bridges; buildings; concrete construction; corrosion; cracking;
Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, crack widths; cyclic loading; deflections; earthquake-resistant structures;
designing, executing, and inspecting construction. This fatigue; partially prestressed concrete; post-tensioning; prestressing; pre-
document is intended for the use of individuals who stress losses; shear; stresses; structural analysis; structural design; time-
are competent to evaluate the significance and dependent effects; torsion.
limitations of its content and recommendations and
who will accept responsibility for the application of the CONTENTS
material it contains. The American Concrete Institute Chapter 1—Introduction, p. 423.5R-2
disclaims any and all responsibility for the stated 1.1—Historical perspective
principles. The Institute shall not be liable for any loss or 1.2—Definition
damage arising therefrom. 1.3—Design philosophy of partial prestressing
Reference to this document shall not be made in
contract documents. If items found in this document are ACI 423.5R-99 became effective December 3, 1999.
Copyright 2000, American Concrete Institute.
desired by the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
language for incorporation by the Architect/Engineer. tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
423.5R-1
423.5R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
1.4—Advantages and disadvantages of partial (Freyssinet 1933). Freyssinet recognized that as the load on
prestressing a prestressed member is increased, flexural cracks would
1.5—Partial prestressing and reinforcement indexes appear in the tensile zones at a certain load level, which he
1.6—Report objective referred to as the transformation load. Even though the
cracks would close as the load was reduced and the structure
Chapter 2—Partially prestressed members under would recover its original appearance, Freyssinet advocated
static loading, p. 423.5R-5 avoiding cracks under service load so that the concrete
2.1—Behavior would behave as a homogeneous material.
2.2—Methods of analysis
A different design approach, however, was proposed by
2.3—Cracking
von Emperger (1939) and Abeles (1940). They suggested
2.4—Deflections
using a small amount of tensioned high-strength steel to
2.5—Shear and torsion
control deflection and crack width while permitting higher
Chapter 3—Time-dependent behavior, p. 423.5R-12 working stresses in the main reinforcement of reinforced
3.1—Prestress losses concrete. Most of the early work in support of this design
3.2—Cracking concept was done by Abeles (1945) in England. Based on his
3.3—Deflections studies, Abeles determined that eliminating the tensile stress
3.4—Corrosion and possible cracking in the concrete is unnecessary in many
designs. Abeles also realized that prestress can be applied to
Chapter 4—Effects of repeated loading (fatigue), counteract only part of the service load so that tensile stress,
p. 423.5R-15 or even hairline cracks, occur in the concrete under full
4.1—Background service load. Abeles did specify that under dead load only,
4.2—Material fatigue strength no flexural tension stress should be allowed at any member
4.3—Fatigue in partially prestressed beams face where large flexural tensile stresses occurred under
4.4—Prediction of fatigue strength maximum load, so as to ensure closure of any cracks that
4.5—Serviceability aspects may have occurred at maximum load. Additional bonded
4.6—Summary of serviceability and well-distributed nonprestressed reinforcement could be
used to help control cracking and provide the required
Chapter 5—Effects of load reversals, p. 423.5R-20 strength. Abeles termed this design approach as “partially
5.1—Introduction
prestressed concrete.” Therefore, the design approach advo-
5.2—Design philosophy for seismic loadings
cated by Freyssinet was then termed as “fully prestressed
5.3—Ductility
concrete.” In actual practice, nearly all prestressed concrete
5.4—Energy dissipation
components designed today would be “partially prestressed”
5.5—Dynamic analyses
as viewed by Freyssinet and Abeles.
5.6—Connections
5.7—Summary Interest in partial prestressing continued in Great Britain in
the 1950s and early 1960s. Many structures were designed
Chapter 6—Applications, p. 423.5R-28 by Abeles based on the principle of partial prestressing, and
6.1—Early applications examinations of most of these structures around 1970
6.2—Pretensioned concrete components revealed no evidence of distress or structural deterioration,
6.3—Post-tensioned building construction as discussed in the technical report on Partial Prestressing
6.4—Bridges published by the Concrete Society (1983). Partially
6.5—Other applications prestressed concrete design was recognized in the First
Report on Prestressed Concrete published by the Institution
Chapter 7—References, p. 423.5R-30 of Structural Engineers (1951). Provisions for partial
7.1—Referenced standards and reports prestressing were also included in the British Standard Code
7.2—Cited references of Practice for Prestressed Concrete (CP 115) in 1959. In that
code, a permissible tensile stress in concrete as high as 750
Appendix—Notations, p. 423.5R-36 psi (5.2 MPa) was accepted when the maximum working
load was exceptionally high in comparison with the load
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION normally carried by the structure. Presently, the British Code
1.1—Historical perspective
Application of prestressing to concrete members imparts a (BS 8110) as well as the Model Code for Concrete Structures
compressive force of an appropriate magnitude at a suitable (1978), published by CEB-FIP, defines three classes of
location to counteract the service-load effects and modifies prestressed concrete structures:
the structural behavior of the members. Although the con- Class 1—Structures in which no tensile stress is permitted
cept of prestressed concrete was introduced almost concur- in the concrete under full service load;
rently in the U.S. and in Germany before the turn of the 20th Class 2—Structures in which a limited tensile stress is per-
century (Lin and Burns 1981), its principle was not fully mitted in the concrete under full service load, but there is no
established until Freyssinet published his classical study visible cracking; and
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-3
Class 3—Structures in which cracks of limited width illustrated in that guide. The second edition (1978) mentioned
(0.2 mm [0.008 in.]) are permitted under full service load. the term “partial prestressing,” and by the third edition (1985),
Calculations for Class 3 structures would be based on the design examples of members with combined prestressed and
hypothetical tensile stress in the concrete assuming an nonprestressed reinforcement were included. Presently, ACI
uncracked section. The allowable values of the hypothetical 318 permits a tensile stress limit of 12√f c′ psi with
tensile stress vary with the amount, type, and distribution of requirements for minimum cover and a deflection check.
the prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement. Section 18.4.3 of ACI 318 permits the limit to be exceeded on
Elsewhere in Europe, interest in partial prestressing also the basis of analysis or test results. Bridge design guidelines or
developed in the 1950s and 1960s. In the mid-1950s, many recommendations, however, did not follow the development
prestressed concrete structures in Denmark, especially until the publication of the Final Draft LRFD Specifications
bridges, were designed using the partial prestressing concept. for Highway Bridges Design and Commentary (1993), even
Their performance was reported as satisfactory after 25 years though most bridge engineers had been allowing tension in
of service (Rostam and Pedersen 1980). In 1958, the first their designs for many years.
partially prestressed concrete bridge in Switzerland The concept of partial prestressing was developed half a
(Weinland Bridge) was completed near Zurich. Provisions century ago. Over the years, partial prestressing has been
for partial prestressing were introduced in SIA Standard 162, accepted by engineers to the extent that it is now the normal
issued by the Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects way to design prestressed concrete structures. Bennett’s
(1968), and since 1960, more than 3000 bridges have been work (1984) provides a valuable historical summary of the
designed according to this concept with highly satisfactory development of partially prestressed concrete.
results (Birkenmaier 1984). Unlike the British Code and
CEP-FIP Model Code, the limit of partial prestressing in the 1.2—Definition
Swiss Code was not defined by the hypothetical tensile Despite a long history of recognition of the concept of
stress. Instead, it was defined by the tensile stress in the partial prestressing, both in the U.S. and abroad, there has
prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement, and been a lack of a uniform and explicit definition of the term,
calculated using the cracked section. Under full service “partial prestressing.” For example, Lin and Burns (1981)
load, the allowable stress in the nonprestressed state: “When a member is designed so that under the working
reinforcement was 22,000 psi (150 MPa), and in railroad load there are no tensile stresses in it, then the concrete is
bridges, the stress increase in the prestressed reinforcement said to be fully prestressed. If some tensile stresses will be
was not to exceed 1/20 of the tensile strength. This value was produced in the member under working load, then it is
taken as 1/10 of the tensile strength in other structures. It was termed partially prestressed.” On the other hand, Naaman
required, however, that the concrete be in compression when (1982a) states: “Partial prestressing generally implies a com-
the structure supported only permanent load. bination of prestressed and nonprestressed reinforcement,
In the U.S., the design of prestressed concrete in the early both contributing to the resistance of the member. The aim is
1950s was largely based on the Criteria for Prestressed Con- to allow tension and cracking under full service loads while
crete Bridges (1954) published by the Bureau of Public ensuring adequate strength.” According to Nilson (1987),
Roads, which did not permit tensile stress and cracking in “Early designers of prestressed concrete focused on the com-
concrete under service loads. The ACI-ASCE Joint Commit- plete elimination of tensile stresses in members at normal
tee 323 report (1958), however, recognized that “complete service load. This is defined as full prestressing. As experi-
freedom from cracking may or may not be necessary at any ence has been gained with prestressed concrete construction,
particular load stage.” For bridge members, tensile stress it has become evident that a solution intermediate between
was not allowed in concrete subjected to full service load. full prestressed concrete and ordinary reinforced concrete
For building members not exposed to weather or corrosive offers many advantages. Such an intermediate solution, in
atmosphere, a flexural tension stress limit of 6√f c′ psi* was which a controlled amount of concrete tension is permitted
specified with the provision that the limit may be exceeded at full service, is termed partial prestressing.”
if “it is shown by tests that the structure will behave properly A unified definition of the term “partial prestressing”
under service load conditions and meet any necessary should be based on the behavior of the prestressed member
requirements for cracking load or temporary overload.” under a prescribed loading. Therefore, this report defines
Thus, partial prestressing was permitted in that first defini- partial prestressing as: “An approach in design and construc-
tive design guide for prestressed concrete, and designers tion in which prestressed reinforcement or a combination of
were quick to embrace the idea. When the balanced load prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement is used such
design concept was published by Lin (1963), it provided a that tension and cracking in concrete due to flexure are
convenient design tool and encouraged the practical applica- allowed under service dead and live loads, while serviceabil-
tion of partial prestressing. ity and strength requirements are satisfied.”
In 1971, the first edition of the PCI Design Handbook was For the purposes of this report, fully prestressed concrete
published. Design procedures allowing tension stresses are is defined as concrete with prestressed reinforcement and no
flexural tension allowed in the concrete under service loads.
* In this report, when formulas or stress values are taken directly from U.S. codes Conventionally reinforced concrete is defined as concrete
and recommendations, they are left in U.S. customary units. with no prestressed reinforcement and generally, there is
423.5R-4 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
flexural tension in concrete under service loads. Partially multispan bridges, camber control is important in improving
prestressed concrete falls between these two limiting cases. riding comfort as a vehicle passes from one span to the next.
Serviceability requirements include criteria for crack widths, The relatively large mild steel bars used in partially pre-
deformation, long-term effects (such as creep and shrink- stressed members result in a transformed section that can be
age), and fatigue. significantly stiffer than a comparable section that relies
By the previous definition, virtually all prestressed con- solely on prestressing strand, thus reducing both camber and
crete that uses unbonded tendons is “partially prestressed,” deflection.
as codes require that a certain amount of bonded reinforce- Nonprestressed reinforcement used in partially prestressed
ment be provided to meet strength requirements. Most pre- members will enhance the strength and also control crack
tensioned members used in routine applications such as formation and crack width. Under ultimate load, a partially
building decks and frames, and bridges spanning to approx- prestressed member usually demonstrates greater ductility
imately 100 ft (30 m) will allow flexural tension under full than a fully prestressed member. Therefore, it will be able to
service load. The addition of nonprestressed reinforcement is absorb more energy under extreme dynamic loading such as
used only in special situations, such as unusually long spans an earthquake or explosion.
or high service loads, or where camber and deflection control Because mild steel does not lose strength as rapidly as pre-
is particularly important. stressing strands at elevated temperature, it is sometimes
added to prestressed members to improve their fire-resis-
1.3—Design philosophy of partial prestressing tance rating. See Chapter 9 of the PCI Design Handbook
The basic design philosophy for partial prestressing is not (1992) and Design for Fire Resistance of Precast Pre-
different from that of conventionally reinforced concrete or stressed Concrete (1989) for more information.
fully prestressed concrete. The primary objective is to pro-
Partial prestressing is not without some disadvantages.
vide adequate strength and ductility under factored load and
Under repeated loading, the fatigue life of a partially pre-
to achieve satisfactory serviceability under full service load.
stressed member can be a concern. In addition, durability is
By permitting flexural tension and cracking in concrete, a potential problem for partially prestressed members
the designer has more latitude in deciding the amount of pre- because they can be cracked under full service load. Recent
stressing required to achieve the most desirable structural studies (Harajli and Naaman 1985a; Naaman 1989; and Naa-
performance under a particular loading condition. Therefore, man and Founas 1991), however, have shown that fatigue
partial prestressing can be viewed as a means of providing strength depends on the range of stress variation of the strand
adequate control of deformation and cracking of a pre- (refer to Chapter 4) and that durability is related more to cov-
stressed member. If the amount of prestressed reinforcement er and spacing of reinforcement than to crack width, so these
used to provide such control is insufficient to develop the concerns can be addressed with proper design and detailing
required strength, then additional nonprestressed reinforce- of the reinforcement (Beeby 1978 and 1979).
ment is used.
In the production of precast, pretensioned concrete mem-
1.5—Partial prestressing and reinforcement
bers, serviceability can be improved by placing additional indexes
strands, as this is more economical than placing reinforcing Several indexes have been proposed to describe the extent
bars. When this technique is used, the level of initial pre- of prestressing in a structural member. These indexes are
stress in some or all of the strands is lowered. This is also a useful in comparing relative performances of members made
useful technique to keep transfer stresses below the maxi- with the same materials, but caution should be exercised in
mum values prescribed by codes. At least for purposes of using them to determine absolute values of such things as
shear design, the ACI Building Code treats any member with deformation and crack width. Two of the most common indi-
effective prestress force not less than 40% of the tensile ces are the degree of prestress λ, and the partial prestressing
strength of the flexural reinforcement as prestressed concrete. ratio (PPR). These indexes are defined as
A′ 2.2—Methods of analysis
ρ′ = ------s- Several methods can be followed to analyze partially
bd
prestressed concrete members subjected to bending. In terms
of assumptions, purpose, and underlying principles, they are
A ps identical to those used for reinforced and prestressed
ρ p = -------
-
bd p concrete (Nilson 1976, Naaman and Siriaksorn 1979,
and Siriaksorn and Naaman 1979, Al-Zaid and Naaman 1986,
Aps = area of prestressed reinforcement in tension zone, and Tadros 1982).
in.2 (mm2); 2.2.1 Linear elastic analysis—In the elastic range of
As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in.2 behavior, the analysis must accommodate either a cracked or
(mm2); an uncracked section subjected to bending, with or without
A′s = area of nonprestressed compression reinforce- prestress in the steel. The usual assumptions of plane strain
ment, in.2 (mm2); distribution across the section, linear stress-strain relations,
b = width of compression face of member, in. (mm); and perfect bond between steel and concrete remain applica-
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to cen- ble. Linear elastic analysis under service loads assuming an
troid of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in. uncracked section is used for prestressed concrete. In the
(mm); U.S., the design of reinforced concrete is predominantly
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to cen- based on strength requirement, but a linear elastic analysis
troid of prestressed reinforcement, in. (mm); under service loads is also necessary to check serviceability
f ′c = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi limitations such as crack widths, deflections, and fatigue.
(MPa); Prestressed concrete beams can act as cracked or
fps = stress in prestressed reinforcement at nominal uncracked sections, depending on the level of loading. In
strength, psi (MPa); and contrast to reinforced concrete, the centroidal axis of the
fy = yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcement, psi cracked section does not coincide with the neutral axis point
(MPa). of zero stress (Fig. 2.1). Moreover, the point of zero stress does
not remain fixed, but moves with a change in applied load.
1.6—Report objective When the effective prestress tends toward zero, the point of
The objective of this report is to summarize the state of the zero stress and the centroidal axis tend to coincide. Generalized
art of the current knowledge as well as recent developments equations have been developed to determine the zero stress
in partial prestressing so that engineers who are not experi- point based on satisfying equilibrium, strain compatibility, and
enced in prestressed concrete design will have a better stress-strain relations (Nilson 1976; Naaman and Siriaksorn
understanding of the concept. 1979; Siriaksorn and Naaman 1979; and Al-Zaid and Naaman
423.5R-6 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
2.3—Cracking
Partially prestressed concrete permits cracking under ser-
vice loads as a design assumption. To satisfy serviceability
requirements, the maximum crack width should be equal to, or
smaller than, the code-recommended limits on crack width.
The maximum allowable crack widths recommended by
ACI Committee 224 (1980) for reinforced concrete members
can be used, preferably with a reduction factor for pre-
stressed and partially prestressed concrete members. To
select the reduction factor, consideration should be given to
the small diameter of the reinforcing elements (bars or
strands), the cover, and the exposure conditions.
Only a few formulas are used in the U.S. practice to predict
crack widths in concrete flexural members. Because the fac-
Fig. 2.2—Assumed strain distribution and forces in: (a)
nonlinear analysis; (b) approximate nonlinear analysis; tors influencing crack widths are the same for reinforced and
and (c) ultimate strength analysis by ACI Code (Naaman partially prestressed concrete members, existing formulas
1985). for reinforced concrete can be adapted to partially pre-
stressed concrete. Five formulas (ACI 224 1980; Gergely
1986). They usually are third-order equations with respect to and Lutz 1968; Nawy and Potyondy 1971; Nawy and Huang
member depth. Although they can be solved iteratively, charts, 1977; Nawy and Chiang 1980; Martino and Nilson 1979; and
tables, and computer programs have been developed for their Meier and Gergely 1981) applicable to partially prestressed
solution (Tadros 1982, Moustafa 1977). These equations beams are summarized in Table 2.1 (Naaman 1985). The vari-
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-7
Table 2.1—Crack width prediction equations applicable to partially prestressed beams (Naaman 1985)
Source Equation* with U.S. system, (in., ksi) Equation* with SI system, (mm., N/mm2)
A
W max = α × 10 β -------t- ∆f ps
–5
ΣO
At = area of concrete tensile zone
ΣO = sum of perimeters of bonded
Nawy and Huang (1977) reinforcing elements
Nawy and Chiang (1980) ∆fps = net stress change in prestressing steel Multiply expression by 0.1451
after decompression
5.85 if pretensioning
α=
6.51 if post-tensioning
able tensile stress in the reinforcing steel fs should be replaced ng (1977), and Meier and Gergely (1981). Although none of
by the stress change in the prestressing steel after decompres- the three equations gave sufficiently good correlation with
sion ∆fps. The ACI 318 formula initially developed by experimental data for all conditions, the following observa-
Gergely and Lutz (1968) for reinforced concrete could be tions were made (Fig. 2.3):
used as a first approximation for partially prestressed con- • The Gergely and Lutz equation gave a lower prediction
crete. Meier and Gergely (1981), however, suggested a mod- in all cases (Fig. 2.3(a));
ified form (shown in Table 2.1) for the case of prestressed • The Meier and Gergely equation gave the worst corre-
concrete. This alternate formula uses the nominal strain at lation (Fig. 2.3(c)); and
the tensile face of the concrete (instead of the stress in the • The Nawy and Huang equation gave a higher prediction
steel), and the cover to the center of the steel dc. Both the in most cases (Fig. 2.3(b)).
stress in the steel and the clear concrete cover are found to be Although more experimental data are needed to improve
the controlling variables in the regression equation derived the accuracy of crack-width prediction equations available in
by Martino and Nilson (1979). The two prediction equations U.S. practice, there is sufficient information to judge if the
proposed by Nawy and Huang (1977) and Nawy and Chiang serviceability, with respect to cracking or crack width under
(1980) contain most of the important parameters found in the short-term loading, is satisfactory for a partially prestressed
cracking behavior of concrete members except the concrete member. The effects of long-term loading and repetitive
loading (fatigue) on the crack widths of partially prestressed
cover, which is accounted for indirectly. Moreover, they are
members need to be further clarified. A research investiga-
based on actual experimental results on prestressed and par-
tion provided an analytical basis to deal with the problem
tially prestressed beams.
(Harajli and Naaman 1989); however, the proposed method-
As pointed out by Siriaksorn and Naaman (1979), large ology is not amenable to a simple prediction equation that
differences can be observed in predicted crack widths can be easily implemented for design.
depending on the prediction formula used. Harajli and Naa-
man (1989) compared predicted crack widths with observed 2.4—Deflections
crack widths from tests on twelve partially prestressed con- Fully prestressed concrete members are assumed to be
crete beams. They considered the three prediction equations uncracked and linearly elastic under service loads. Instantaneous
recommended by Gergely and Lutz (1968), Nawy and Hua- short-term deflections are determined using general
423.5R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
3
I eff = I cr + ( ( M cr – M dec ) ⁄ ( M a – M dec ) ) (2-1)
( I g – I cr ) ≤ I g
where
Ig = gross moment of inertia, in.4 (mm4);
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section, in.4 (mm4);
Mcr = cracking moment, in.-k (mm-N);
Mdec = decompression moment, in.-k (m-N); and
Ma = applied moment, in.-k (m-N).
Although there is general agreement for the use of the pre-
vious expression, substantial divergence of opinion exists as
to the computation of Icr and Mdec. The computation differ-
ence is whether the moment of inertia of the cracked section
should be computed with respect to the neutral axis of bend-
ing or with respect to the zero-stress point, and whether the
decompression moment should lead to decompression at the
extreme concrete fiber or whether it should lead to a state of
zero curvature in the section. The discussion of Tadros’
paper (1982) by several experts in the field is quite informa-
tive on these issues. A systematic comparison between the
various approaches, combined with results from experimen-
tal tests, is given in work by Watcharaumnuay (1984), who
observed that the use of Icr with respect to the neutral axis of
bending is preferable, while the use of Mdec as that causing
decompression at the extreme concrete fiber, is easier and
leads to results similar to those obtained using the zero cur-
vature moment.
Table 2.2—Deflection prediction equations for prestressed and partially prestressed beams (from Naaman
1985)
Short-term instantaneous Long-term or additional long-term
Source deflection deflection Remarks
Long-term deflection obtained by
∆t is obtained from elastic integrating curvatures with due • Uncracked section; and
ACI 435 (1963) analysis using Ft , Ect , and Ig . account for creep effects and prestress • No provisions for As and A′s.
losses with time.
∆t shall be obtained from ∆add shall be computed, taking into • No provisions for partial
ACI Code Section 9.5 account stresses under sustained load,
elastic analysis using Ig for prestressing (cracking, As
(1971, 1977, and 1983) including effects of creep, shrinkage,
uncracked sections. and relaxation. and A′s ).
1+η
∆ add = η – 1 + ------------- k r C cu
2
( ∆ t ) F + k r C CU ( ∆ t ) G + K CA k r C CU ( ∆ t ) SD • Uncracked section;
t
∆t is obtained from elastic • k r is applicable only when
Branson et al. (1971, where
1974, and 1977) CCU = ultimate creep coefficient of (∆t)Ft + G is a camber; and
analysis using Ect and Ig.
• Ft = initial prestressing force
concrete;
η = F/Ft; immediately after transfer.
kr = 1/(1 + As/Aps); and
KCA = age at loading factor for creep
• Uncracked section;
• The pressure line is assumed
The long-term deflection is estimated resulting from the sustained
from: loadings;
2 2
l l • The profile of the pressure
∆ ( t ) = φ 1 ( t ) --- + [ φ 2 ( t ) – φ 1 ( t ) ] ------
∆t is obtained using Ig and the 8 48 line is assumed parabolic;
Naaman (1982 and predicted elastic modulus at where • Prestress losses must be
1983) time of loading Ec (t). φ1(t) = midspan curvature at time t; estimated a priori;
φ2(t) = support curvature at time t; • Design chart is provided for
φ(t) = M/[Ece(t) × I]; and the equivalent modulus; and
Ece(t) = equivalent modulus • As and A′s are accounted for
through It and neutral axis of
bending.
For cracked members, the
short-term deflection is Long-term deflection is not addressed
Bronson and Trost but it is assumed that for a given ∆t, the
(1982) computed using Ieff modified • Cracked members.
for partial prestressing. earlier method is applicable.
E ci • Uncracked section;
∆t is obtained from elastic λ 1 = k r ------α • Design values of λ1 and λ2
Martin (1977) analysis using Ect and Ig. Ec
were recommended; and
α = ( 2 – 1.2A s ′ ⁄ A s ) ≥ 0.6 • The method is adopted in
λ 2 = ηλ 1 PCI Design Handbook.
Fig. 2.4—Equivalent loads and moments produced by prestressing tendons (Nilson 1987);
P = prestressing force.
prestressing, as well. This approach allows the designer to cracking, or as the capacity of an equivalent member without
treat a prestressed concrete member as if it was a transverse reinforcement. Therefore, detailed expressions
nonprestressed concrete member. The prestressing steel is have been developed in terms of parameters relevant to the
treated as mild (passive) reinforcement for ultimate strength of members without transverse reinforcement.
conditions, with a remaining tensile capacity of (fps – fpe), These parameters include the influence of axial compres-
where fps is the stress in the reinforcement at nominal sion, member geometry, support conditions, axial tension,
strength, and fpe is the effective stress in the prestressed and prestress.
reinforcement (after allowance for all losses). 2.5.2 Shear—The following behavioral changes occur in
Most codes of practice (ACI 318; AASHTO Bridge partially prestressed members at nominal shear levels, as
Design Specifications, Eurocode 2; and CSA Design of Con- some of the longitudinal prestressing steel in the tension face
crete Structures for Buildings) use sectional methods for of the member is replaced by mild reinforcement, but the
design of conventional beams under bending, shear, and tor- same total flexural strength is maintained:
sion. Truss models provide the basis for these sectional • Due to the lower effective prestress, the external load
design procedures that often include a term for the concrete required to produce inclined cracking is reduced. This
contribution (Ramirez and Breen 1991). The concrete contri- results in an earlier mobilization of the shear reinforce-
ment; and
bution supplements the sectional truss model to reflect test
• After inclined cracking, there is a reduction in the con-
results in beams and slabs with little or no shear reinforce-
crete contribution. The reduction is less significant as the
ment and to ensure economy in the practical design of such degree of prestressing decreases. This can be explained
members. as follows:
In design specifications, the concrete contribution has •The addition of mild reinforcement results in an
been taken as either the shear force or torsional moment at increase in the cross-sectional area of the longitudinal
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-11
tension reinforcement and the reinforcement stiffness; supported by the theory of plasticity, in which a space truss
and with variable inclination of compression diagonals provides
•The increase in stiffness of the longitudinal tension a lower-bound (static) solution.
reinforcement delays the development of the crack- This procedure is representative of the behavior of thin-
ing pattern, so that the cracks are narrower and the walled tubes in torsion. For these members, the shear
flexural compression zone is larger than in fully pre- stresses induced by torsion can be determined using only
stressed members of comparable flexural strength.
equilibrium relationships. Because the wall of the tube is
These behavioral changes are well documented in a series thin, a constant shear stress can be assumed across its thick-
of shear tests carried out by Caflisch et al. (1971). In this ness. In the longitudinal direction, equilibrium conditions
series of tests, the only variable was the degree of prestress- dictate that the torsion-induced shear stresses be resisted by
ing. The cross sections of the prestressing steel and the rein- a constant shear flow around the perimeter of the section.
forcing steel were selected so that all the beams had the same For other sections before cracking, the strength in torsion
flexural strength. These tests also showed that for the same can be computed from the elastic theory (de Saint-Venant
external load, a higher degree of prestressing delays the 1956) or from the plastic theory (Nadai 1950). Rather than
onset of diagonal cracking and results in a decrease in the using these more complex approaches, an approximate pro-
stirrup forces. The decrease in stirrup forces can be cedure is used in ACI 318 based on the concept that most tor-
explained by the fact that a higher degree of prestressing in sion is resisted by the high shear stresses near the outer
the web of the member results in a lower angle of inclination perimeter of the section. In this approach, the actual cross
of the diagonal cracks. The lower angle of inclination of the section before cracking is represented by an equivalent thin-
cracks leads to the mobilization of a larger number of stir- walled tube with a wall thickness t of
rups.
In ACI 318, a cursory review of the design approach for
A cp
shear indicates that partially prestressed members can be t = 0.75 -------
- (2-2)
designed following the same procedure as for fully pre- P cp
stressed members. In ACI 318, it is assumed that flexure and
shear can be handled separately for the worst combination of where Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete
flexure and shear at a given section. The analysis of a beam cross section, and Pcp = outside perimeter of the concrete
under bending and shear using the truss approach clearly cross section. While the area enclosed by the shear flow
indicates that, to resist shear, the member needs both stirrups path, Ao, could be calculated from the external dimensions
and longitudinal reinforcement. The additional longitudinal and wall thickness of the equivalent tube, it is reasonable to
tension force due to shear can be determined from equilibri- approximate it as equal to 2Acp/3. Cracking is assumed to
um conditions of the truss model as (V cot θ), where V is the occur when the principal tensile stress reaches 4√f c′ . For pre-
shear force at the section, and θ is the angle of inclination of stressed members, the cracking torque is increased by the
the inclined struts with respect to the longitudinal axis of the prestress. A Mohr’s Circle analysis based on average stress-
member. es indicates that the torque required to cause a principal ten-
In the shear provisions of ACI 318, no explicit check of the sile stress equal to 4√f c′ is the corresponding cracking torque
shear-induced force in the longitudinal reinforcement is per- of a nonprestressed beam times
formed (Ramirez 1994). The difference between the flexural
strength requirements for the prestress reinforcement and the f pc
ultimate tensile capacity of the reinforcement can be used to 1 + ------------
- (2-3)
satisfy the longitudinal tension requirement. The 1994 AASH- 4 f c′
TO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, in the section for
shear design, includes a check for longitudinal reinforcement. where fpc in psi is the average precompression due to pre-
These recommendations are based on a modified compres- stress at the centroid of the cross section resisting the exter-
sion field theory (Vecchio and Collins 1986). nally applied loads or at the junction of web and flange if the
2.5.3 Torsion—ACI 318 includes design recommenda- centroid lies within the flange.
tion for the case of torsion or combined shear and torsion in In ACI 318, the design approach for combined actions
prestressed concrete members. These provisions model the does not explicitly consider the change in conditions from
behavior of a prestressed concrete member before cracking one side of the beam to the other. Instead, it considers the
as a thin-walled tube and after cracking using a space-truss side of the beam where shear and torsional effects are addi-
model with compression diagonals inclined at an angle θ tive. After diagonal cracking, the concrete contribution of
around all faces of the member. For prestressed members, θ the shear strength Vc remains constant at the value it has
can be taken equal to 37.5 degrees if the effective prestress- when there is no torsion, and the torsion carried by the con-
ing force is not less than 40% of the tensile strength of the crete is taken as zero. The approach in ACI 318 has been
prestressed reinforcement. For other cases, θ can be taken compared with test results by MacGregor and Ghoneim
equal to 45 degrees. This approach is based on the work car- (1995).
ried out in the 1960s and 1970s by European investigators In the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, the modified com-
led by Thurlimann (1979). This work proposed a method pression field theory proposed for members under shear has
423.5R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
f c′ – 6.0
Upper bound 39.0 1.0 – 0.15 ------------------
- + 6.0PPR
Single-T, double-T, 6.0 f c′ – 6.0
hollow core, and 31.0 1.0 – 0.15 ------------------
- + 6.0PPR
voided slab f c′ – 6.0 6.0
Average 33.0 1.0 – 0.15 ------------------
- + 6.0PPR
6.0
3.3—Deflections
Several experimental investigations have dealt with the
time-dependent deflection of partially prestressed concrete
members (Bennett and Lee 1985; Bruggeling 1977; Jittawait
and Tadros 1979; Lambotte and Van Nieuwenburg 1986;
Abeles 1965; and Watcharaumnuay and Naaman 1985).
Deflections and cambers in partially prestressed concrete
members are expected to vary with time similarly to rein-
forced or fully prestressed concrete. When positive deflec- Fig. 3.2—Long-term deflections of fully prestressed and
tion (opposite to camber) is present, in all cases the partially prestressed (cracked and uncracked) beams
deflection in partially prestressed beams falls between those (Naaman 1982); 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
of reinforced concrete and fully prestressed concrete beams was about 1.25 for pretensioned members and 1.5 for post-
(Fig. 3.2). A limited experimental study by Jittawait and tensioned members.
Tadros (1979) also seems to confirm this observation. Several analytical investigations have dealt with the time-
A study of the long-term behavior of partially prestressed dependent deflections of prestressed and partially
beams has been conducted at the Magnel laboratory in Bel- prestressed beams assumed to be uncracked (Table 2.2). The
gium (Lambotte and Van Nieuwenburg 1986). Twelve par- evaluation of deflections for cracked, partially prestressed
tially prestressed beams with PPR of 0.8, 0.65, and 0.5 were members has been conducted by several researchers
either kept unloaded or were loaded with an equivalent full (Branson and Shaikh 1985; Ghali and Tadros 1985; Tadros
service load. For the unloaded beams, increased camber with et al. 1985; Ghali and Favre 1986; Al-Zaid et al. 1988;
time was generally observed for PPR = 0.8; for PPR = 0.65, Elbadry and Ghali 1989; Ghali 1989; and Founas 1989).
the camber reached a peak value and then decreased with Watcharaumnuay and Naaman (1985) proposed a method to
time, resulting in a practically level beam; and for PPR = 0.5, determine time- and cyclic-dependent deflections in simply
the initial camber decreased with time, resulting in a final supported, partially prestressed beams in both the cracked
downward deflection. For the loaded beams, deflections and uncracked state. The time-dependent deflection is
were observed in all cases and increased with time. These treated as a special case of cyclic deflection. Compared with
observations are illustrated in Fig. 3.3. After 2 years of load- the time-step method where the deflection is obtained from
ing, the ratio of additional deflection to the initial deflection the summation of deflection increments over several time
423.5R-14 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Ec ( t )
Fig. 3.3(a)—Variation with time of midspan deflection for E ce ( t ) = -------------------------------- (3-2)
unloaded specimens (Lambotte and Van Nieuwenburg 1 + Cc ( t – tA )
1986); 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
where
t = time or age of concrete;
tA = age of concrete at time of loading;
Ec (t) = instantaneous elastic modulus of concrete at
time t;
and
Cc (t - tA) = creep coefficient of concrete at time t when
loaded at time tA.
Several expressions are available to predict the creep coef-
ficient of concrete. The recommendations of ACI Committee
209 (1982) can be followed in most common applications.
Fig. 3.3(b)—Variation with time of midspan deflection for
specimens under service loading (Lambotte and Van 3.4—Corrosion
Nieuwenburg 1986); 1 in. = 25.4 mm. The reinforcement in a fully prestressed member is better
protected against corrosion than the reinforcement in a
intervals, this method leads to the deflection at any time t and partially prestressed member. Cracks in partially prestressed
cycle N directly. The method satisfies equilibrium and strain beams are potential paths for the passage of corrosive agents.
compatibility. Using a slightly different approach, the Although corrosion also occurs along uncracked sections,
method proposed by Watcharaumnuay and Naaman (1985) cracking can facilitate corrosion. Abeles (1945) suggested
was generalized by Al-Zaid et al. (1988) and Founas (1989), that corrosion of the prestressing steel in partially prestressed
and was extended to include composite beams as well as members can be mitigated by requiring that the member
noncomposite beams. faces that are cracked under full service load be in
In dealing with time-dependent deflections, several time- compression under permanent (dead) loads. He demonstrated
the effectiveness of this strategy in the behavior of beams
dependent variables should be determined. These include the
partially prestressed using small-diameter wires that were used
prestressing force, the moment of inertia of the section, and
in the roof of an engine shed for steam locomotives. These
the equivalent modulus of elasticity of the concrete. The
beams successfully resisted a very corrosive atmosphere caused
expression for the effective moment of inertia described in by the mixture of smoke and steam ejected onto them from the
Eq. (2-1) can be used. In this expression, however, Mcr and funnels of the locomotives.
Icr are time-dependent variables because they depend on the Limiting the size of crack widths to reduce the probability
value of the prestressing force and the location of the neutral of corrosion has been common practice in design. Later stud-
axis (zero stress point along the section), both of which vary ies (ACI 222R-89), however, move away from this approach
with time. The equivalent modulus of elasticity of the con- by pointing out that corrosion is due to many causes, most of
crete depends on the variation of creep strain with time. which can proceed with or without cracking to be activated.
The following method can be used to estimate deflection Corrosion in prestressing steels is much more serious than
at any time t in a cracked, simply supported beam corrosion in nonprestressed reinforcing steels. Prestressing
steel is generally stressed to over 50% of its strength, making
KD M KF F ( t ) it susceptible to stress corrosion, and the diameter of individ-
∆ ( t ) = ----------------------------
- + ----------------------------
- (3-1) ual prestressing steel wires is relatively small. Even a small,
E ce ( t )I eff ( t ) E ce ( t )I eff ( t )
uniform corrosive layer or a corroded spot can progressively
reduce the cross-sectional area of the steel and lead to wire
where failure.
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-15
Corrosion is mostly an electrochemical problem and increased crack widths and deflections under service loads
should be treated accordingly. Precautions should be taken (Naaman 1982b; Shakawi and Batchelor 1986; and ACI
to prevent or to reduce prestressing steel corrosion. Committee 215 1974). The increase in crack widths in par-
ACI 423.3R addresses the historical causes of corrosion in tially prestressed beams, however, has been smaller than
unbonded tendons. The Post-Tensioning Manual (Post-Ten- that generated in similarly loaded, precracked, fully pre-
sioning Institute 1990) provides guidance for corrosion pro- stressed beams (Harajli and Naaman 1984).
tection for bonded and unbonded tendons. Occasionally, for Because the proportion of dead to total load often increas-
pretensioned concrete, epoxy-coated prestressing strands es as the span length increases, the significance of fatigue as
have been specified for corrosive environments. High curing a critical limit state tends to diminish as span lengths
temperatures, however, could adversely affect the bond of increase (Freyermuth 1985).
epoxy-coated strand. Guidelines for the Use of Epoxy-Coat- Abeles demonstrated the practicability of using partially
ed Strand (PCI Ad Hoc Committee 1993) contains recom- prestressed concrete members when fatigue resistance is a
mendations for its use. serious consideration (Abeles 1954). He persuaded British
Lenschow (1986) reported that crack widths less than Railways to consider the use of partial prestressing in the
0.004 to 0.006 in. (0.1 to 0.15 mm), which develop under reconstruction of highway bridges over the London to
maximum load, will heal under long-term compression. Manchester line, when it was electrified around 1950. Brit-
Crack widths that increase to less than 0.01 in. (0.3 mm) ish Railways financed extensive cyclic loading tests of full-
under rare overload (every 1 to 3 years) can reduce to 0.004 scale members, which were designed to allow 550 psi
to 0.006 in. (0.1 to 0.15 mm) under sustained compression. (approximately 8√f c′ or 3.8 MPa) tension under full service
Keeping crack widths under such limits should avoid prob- load and 50 psi (0.34 MPa) compression under dead load
lems with corrosion. only. These members were cracked under static load and
were then subjected to 3 million cycles of load producing the
CHAPTER 4—EFFECTS OF REPEATED design range of stress, 50 psi (0.34 MPa) compression to 550
LOADING (FATIGUE) psi (3.8 MPa) tension at the flexural tension face. Behavior
4.1—Background was satisfactory, with essentially complete closure of cracks
Two major requirements should be considered when and recovery of deflection after 3 million cycles of load. The
designing members subjected to repeated loads: member strength under static loading was not decreased by the cyclic
strength and serviceability. The static strength and fatigue loading. Many relatively short-span bridges were construct-
strength of the member should exceed loads imposed and ed using such partially prestressed members and they per-
adequate serviceability requirements (deflection and crack formed satisfactorily.
control) should be provided. Recently, Roller et al. (1995) conducted an experimental
The fatigue strength of a member is affected primarily by program including four full-size, pretensioned, bulb-tee gird-
the stress range (difference between maximum and mini- ers made with high-strength concrete and pretensioned. The
mum stress), the number of load applications or cycles, and girders were 70 ft (21.3 m) long and 54 in. (1.4 m) deep with
the applied stress levels. The fatigue life of a member is a concrete compressive strength of 10,000 psi (69 MPa). One
defined as the number of load cycles before failure. The of the four test girders with a simple span of 69 ft (21.0 m)
higher the stress range imposed on the member, the shorter was subjected to cyclic (fatigue) flexural loading using two
the fatigue life. point loads spaced 12 ft (3.66 m) apart at midspan. A con-
Reliability analyses indicate that the probability of fatigue crete deck 10 ft (3.05 m) wide and 9.5 in. (250 mm) thick had
failure of reinforcement in partially prestressed beams is been cast on the girder to represent the effective flange of the
higher on average than failure by any other common service- composite girder in a bridge.
ability or ultimate limit state criterion (Naaman 1985, Naa- During the cyclic flexural loading, the upper limit of the
man and Siriaksorn 1982). Fatigue can be a critical loading load produced a midspan tensile stress at the extreme fiber of
condition for partially prestressed concrete beams because the lower flange equal to 6√f c′ . The lower limit of the load was
high stress ranges can be imposed on the member in the ser- selected such that a steel stress range of 10,000 psi (69 MPa)
vice-load range (Naaman and Siriaksorn 1979). would be produced. After each million cycles of loading, the
Partially prestressed concrete beams generally crack upon girder was tested statically to determine its stiffness. Slight
first application of live load (Naaman 1982b). Subsequent reductions in stiffness and camber were observed, but there
applications of live load cause the cracks to reopen at the was no significant change in prestress loss. The girder per-
decompression load (when the stress at the extreme tensile formed satisfactorily for 5 million cycles of fatigue loading.
face is zero), which is less than the load that caused first After completion of the long-term fatigue load test, the gird-
cracking. To maintain equilibrium in the section after crack- er was tested under static load to determine its ultimate flex-
ing, the neutral axis shifts toward the extreme compression ural strength. It developed an ultimate moment equal to 94%
fiber. This shift generates higher strains (stresses) in the tensile of the ultimate moment capacity of a companion girder that
reinforcement. had been under long-term sustained load. The measured
Under repeated loads, the larger stress changes (created moment capacity also exceeded the calculated moment
by opening and closing of the cracks) cause fatigue damage capacity by 7.5% based on the AASHTO Standard Specifi-
in the constituent materials, bond deterioration, and cations for Highway Bridges.
423.5R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
where
ff = safe stress range, ksi;
fmin = minimum applied stress, ksi; and
r/h = ratio of base radius-to-height of rolled-on trans-
verse deformation (a value of 0.3 can be used in
the absence of specific data).
The fatigue strength of prestressing reinforcement
Fig. 4.1—Comparison of observed fatigue life of prestressing
strands with existing data (Harajli and Naaman 1985a). depends upon the steel type (bar, wire, strand), anchorage
(unbonded post-tensioned reinforcement), extent of bond (ACI
Committee 215 1974), and steel treatment. Paulson et al.
4.2—Material fatigue strength (1983) conducted fatigue tests (in-air) of 50 seven-wire
The fatigue resistance of a structural concrete member is strand samples obtained from six different manufacturers.
directly related to the fatigue properties of its component All of the strands conformed with ASTM A 416 require-
materials (Naaman 1982b). Therefore, the fatigue behavior ments. The minimum stresses applied in the tests ranged
of the constituent materials should be investigated first. from 75 to 165 ksi (517 to 1138 MPa), and the stress ranges
Fatigue of concrete—The applied stress range limit for varied from 22 to 81 ksi (152 to 559 MPa). A significant
concrete recommended by ACI 215 (1974) is given by the variation was observed in results from even two samples of
formula the same product produced by the same manufacturer. The
effect of the end grips dominated the fatigue curves in the
f cr = 0.4f c′ – f min ⁄ 2 (4-1) region of long-life, low-stress-range.
The following relationship was found to lie above 95 to
where 97.5% of the failure points
fcr = maximum recommended stress range for concrete;
f c′ = specified concrete compressive strength; and log N = 11 – 3.5 log f sr (4-3)
fmin = minimum applied stress.
Concrete can sustain a fluctuating stress between zero where
and 50% of its static strength for approximately 10 million N = number of cycles; and
cycles in direct compression, tension, or flexure without fsr = maximum stress range for a fatigue life of N cy-
failure (Norby 1958; Gylltoft 1978; McCall 1958; Stelson cles, ksi.
and Cernica 1958; and Hilsdorf and Kesler 1966). Concrete The researchers did not find the effect of minimum stress on
stresses resulting from service loads are generally smaller fatigue life great enough to warrant inclusion in the equation.
than this magnitude (Shahawi and Batchelor 1986). Conse- The FIP Commission on Prestressing Steel (1976) recom-
quently, concrete fatigue failure generally will not control in mends a stress range of 15% of fpu with a minimum applied
the case of repetitively loaded partially prestressed beams stress not greater than 75% of fpu for a fatigue life of 2 mil-
(Naaman 1982b; Harajli and Naaman 1984; and Bennett lion cycles. For the same fatigue life of two million cycles,
1986). however, Naaman (1982b) recommends a reduced stress
Fatigue of reinforcement—Fatigue failure of underreinforced range of 10% fpu with a minimum applied stress not greater
prestressed concrete beams is believed to be governed by the than 60% of fpu to better correlate with test results (Fig. 4.1).
fatigue failure of the steel reinforcement (Warner and Huls- The following equation can be used to predict other maxi-
bos 1966a). mum safe stress ranges
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-17
where
fsr = maximum safe stress range for a fatigue life of N
cycles;
fpu = specified tensile strength of the prestressing
strand; and
Nf = number of cycles to failure.
The endurance limit (stress range for which the reinforce-
ment will not fail for an infinite number of cycles) has not
been found for prestressing steel (Naaman 1982b); however,
a fatigue life of 2 million cycles is considered to be sufficient
for most applications.
The previous discussion applies to pretensioned strands. Fig. 4.2—Fatigue resistance of post-tensioned tendon in
steel duct and in thick-walled plastic duct (Oertle 1988);
For post-tensioned tendons, two more levels of fatigue 1 ksi = 6.9 MPa.
strength have to be considered: the strand/duct assembly and
the tendon anchorages. For the strand/duct assembly, fretting live load (Fig. 4.3). For the same type of beam section, the
fatigue may govern if high contact stresses between strand effect of the PPR was plotted with respect to the reinforce-
and corrugated steel duct are combined with small relative ment stress range due to the application of live loads (Fig.
movements at cracks. Under such circumstances, the fatigue 4.4). The discontinuity in the plots corresponds with first
strength of the strand/duct assembly can drop to as low as cracking of the concrete in the beams. It is evident from the
14,300 psi (100 MPa). Fatigue strengths of anchorages are in figures that higher stress ranges are associated with partially
the order of 14,300 psi (100 MPa), according to FIP Com- prestressed sections. Thus, fatigue problems are more signif-
mission on Prestressing Steel and Systems (1992). icant in partially prestressed sections than in their ordinary
Designers typically place tendon anchorages away from reinforced or fully prestressed counterparts.
areas with high stress variations and avoid fatigue problems
at the anchorages. A similar approach normally will not 4.4—Prediction of fatigue strength
work to avoid fretting fatigue because maximum stresses The studies described have a common conclusion summa-
often occur at sections with maximum tendon curvature and rized by Naaman (1982b) and Warner and Hulsbos (1966b).
maximum contact stresses between strand and duct. Fretting The critical limit state (fatigue failure) of partially pre-
fatigue between strand and duct, however, can be avoided by stressed concrete beams is generally due to failure of the
using thick-walled plastic ducts rather than corrugated steel reinforcement. The fatigue life of the member can be predict-
ducts (Oertle 1988). With a thick-walled plastic duct, the ed from the smaller of the fatigue lives of the reinforcing
strand reaches fatigue strengths comparable to those of steel or the prestressing steel. Many of these investigations
strand in air. Fig. 4.2 shows the fatigue performance of ten- have indicated that in-air test results of reinforcement pro-
dons with steel and plastic ducts in simply supported beams vide a good indication of the member fatigue life.
under four-point loading. In the specimen with a steel duct, Naaman therefore recommends using Eq. (4-4) or Fig. 4.1
50% of the tendons failed at a fatigue amplitude of 25,000 psi to estimate the fatigue life of stress-relieved seven-wire
(175 MPa); in contrast, only 18% of the tendons in the spec- strand for the appropriate stress range. A strand subjected to
imen with a plastic duct failed at a fatigue amplitude of a minimum stress less than 60% of its tensile strength with a
39,400 psi (275 MPa). stress range of 10% of the tensile strength should provide a
fatigue life of approximately two million cycles.
4.3—Fatigue in partially prestressed beams For ordinary reinforcement, Naaman recommends using
To illustrate the relative importance of fatigue for partially Eq. (4-2) to determine safe stress ranges that provide fatigue
prestressed beams compared with that for ordinary reinforced lives in excess of 2 million cycles.
or fully prestressed beams, Naaman (1982b) analyzed three ACI Committee 215 (1974) and Venuti (1965) recom-
concrete beams, identical except for the partially prestressed mend conducting a statistical investigation of at least six to
reinforcement ratio (PPR = 0, 0.72 and 1.0). Note that PPR 12 reinforcement samples at appropriate stress levels to estab-
= 0 represents an ordinary reinforced beam; PPR = 1.0 rep- lish the fatigue characteristics of the material. At least three
resents a fully prestressed beam; and PPR = 0.72 represents stress levels are required to establish the finite-life portion of
a partially prestressed beam. All of the beams were designed the S-N diagram: one stress level near the static strength, one
to provide the same ultimate moment capacity. Material near the fatigue limit, and one in between.
properties and relevant data are given by Naaman and Siri- The choice of the PPR and relative placement of the reinforce-
aksorn (1979). ment have a significant effect on the fatigue response of the
For each beam, computed stress ranges in ordinary and pre- members. Naaman (1982b) states that proper selection of these
stressed steel were plotted with respect to the applied load (in variables can maintain the stress ranges in the reinforcement to
excess of the dead load) varying from zero to the specified within acceptable limits.
423.5R-18 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Fig. 4.3—Typical comparison of stress changes in steel for reinforced, prestressed, and
partially prestressed beams (Naaman 1982a).
4.5—Serviceability aspects
In a cracked concrete member, whether nonprestressed,
partially prestressed, or fully prestressed, the crack widths
and deflections generally increase under repeated loadings
(Naaman 1982b).
The increase in crack widths and deflections in concrete
members is mostly attributed to the cyclic creep of concrete
and bond deterioration accompanied by slip between the
reinforcement and concrete on either side of existing cracks.
Fig. 4.4—Typical stress changes in steel at different levels of ACI Committee 224 (1980) notes that 1 million cycles of
prestressing (Naaman 1982a). load can double the crack widths.
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-19
a cs = 1.20A t ⁄ P (4-5)
where
Wmax = maximum crack width, mm; and
W = 2S o B (4-6) fs = change in steel stress from decompression at the
extreme tensile fiber, MPa.
W N = 2S o, N B N + [ ( f so, N – f so )a cs B N ⁄ E s ] (4-7) The previous FIP-CEB equation accounts for partial
debonding, but does not consider cyclic creep of the con-
crete. Balaguru (1981) and Balaguru and Shah (1982)
where
developed an equation to estimate maximum crack widths
acs = crack spacing, in. (mm);
that incorporates the effects of cyclic creep and progressive
At = effective area of concrete tension zone surround-
deterioration of flexural stiffness. Comparing the results of
ing all reinforcementhaving the same centroid as
this equation with those of the FIP-CEB crack width formula
the reinforcement, in.2 (mm2);
using data by Bhuvasorakul (1974), Balaguru determined the
P = sum of the perimeters of all tension reinforcement,
following ratios of maximum crack width after N cycles to
in. (mm);
initial maximum crack width: Wmax,N / Wmax = 2.45 (experi-
W = crack width at the first loading cycle; mental) = 1.003 (FIP-CEB) = 2.15 (Balaguru). He attributed
WN = crack width at the Nth loading cycle; the disparity in the result obtained by the FIP-CEB equation
So = slip of the reinforcement at the first cycle; to the lack of consideration of cyclic creep of concrete.
So,N = slip of the reinforcement at the Nth cycle;
B = distance ratio at the first cycle; 4.6—Summary of serviceability
BN = distance ratio at the Nth cycle; In all types of concrete members, crack widths and
fso = steel stress at the primary crack at the first cycle; deflections generally increase under repeated loadings
fso,N = steel stress at the primary crack at cycle N; (Naaman 1982b). These increases occur during early load
N = number of load cycles; and stages and then generally stabilize until approximately 90%
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel. of their fatigue life. Researchers (Harajli and Naaman 1989,
423.5R-20 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Fig. 4.6—Comparison of observed and predicted crack width increases with number of
loading cycles (Harajli and Naaman 1989); 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
Shahawi and Batchelor 1986) show a nearly linear relationship cyclic creep of the concrete and tension stiffening effects to
between maximum crack width and reinforcement stress. estimate maximum crack widths and deflections at a given
Deflections can increase to twice the static deflection of the first load cycle. Naaman and Founas (1991) also presented
load cycle. models to compute stresses, strains, and deflections in
The importance of correct reinforcement detailing for partially prestressed beams for static and cyclic loading
crack control should be emphasized. Pretensioned wires or incorporating effects of shrinkage, creep, and relaxation.
nonprestressed bars can be placed near the tensile face to
help limit crack widths according to the report Partial Pre- CHAPTER 5—EFFECTS OF LOAD REVERSALS
stressing (Concrete Society 1983). The presence of ordinary 5.1—Introduction
reinforcement in prestressed beams helps to control cracking Cyclic load reversals can result from dynamic effects of
in static and fatigue tests. Ordinary reinforcement reduces earthquake, shock, wind, or blast loadings. Earthquake load-
the increased steel stresses attributed to cyclic creep of con- ings are imparted to the base of the structure through ground
crete. In addition, it minimizes bond redistribution. motion, whereas wind loadings transmit forces to the above-
Balaguru (1981) and Balaguru and Shah (1982) have ground portions of the structure. Shock or blast loadings can
derived a refined approach that incorporates the effects of involve both of these effects: air overpressure forces similar
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-21
Fig. 4.7—Crack width variation versus reinforcing steel stress at different PPR (Harajli
and Naaman 1985); 1 ksi = 6.9 MPa, 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
to wind loadings and ground motions accompanying either to be designed for considerably lower forces than required
buried, air, or contact blasts. for the first option.
Designing partially prestressed concrete structures in accor-
5.2—Design philosophy for seismic loadings dance with the second approach, raises the same concerns as
In design for seismic effects, the primary concern is safety for the case of designing with conventional reinforced con-
of the occupants (Bertero 1986), and a secondary concern is crete; that is, the designer must ensure:
economics. Even for an earthquake with reasonable proba- • Ductility at plastic hinges; and
• Adequate energy dissipation through damping and
bility of occurrence; however, it is not possible to guarantee
hysteresis.
with absolute certainty complete life safety and no structural This chapter concentrates on these characteristics as they
damage. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, in relate to partially prestressed concrete.
their document NEHRP 1997 Recommended Provisions
(1998), give minimum requirements to provide “reasonable 5.3—Ductility
and prudent life safety.” To achieve these objectives, struc- Ductility allows the redistribution of forces in indeterminate
tures should be proportioned to resist design forces with ade- systems and ensures gradual rather than brittle failure, provid-
quate strength and stiffness to limit damage to acceptable ing a warning to the occupants before collapse. If adequate
levels. Design forces are determined by using a response- ductility is not provided at the critical regions (plastic hinge
modification coefficient R to reduce the forces obtained, zones), the member will be unable to develop the required
assuming that the structure responds linear elastically to the inelastic rotation.
ground motion. The reduction factor accounts for the Ductility is usually expressed for structural members and
systems in terms of a deformation ductility ratio, where the
reduced strength demand due to a number of effects, includ-
deformation is described in terms of displacement, rotation,
ing energy dissipation through hysteretic damping and
or curvature (Naaman et al. 1986, Thompson and Park
lengthening of the structural period as the structure becomes
1980a, Giannini et al. 1986). Deflection and rotation ductili-
inelastic. ties give an indication of drift (ratio of lateral displacement
In simplistic terms, there are two basic options in seismic to height) and are used in structural analysis. Curvature duc-
design: (1) make the structure strong enough so that it will tility is used to define member or section behavior at plastic
respond elastically; or (2) permit the structure to deform hinges.
inelastically while ensuring adequate ductility and energy The ductility ratio is defined as the ratio of the ultimate
dissipation capacity. The second option permits the structure deformation to the yield deformation. In the case of partially
423.5R-22 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Lower 1
-------------------------------------------- 1.86 – 1.28c ⁄ d ctf L P
1.42c ⁄ d ctf – 0.102
- --------------
---------------------------------------- (5-5)
bound 949c ⁄ d ctf – 50 d ctf ⁄ 2
1
----------------------------------------------- 1.88 – 1.15c ⁄ d ctf L P
Average 1.095c ⁄ d ctf – 0.087
----------------------------------------- -------------- (5-6)
766c ⁄ d ctf – 53 d ctf ⁄ 2
where
c = depth to neutral axis from extreme compression
Fig. 5.4—Comparison of prediction equations with fiber;
experimental results (Naaman et al. 1986). dctf = depth to centroid of tensile force in steel; and
Lp = equivalent plastic hinge length.
et al. developed prediction equations for sectional ductility Thompson and Park (1980a) agreed with a form of c/d as
and plastic rotation as a function of the reinforcement index a measure of the ductility in an investigation in which a
ω. Three equations were derived for both the sectional duc- moment-curvature relation was developed applicable to ordi-
tility and plastic rotation to give upper limit, lower limit, and nary reinforced, prestressed, and partially prestressed concrete
average values for ranges of reinforcement index of 0.05 to beams, and verified with experimental tests on symmetrically
0.3 (Fig. 5.3). The upper and lower limits accommodate the reinforced (prestressed and ordinary reinforced) rectangular
effects of parameters described previously, other than rein- beam-column assemblies subjected to cyclic load reversals.
forcement index ω which were shown to have an effect on The model was subsequently used to conduct a parametric
ductility. For example, Naaman et al. suggest the lower- study. Their recommendations are as follows:
bound equation be used to describe cases with high-strength • Effect of prestressing steel content—ACI 318 limits the
concrete, low effective prestress, and high PPR. The upper- prestressing steel content by requiring ωp ≤ 0.36 β1,
where β1 is a parameter used to modify the neutral axis
bound equations are suggested for cases with normal strength
depth c to determine the depth of the equivalent
concrete, high effective prestress, and low PPR. The equations rectangular stress block a. Although the code limits the
are given as follows prestressing steel content, ACI 318 allows this value to
be exceeded if the additional reinforcement is not
Curvature ductility ratio Plastic rotation (radians) considered in the flexural strength calculation. Although
1 1.05 – ω - -------------
LP this can result in sufficient ductility for gravity loading, it
Upper bound ----------------------- ------------------------ - (5-1)
ω – 0.045 850ω – 35 d ctf ⁄ 2 can be insufficient for seismic loading. To ensure
1 LP
adequate ductility, one can limit ωp to less than 0.2
1.05 – 1.65ω- -------------
Lower bound ---------------------------------
1.94ω – 0.086
- ------------------------------
1300ω – 40 d ctf ⁄ 2
- (5-2) (rather than 0.3 for the case of β1 = 0.85). Alternatively,
rather than using the previous equation, one can also
Average
1
----------------------------
- 1.07 – 1.58ω L P
------------------------------- -------------- (5-3) limit a/h ≤ 0.2 (a = depth of rectangular stress block; and
1.5ω – 0.075 1050ω – 45 d ctf ⁄ 2 h = depth of section). This provides a given amount of
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-25
ductility by specifying the location of the neutral axis order of 1.5 to three. With Park’s suggested limit of 0.2, duc-
independent of tendon positions. This relationship has tilities in excess of four or five can be obtained. Tests by
been adopted by FIP (Cement and Concrete Association Muguruma et al. (1982a) indicate that if the sections do not
of England 1977) and the Standards Association of New contain compression reinforcement, ω < 0.2 can give ductil-
Zealand’s Code of Practice for General Structural ities of only about three. If the reinforcement index is main-
Design and Design Loading for Buildings (1980). tained at less than 0.1, ductilities in excess of 10 can be
• Effect of prestressing steel distribution on ductility—
achieved (Naaman et al. 1986).
Sections with only one tendon have reduced moment
capacity as the concrete in compression deteriorates. Tests by Nakano and Okamoto (1978) on beam-column
Thompson and Park (1980a) recommend the use of at least subassemblages indicated that even when tension reinforce-
two grouted tendons (one near the top and one near the ment is adequate (for example, ω < 0.15 to provide ductility
bottom of the section) for seismic loading, and suggested of five), hoop reinforcement (> 0.5%) is required to provide
locating a third tendon towards the center of the section. the required deflection ductility. Okamoto (1980) carried out
The use of unbonded tendons was generally not recom- similar tests on eleven simply supported beams and nine can-
mended for primary earthquake-resistant members tilever beams and reached similar conclusions.
because of lack of information on the performance of the 5.3.2 Special cases
anchorages (Muguruma 1986). In cases where partially Compression members—Relatively little information is
prestressed beams are designed with nonprestressed rein-
available on partially prestressed concrete columns (Bertero
forcement in the extreme fibers providing at least 80% of
the seismic resistance, however, they indicated that the 1986). Tertea and Onet (1983) analyzed 20 columns with
prestress can be provided by one or more grouted or different PPR ranging from zero to 100%. As observed in the
unbonded tendons in the middle third of the beam depth. beam tests, curvature ductility of columns improved with the
The centrally located prestressing steel is recommended addition of nonprestressed reinforcement. Curvature ductili-
because it can delay cracking and enhance strength with- ty factors of 3.9, 6.1, and 9.8 corresponded with PPR of 100,
out much reduction in ductility. Studies at the National 50, and 0%. Irrespective of the degree of prestressing, col-
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and as part umn ductilities improved with increased confinement.
of the National Science Foundation Precast Seismic Tests by Park and Falconer (1983) on prestressed piles
Structural Systems (PRESSS) program (Cheok and Lew found that the curvature ductility increased with reduced axi-
1990) have explored the use of unbonded prestressing
al load levels and increased confinement by spiral reinforce-
reinforcement through the connections. In the studies at
NIST, central post-tensioning was used in conjunction ment. They discourage the use of hard-drawn reinforcing
with mild steel reinforcement at the top and bottom of wire for spirals as it commenced fracture at displacement
the beam-column interface. The central post-tensioning ductility factors of four to six. They recommend requiring
maintained integrity of the joint, while energy dissipation the wire to have high fracture strains.
was accommodated with the mild steel reinforcement. A Shear—Beams should be proportioned to ensure ductile
study by Priestley and Tao (1993) proposed the use of flexural behavior and to avoid brittle shear behavior (Bertero
lightly stressed, unbonded prestressing steel through the 1986). To accomplish this objective, the FIP Commission
joint (nonlinear-elastic concept). The system offers ductile (Cement and Concrete Association of England 1977) recom-
behavior through crack opening at the interface, while mends assuming material overstrengths on the order of 15%
maintaining a “self-restoring” force. Because the strands in calculating the design shear force from the plastic hinge
do not yield, they work to bring the connection back to its
moments. The New Zealand Code of Practice for General
originally undeformed position. This system has been
studied further with other proposed connection systems Structural Design and Design Loading for Buildings (Stan-
as part of the PRESSS program (Cheok and Lew 1990). dards Association of New Zealand 1980) recommend
• Effect of transverse reinforcement on ductility—The neglecting the concrete contribution to shear resistance when
degree of confinement provided by the transverse reinforce- the axial compression is less than 0.1 f c′ .
ment to the compression regions significantly increases Muguruma et al. (1983) determined that concrete resis-
ductility. The confinement enhances the performance of the tance to shear can be improved by prestressing. Experiments
concrete within the core and also inhibits buckling of the were conducted on 7 x 10 in. (180 x 250 mm) simply sup-
compression reinforcement (Park and Thompson 1977; ported beams with span lengths of 7.22 ft. (2.20 m) to inves-
Park and Paulay 1975; and Thompson 1975). Thompson tigate shear in prestressed beams. The flexural shear
and Park recommend that the stirrups be spaced less than cracking load was found to increase in direct proportion to
d/4 or 6 in. (150 mm).
the increase in flexural cracking load (due to an increase in
• Effect of cover thickness—For ductility, Thompson and
prestressing). Muguruma (1986) suggests in the design of
Park suggest that the cover be made as small as possible,
because loss of cover under cyclic loads causes a reduc- partially prestressed concrete beams that the concrete contri-
tion in capacity. The effect of cover spalling on member bution to shear resistance can be increased by the shear force
strength is not as great for deeper members where cover corresponding to the decompression moment at the critical
is a smaller percentage of member depth. section. This effect is taken into consideration in ACI 318.
Holding all other parameters constant, ductility decreases Beam-column joints—Beam-column joints should be
with an increase in reinforcement index. ACI 318 gives a designed and detailed so that the plastic-hinge zones in the
maximum value for the reinforcement index of ω ≤ 0.36 β1. beams can develop their full plastic capacities. Muguruma
Maintaining this limit would give section ductilities on the (1986) indicates that there are no differences in joint design
423.5R-26 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Similar conclusions were obtained from a study by connections. The most viable alternatives were continuous
Thompson and Park (1980b). They used the idealized post-tensioned connections displacing the plastic-hinge
moment-curvature relations (discussed previously) to con- region from the beam-column interface, and tapered-
duct a nonlinear dynamic analysis of ordinary reinforced, threaded splice connections that emulate the performance of
fully prestressed, and partially prestressed concrete single- monolithically cast beam-column connections. It was also
degree-of-freedom systems. Displacements of fully pre- suggested that advantage be taken of composite action
stressed concrete systems are larger than those of ordinary between the beam and the slab.
reinforced and partially prestressed concrete systems
because of the reduced energy dissipation associated with
5.7—Summary
prestressing.
If members are detailed properly, it is possible to ensure
Fully prestressed systems also undergo a significant
ductile behavior in fully prestressed and partially prestressed
reduction in stiffness after cracking that counteracts the
concrete beams (Applied Technology Council 1981).
increased displacements under dynamic loading. The reduc-
tion in stiffness causes a reduction in the effective period of Ordinary reinforced concrete has an advantage in energy-
vibration that can reduce the displacement response. Under dissipation characteristics. Prestressed concrete has an
the combination of both of these effects, the analyses indi- advantage in its ability to reach large displacements with
cate that fully prestressed frames will have, on average, 30% only a small loss in load-carrying capacity and almost com-
greater maximum lateral displacements than reinforced con- plete recovery of displacements. Joint performance is
crete systems designed to have the same strength, viscous improved by the use of continuous prestressed strand
damping ratio, and initial stiffness (Thompson and Park through the joint.
1980b). Partially prestressed concrete couples the advantages of
Similar analytical studies have been conducted as part of prestressed concrete with those of ordinary reinforced con-
the NSF PRESSS program (Palmieri et al. 1996, El Sheikh crete (Giannini et al 1986). The sections can be detailed so
et al. 1999) that indicated systems incorporating unbonded that energy dissipation and deformation demands are on the
post-tensioned connections experienced moderate increases same order as those of ordinary reinforced concrete. Partially
in displacements in comparison with those expected from prestressed concrete also offers the possibility of calibrating
monolithic concrete frame systems. An advantage of the
the subsequent yielding of both prestressed and nonpre-
unbonded post-tensioned connections was the reduction in
stressed of reinforcement to optimize stiffness and energy-
residual drift associated with the nonlinear elastic behavior
dissipation properties (Giannini et al 1986).
of the system in comparison with the permanent system
deformations associated with the inelastic response of the A recommended design concept is to balance all or part of
ordinary reinforced frames. the gravity loads, satisfy serviceability criteria with draped
Fully prestressed concrete members can be detailed to or blanketed prestressing strands, and place sufficient non-
accommodate increased displacements in a ductile manner; prestressed reinforcement in the section to meet the addition-
however, these higher displacements can result in greater al requirements for seismic design strength, ductility, and
nonstructural damage and P-delta effects. An advantage of energy dissipation (Hawkins 1977; Inomata 1986; and
using full prestressing and partial prestressing is the reduc- Thompson and Park 1980b). Stirrup ties should be located in
tion in residual displacements due to the self-restoring nature hinging regions to prevent bar buckling, confine concrete,
of these systems. The addition of nonprestressed reinforce- and increase shear strength (Park and Thompson 1977, Park
ment can reduce these deflections. and Paulay 1975).
and resistance-factor design specification for highway bridg- The reports and standards listed above were the latest edi-
es (AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications) that does tions at the time this document was prepared. Because these
specifically address partially prestressed concrete. This can documents are revised frequently, the reader is advised to
lead to a wider use of partially prestressed concrete for high- contact the proper sponsoring group if it is desired to refer to
way bridges in the U.S. the latest version.
shop on Design of Prefabricated Concrete Buildings for ity of Prestressed Concrete Beams,” Journal of the Struc-
Earthquake Loads, Los Angeles, Calif., Apr., tural Division, ASCE, V. 100, No. ST9, Sept., pp. 1883-
Architectural Institute of Japan, 1970, Design Essentials 1895.
in Earthquake Resistant Buildings, Elsevier Co., New York, Blakeley, R. W. G., 1971, “Ductility of Prestressed Con-
pp. 186-200. crete Frames under Seismic Loading,” PhD thesis, Univer-
Arya, A. S., 1970, “Use of Prestressed Concrete in Earth- sity of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
quake Resistance Structures,” Proceedings, Fourth Sympo- Blakeley, R. W. G., and Park, R., 1971, “Seismic Resis-
sium on Earthquake Engineering, Roorkee, India, Nov. tance of Prestressed Concrete Beam-Column Assemblies,”
Ashar, H.; Naus, D.; and Tan, C.P., 1994, “Prestressed ACI JOURNAL, V. 68, No. 9, Sept., pp. 677-692.
Concrete in U.S. Nuclear Power Plants (Part 1),” Concrete Blakeley, R. W. G., and Park, R., 1973a, “Response of
International V. 16, No. 5, May, pp. 30-34. Prestressed Concrete Structures to Earthquake Motions,”
Baker, A. L. L., and Amarakone, A. M. N., 1964,, “Inelas- New Zealand Engineering, V. 28, No. 2, Feb., pp. 42-54.
tic Hyperstatic Frame Analysis,” Proceedings, International Blakeley, R. W. G., and Park, R., 1973b, “Prestressed Con-
Symposium on the Flexural Mechanics of Reinforced Con- crete Sections With Seismic Loadings,” Journal of the Struc-
crete, SP-12, American Concrete Institute, Farmington tural Division, ASCE, V. 99, No. ST8, Aug., pp. 1717-1742.
Hills, Mich., pp. 85-142. Branson, D. E., 1974, “The Deformation of Non-Compos-
Balaguru, P. N., 1981, “Analysis of Prestressed Concrete ite and Composite Prestressed Concrete Members,” Deflec-
Beams for Fatigue Loading,” PCI Journal, V. 26, No. 3, tions of Concrete Structures, SP-43, American Concrete
May-July, pp. 70-94. Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., pp. 83-128.
Balaguru, P. N., and Shah, S. P., 1982, “Method of Pre- Branson, D. E., 1977, Deformation of Concrete Struc-
dicting Crack Widths and Deflections for Fatigue Loading,” tures, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Fatigue of Concrete Structures, SP-75, S. P. Shah, ed., Branson, D. E., and Kripanarayanan, K. M., 1971, “Loss
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., pp. of Prestress, Camber, and Deflections of Non-Composite
153-175. and Composite Prestressed Concrete Structures,” PCI Jour-
Beeby, A. W., 1978, “Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in nal, V. 16, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. pp. 22-52.
Concrete and its Relation to Cracking,” Structural Engi- Branson, D. E., and Shaikh, A. F., 1985, “Deflection of
neer, London, V. 56A, No. 3, Mar., pp. 77-81. Partially Prestressed Members,” Deflections of Concrete
Beeby, A. W., 1979, “The Prediction of Crack Widths in Structures, SP-86, G. M. Sabnis, Ed., American Concrete
Hardened Concrete,” Structural Engineer, London, V. 57A, Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., pp. 323-363.
No. 1, Jan., pp. 9-17. Branson, D. E., and Trost, H., 1982a “Unified Procedures
Bennet, E. W., 1984, “Partial Prestressing—An Historical for Predicting the Deflection and Centroidal Axis Location
Overview,” PCI Journal, V. 29, No. 5, Sept.-Oct., pp. 104-117. of Partially Cracked Nonprestressed and Prestressed Con-
Bennett, E. W., 1986, “Partially Prestressed Concrete Mem- crete Members,” ACI JOURNAL, V. 79, No. 2, Mar.-Apr., pp.
bers: Repeated Loading,” Partial Prestressing, From Theory 119-130.
to Practice, NATO ASI Series, V. 1, Martinus Nijhoff Pub- Branson, D. E., and Trost, H., 1982b “Application of the I-
lishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 135-149. Effective Method in Calculating Deflections of Partially Pre-
Bennett, E. W., and Lee, K. H., 1985, “Deflection of Par- stressed Members,” PCI Journal, V. 27, No. 5, Sept.-Oct.
tially Prestressed Beams under a Combination of Long- Brondum-Nielsen, T., 1973, “Effect of Prestress on the
Time and Short-Time Loading”, Deflections of Concrete Damping of Concrete,” Resistance and Ultimate Deform-
Structures, SP-86, G. M. Sabnis, Ed., American Concrete ability of Structures Acted on by Well Defined Repeated
Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., pp. 185-214. Loads, IABSE, Lisbon.
Berg, G. V., and Degenkolb, H. J., 1973, “Engineering Les- Bruggeling, A. S. G., 1977, “Time Dependent Deflection
sons from the Managua Earthquake,” Managua, Nicaragua of Partially Prestressed Beams,” Report No. 5-77-1, Depart-
Earthquake, Dec. 1972, Earthquake Engineering Research ment of Civil Engineering, Delft Technical University, Mar.,
Institute, Oakland, Calif., Nov., pp. 761-763. 16 pp.
Bertero, V. V., 1973, “Experimental Studies Concerning Bureau of Public Roads, 1954, Criteria for Prestressed
Reinforced, Prestressed, and Partially Prestressed Concrete Concrete Bridges, U.S. Department of Commerce, Wash-
Structures and their Elements,” Resistance and Ultimate ington, D.C.
Deformability of Structures Acted on by Well Defined Burns, N. H., 1964, “Moment Curvature Relationship for
Repeated Loads, IABSE, Lisbon. Partially Prestressed Concrete Beams,” PCI Journal, V. 9,
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Members for Earthquake-Resistant Design and Construc- Burns, N. H., and Siess, C. P., 1962, “Loading Deforma-
tion,” Partial Prestressing, from Theory to Practice, NATO tion Characteristics of Beam-Column Connections in Rein-
ASI Series, V. 1, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, forced Concrete,” Civil Engineering Studies, Structural
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Bhuvasorakul, T., 1974, “Performance of Members Rein- Urbana, 261 pp.
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Repeated Loads,” PhD thesis, Oklahoma State University. ments and Structures,” Proceedings, NSF Workshop (Dec.
Birkenmaier, M., 1984, “Developments in the Design of 2-4), University of Illinois at Chicago, pp. 96-167.
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423.5R-32 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
CEB-FIP; 1978, Model Code for Concrete Structures, “Report on Prestressing Steels: Types and Properties,” Fed-
Paris, 348 pp. eration Internationale de la Precontrainte (FIP), London,
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Gaithersburg, Md. the FIP Commission on Seismic Structures,” Proceedings,
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Cohn, M. Z., and Ghosh, S. K., 1972, “The Flexural Duc- Structure,” Cement and Concrete Association, London,
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PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-33
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423.5R-36 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
cal Report No. 23, London. Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete
Thompson, K. J., 1975, “Ductility of Concrete Frames cross section
Under Seismic Loading,” Ph.D. thesis, University of Can- Aps = area of prestressed reinforcement in tension
terbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. zone
Thompson, K. J., and Park, R., 1980a, “Ductility of Pre- As = area of nonprestressed tension reinforcement
stressed and Partially Prestressed Concrete Beam Sections,” A′s = area of nonprestressed compression reinforcement
PCI Journal, V. 25, No. 2, Mar.-Apr., pp. 46-70. At = effective area of concrete tension zone sur-
Thompson, K. J., and Park, R., 1980b, “Seismic Response rounding all reinforcementhaving the same
of Partially Prestressed Concrete,” Journal of the Structural centroid as reinforcement
Division, ASCE, Aug., pp. 1755-1775. b = width of compression face of member
Thurlimann, B., 1971, “A Case for Partial Prestressing,” B = distance ratio at first loading cycle
Structural Concrete Symposium Proceedings, University of BN = distance ratio at the Nth loading cycle
Toronto, May, pp. 253-301. c = depth to neutral axis from extreme compression
Thurlimann, B., 1979, “Torsional Strength of Reinforced fiber
and Prestressed Concrete Beams—CEB Approach,” Con- cN = depth of neutral axis after Nth cycle of loading
crete Design: U.S. and European Practices, SP-59, Ameri- c2 = constant
can Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 346 pp. Cc(t–tA) = creep coefficient of concrete at time t when
Transportation Research Board, 1993, Final Draft LRFD loaded at time tA
Specification for Highway Bridge Design and Commentary, d = distance from extreme compression fiber to cen-
NCHRP 12-33, Washington, D.C. troid of nonprestressedtension reinforcement
Vecchio, J., and Collins, M.P., 1986 “Modified Compres- dc = cover to center of reinforcing steel
sion Field Theory for Reinforced Concrete Elements Sub- d′ c = concrete clear cover
jected to Shear,” ACI Journal, V. 83, No. 2, Mar.-Apr., pp. dctf = depth to centroid of tensile force in steel
219-231. de = depth to centroid of nonprestressed tension
Venuti, W. J., 1965, “A Statistical Approach to the Analy- reinforcement
sis of Fatigue Failure of Pre-stressed Concrete Beams,” ACI dmax,N = maximum deflection after Nth cycle
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 62, Nov., pp. 1375-1394. dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to cen-
Wang, F.; Shah, S. P.; and Naaman, A. E., 1978, “High troid of prestressed reinforcement
Strength Concrete in Ultimate Strength Design,” Journal of er,n = average strain in concrete between the cracks
the Structural Division, ASCE,V. 104, No. ST11, Nov., pp. after N cycles of loading
1761-1773. es,n = steel strain at crack calculated using cracked
Wang, P. T., 1977, “Complete Stress-Strain Curve of Con- section elastic analysis afterN cycles of loading
crete and its Effect on Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Ec(t) = instantaneous elastic modulus of concrete at
Members,” PhD thesis, University of Illinois at Chicago, time t
257 pp. Ece(t) = equivalent elastic modulus of concrete at time t
Warner, R. F., and Hulsbos, C. L., 1966a, “Fatigue Proper- Eci = elastic modulus of concrete at time of loading or
ties of Prestressing Strand,” PCI Journal, V. 11, No. 1, Feb., transfer
pp. 32-52. Ei(t) = instantaneous elastic modulus of concrete at
Warner, R. F., and Hulsbos, C. L., 1966b, “Probable time t
Fatigue Life of Prestressed Concrete Beams,” PCI Journal, EN = cyclic modulus of elasticity after N cycles
V. 11, No. 2, Apr., pp. 16-39. Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
Watanabe, F.; Muguruma, H.; Tanaka, H.; and Katsuda, fc′ = concrete compressive strength
S., 1980, “Improving the Flexural Ductility of Concrete fcr = maximum recommended stress range for concrete
Beams by Using High Yield Strength Lateral Hoop Rein- ff = safe stress range
forcement,” Proceedings, FIP Symposium on Partial Pre- fmin = minimum applied stress (in concrete or reinforcing
stressing (Bucharest), Federation Internationale de la steel, as applicable)
Precontrainte (FIP), London, Sept. pp. 398-406. fpc = average precompression in concrete due to pre-
Watcharaumnuay, S., 1984, “Deflection of Partially Pre- stress at centroid of cross-section
stressed Concrete Beams Under Sustained and Cyclic Load- fpe = effective stress in prestressing steel
ing,” PhD thesis, University of Illinois at Chicago. fps = stress in prestressed reinforcement at nominal
Watcharaumnuay, S., and Naaman, A. E., 1985, “Time bending strength
and Cyclic Dependent Deflections in Partially Prestressed fpu = ultimate strength of the prestressing steel
Concrete Beams,” Report No., Department of Civil Engi- fs = tensile stress in reinforcing steel, or change in
neering, University of Michigan. steel stress from decompression
Wight, J. K., and Sozen, M. A., 1975, “Strength Decay of fso = steel stress at primary crack at first cycle
RC Columns Under Shear Reversals,” Journal of the Struc- fso,N = steel stress at primary crack at cycle N
tural Division, ASCE, V. 101, No. ST5, May, pp. 1053- fsr = maximum recommended stress range in reinforcing
1065. steel (prestressedor nonprestressed, as applica-
ble)
APPENDIX—NOTATIONS fy = yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcement
a = depth of equivalent rectangular compressive F = prestressing force
stress block F(t) = prestressing force at time t
acs = crack spacing h = depth of member
PARTIALLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 423.5R-37
h1 = distance from neutral axis to tension face Qser = applied service load
h2 = distance from neutral axis to centroid of r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on trans-
reinforcement verse deformation (value of 0.3 may be used in
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section absence of specific data)
Ieff(t) = effective moment of inertia of cracked section at So = slip of reinforcement at first cycle
time t So,N = slip of reinforcement at Nth cycle
IeN = effective moment of inertia after N cycles t = time or age of concrete
Ig = gross moment of inertia tA = age of concrete at time of loading
KD, KF = constants depending on type of loading and Vc = concrete contribution of shear strength
steel profile W = crack width at the first loading cycle
Lp = equivalent plastic hinge length WN = crack width at the Nth loading cycle
M = sustained external moment at midspan Wmax = maximum crack width
Ma = applied moment Wmax,N = maximum crack width after N cycles
MD = dead load moment Z = slope of descending portion of concrete com-
Mdec = decompression moment (moment which pro- pression curve
duces zero concrete stressat extreme fiber of a β1 = parameter relating neutral axis depth to depth of
section, nearest to centroid of the prestressing equivalent rectangular compression block
force, when added to action of effective pre- ∆fps = change in stress in prestressing steel
stress alone) ∆(t) = deflection at time t
Mcr = cracking moment λ = degree of prestress
ML = live-load moment ε = strain (in general)
Mn = total nominal moment capacity ρ = reinforcement ratio of tensile nonprestressed
Mnp = moment capacity provided by prestressed reinforcement
reinforcement ρ′ = reinforcement ratio of compressive nonpre-
N = number of load cycles stressed reinforcement
Nf = number of cycles to failure ρp = reinforcement ratio of tensile prestressed
P = sum of perimeters of all tension reinforcement reinforcement
Pcp = outside perimeter of concrete cross section Σo = sum of perimeters of all tension reinforcement
PPR = partial prestressing ratio ω = reinforcing index
Q = applied load ωp = reinforcing index for prestressing steel