Chapter 15 3 Regions of the Pharynx

Respiratory System  Nasopharynx

 Passageway for air only
Functions of the Respiratory System  Pharyngeal tonsil or adenoid is located
 Gas exchange of respiration  Oropharynx
 Regulation of pH  Passageway for both swallowed food and inhaled
 Voice production air
 Olfaction  Extends from soft palate to the epiglottis
 Innate immunity  Laryngopharynx
The Process of Respiration  Common passageway for food and air
 Continuous inferiorly with the larynx
1. Pulmonary Ventilation or Breathing
- Movement of air into and out of the lungs Larynx
2. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in  “voice box”
the lungs and the blood  Extends 5cm from the level of C4 – C6
3. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood  Attached superiorly to the hyoid bone
4. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood  Continuous with the trachea inferiorly
and the tissues  Framework: 9 cartilages
Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System
 Conducting Zones/ Dead Space  Unpaired Cartilages
 Respiratory passages from nose to the terminal 1. Thyroid cartilage
bronchioles  Shield – shaped
 Nose, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Terminal  With ridge-like laryngeal prominence (externally the
Bronchioles Adam’s Apple)
 Respiratory Zones 2. Cricoid cartilage
 Actual sites of gas exchange  Signet ring – shaped cartilage below the thyroid cartilage
 Respiratory bronchioles, Alveoli 3. Epiglottis
 Spoon – shaped cartilage
Nose
 The only elastic cartilage among the laryngeal cartilages
 External Nose (the rest: hyaline)
Bounded by:  “guardian of the airways”
 Superiorly: Nasal and frontal bones  Paired Cartilages
 Laterally: maxillary bones 1. Arytenoids
 Inferiorly: plates of hyaline cartilage (lateral septal and alar  Anchors the vocal cord to the larynx
cartilages) 2. Cuneiform
 Found in the aryepiglottic fold
 Internal Nasal Cavity 3. Corniculate
 Lies posteriorly to the external nose  Found at apices of arytenoid
 Nostrils/ External Nares – air entry
 Nasal Septum – midline
Vocal Cords
 True Vocal Cords
Nose
 Vibrate and produce sounds as air rushes upward from
 Structures forming the nasal cavity: the lungs
 Roof – ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, frontal bone  False Vocal Cords
 Floor – hard palate  No part in sound production
 Laterally –
Trachea
1. Conchae/ Turbinates – superior, middle,
inferior  Windpipe
2. Meatus – grooves  10 – 12cm long, 2.5cm diameter
 Medially – nasal septum  Reinforced internally by 16 – 20 C shaped rings of
hyaline cartilage
Pharynx
Bronchi and Subdivisions:
 Common pathway for food and air
 Extends from the base of the skull to the level of C6 The Brochial Tree
 3 regions:  Level of sternal angle – trachea divides into left and right
 Nasopharynx bronchi
 Oropharynx
 Laryngopharynx

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TRANS 15 Respiratory System
  Pulmonary Veins
Right Bronchus Left Bronchus  Freshly oxygenated blood from the respiratory
zones to the heart
Diameter Wider Narrower
 Bronchial Arteries
Length Shorter Longer  Oxygen – rich blood
Direction More Vertical Oblique  Nourish lung tissue which arise from the aorta
Pleura
Bronchioles – 1mm diameter  A thin, double – layered serosa
Terminal Bronchioles: Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar Ducts, Alveolar o Parietal Pleura – lines the thoracic wall and superior
Sacs aspect of diaphragm
Alveoli and Alveolar Sacs – bulk of gas exchange occurs o Visceral Pleura – cover the external lung surface
 Produce Pleural Fluid
6 Layers of Respiratory Membrane
o Serous lubricating fluid; fills the slit-like pleural cavity
1. A thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus  Pleurisy
2. The alveolar epithelium (simple squamous epithelium) o Inflammation of the pleura
3. The basement membrane of the alveolar epithelium o Caused by a decreased secretion of pleural fluid
4. A thin interstitial space
Mechanics of Breathing/ Ventilation
5. The basement membrane of the capillary endothelium
6. The capillary endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) 2 Phases:
1. Inspiration/ Inhalation
Respiratory Membrane
 Movement of air into the lungs
Cell Types:  An active phase
1. Type I Pneumocytes 2. Expiration/ Exhalation
- Walls of alveoli composed of simple squamous  Movement of air out of the lungs
epithelium  A passive phase
2. Type II Pneumocytes
Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity
- Secretes surfactant (decreases the surface tension on
the alveolar walls)  Respiratory pressures are always given relative to
3. Alveolar Macrophages atmospheric pressure
- Dust cells  Gases travel from an area of higher pressure to an area of
- Primary line of defense against inhaled dust, bacteria, lower pressure
foreign particles, etc.
 Intrapulmonary Pressure – pressure within the alveoli of the
Lungs
lungs
 Soft, spongy, elastic organs  Intrapleural Pressure – pressure within the pleural cavity
 Weighs 0.5kg each
Pressure Changes and Airflow
 Occupies the entire thoracic cavity except the mediastinum
 Each is suspended in its pleural cavity via its root, has a base, 1. Changes in Volume – change in pressure
an apex, and medial and costal surfaces 2. Air flows from an area of Higher pressure to an area of Lower
pressure
 The greater the pressure difference, the greater the
 Hillus rate of airflow
 Found in the medial surface of each lung
 Where blood vessels of the pulmonary and systemic Pulmonary Ventilation, Inspiration and Expiration
circulation enter and leave the lungs  Inspiration
 Diaphragm contracts, moves inferiorly and flattens
out  increases of thoracic cavity
Right Lung Left Lung  External intercostal muscles contract  elevate rib
Lobes 3 2 cage, thrust sternum forward  expand diameter
Fissures 1 horizontal 1 oblique of the thorax
1 oblique  As thoracic dimension increase, lungs are stretched,
intrapulmonary volume increases 
Cardiac Notch (-) (+)
intrapulmonary pressure drops 1mmHg relative to
Lingula (-) (+)
atmospheric pressure  air rushes into the lungs
 until the intrapulmonary pressure and atm
Blood Supply pressure becomes equal
 During Deep or Forced Respiration
 Pulmonary Arteries
o Diaphragm
 Unoxygenated blood
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TRANS 15 Respiratory System
 o External intercostals Gas Exchange in the Body
o Further increased by:
 External Respiration
 Scalene muscles
 Pulmonary gas exchange
 Sternocleidomastoid
 Pectoral muscles Factors that influence movement of O2 and CO2 across the respiratory
 Serratus anterior membrane:
 Levator scapulae 1. Partial Pressure gradients and gas solubility
 Expiration  Partial pressure of O2 in pulmonary blood is lower
 Passive process in healthy individuals than that of alveoli  O2 diffuses rapidly from
 Depends on the natural elasticity of the lungs than alveoli to pulmonary capillary bed
on muscle contraction 2. Thickness of the Respiratory Membrane
 Inspiratory muscle relax  rib cage descends   Healthy lungs – efficient gas exchange – 0.5 to 1um
lungs recoil  thoracic pressure and thick
intrapulmonary volumes decrease 3. Surface area
 Compression of alveoli  intrapulmonary pressure  Alveolar surface when spread flat will cover around
rises to about 1mmHg above the atm pressure  140sqm
gas flows out of the lungs 4. Ventilation – Perfusion Coupling
 During Forced Expiration  Most efficient – precise match between ventilation
o Active process (amount of gas reaching the alveoli) and perfusion
o Muscles contracting: abdominal muscles, (blood flow in pulmonary capillaries)
internal intercostals, serratus posterior
inferior, latissimus dorsi  Internal Respiration
o Further increase the intraabdominal  Capillary gas exchange in the body tissues
pressure and depress the rib cage Transport of Respiratory Gases by Blood
 Oxygen transport
 Pulmonary Capacities  Oxyhemoglobin – oxygen and hemoglobin
 Functional Residual Capacity - major transport form of oxygen, about 97%
o 2300mL; ERV + RV  Dissolved in plasma – about 3%
 Inspiratory Capacity  Carbon Dioxide Transport
o 3500mL; TV + IRV  Dissolved in plasma – about 7 to 10%
 Vital Capacity  Carbaminohemoglobin – bound to Hgb (RBC): 20 to
o 4600mL; IRV + TV + ERV 30%
 Total Lung Capacity  As bicarbonate ion in plasma – 60 to 70%
o 5800mL; ERV + IRV + RV + TV - largest fraction of CO2
Pulmonary Volumes Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH
 Tidal Volume (TV)  CO2 diffuses from cells into capillaries
 500mL  CO2 enters blood and is transported in plasma, comb, with
 Volume of air inspired and expired with each breath blood proteins, bicarbonate ions
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)  CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid when forms H+
 3000mL plus bicarbonate ions
 Amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after  Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of CO2 reacting with
inspiration of the resting TV water
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)  CO2 levels increase blood pH decreases
 1100mL Rhythmic Ventilation
 Amount of air that can be expired forcefully after
expiration of the resting TV  Normal respiration rate is 12 to 20 resp. per minute (adults)
 Controlled by neurons in medulla oblongata
 Residual Volume (RV)
 Rate is determined by number of times respiratory muscles
 1200mL
are stimulated
 Volume of air still remaining in the respiratory
passages and lungs after a maximum expiration Nervous Control of Breathing
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities  Higher brain centers allow voluntary breathing
 Emotions and speech affect breathing
 Refer to the amount of air that is flushed in and out of the
 Hering – Breuer Reflex:
lungs
 inhibits respiratory center when lungs are stretched during
 Varies; depending on the conditions of inspiration and
inspiration
expiration
 Measured by Spirometer
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TRANS 15 Respiratory System