TEACH FOR AMERICA

High Leverage
Reading Strategies
A Guide for Teachers of Reading
Grades Pre-K through Twelve
Mollie M. Cura
2010
 © Created by Mollie Cura 2010

Reading Strategies: PreK- 12

Table of Contents
Reading Strategies: An Overview…………………………………...page 2

Author‟s Notes………………………………………………………..page 3

Predicting…………………………………………………………..…page 4

Activating Background Knowledge………………………………....page 6

Making Connections…………………………………………………page 8

Visualizing…………………………………………………………...page 11

Questioning………………………………………………………….page 14

Inferring…………………………………………………………...…page 16

Determining Importance (Analyzing)..……………………………page 19

Critiquing……………………………………………………………page

Synthesizing…………………………………………………………page 21

Appendix…………………………………………………………….page 23

Glossary of Terms…………………………………………………..page 40

Bibliography…………………………………………………………page 43

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Reading Strategies: An Overview
Strategy Definition
Predicting Using sources of information to
anticipate what will happen in
the text.
Activating Bring to light readers‟ prior,
background accurate knowledge of content
knowledge and structure of text.
Making Relating the text to the reader‟s
connections life, other texts, and the larger
world.
Visualizing Making mental images in our
mind driven by the text, our
prior knowledge, and our
inferences.
Questioning Driven by curiosity, readers ask
questions about what they‟re
reading.
Inferring To derive further information
by reasoning or evidence
Determining Picking the most important
importance information, highlighting
(Analyzing) essential ideas, isolating
supporting details, reading for
specific information
(Harvey and Goudvis 2007)
Synthesizing Putting individual pieces of
information together with our
background knowledge to form
new, deeper information, a new
perspective, or new insight
Critiquing Evaluating and judging a text by
using personal or world
knowledge
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Why readers need it
*To engage in the text
*To think deeply about character choices
*To think deeply about how story elements
effect plot
*To fuel our connections
*To promote questioning
*To develop “hooks” in our minds on which
to place new information
*Readers can empathize with characters
*Readers think about more expansive issues
*To predict characters‟ actions
*To learn life lessons
*To help us retain information and plot
*To help us become attached to characters
*To prevent readers from abandoning books
*To help us monitor comprehension
*To interact with the text
*To clarify confusion
*To propel us deeper into the reading
*To connect us to characters‟ feelings
*Enables us to make predictions
*Enables us to visualize
*Allows us to see characters‟ motivations
*Forces us to think more deeply about the
meaning of the text
*To help readers sort information
*To help readers decide what to remember
*Forces us to infer themes
*To form new understandings
*To grow new perspectives
*To notice biases in text
*To determine authenticity and quality of a
text
*To form opinions on the text itself, the
author and the subject of the text
 © Created by Mollie Cura 2010

Author’s Notes
…about graphic organizers:

Graphic organizers are visual representations of one‟s thinking. A graphic organizer

is most effective in its simplest form because students can recreate a simplistic form
in any setting. You will see that I suggest the use of T-charts and E-charts often.
These, along with webs and Venn diagrams are extremely simple to recreate and can
be done so on scraps of paper, sticky notes, etc. This promotes the use of organizers
in independent reading. The student will not have to rely on the teacher to distribute
the forms. You will not see lots of fancy, complex organizers in this document
because in order for students to recreate them as they read independently would
require brain capacity I would rather them spend on comprehension and analysis.

…about the “Ways to Teach It” sections:

The ideas included in these sections are samples to get your mind going. You will
need to modify them to meet the needs of your students. It is imperative that you use
the gradual release model (I do, We do, You do) regardless of how or what you are
teaching. Expecting students to be successful in something they‟ve never seen done
correctly and then practiced with either the teacher or a proficient peer is setting
them up to fail.

… about collecting and analyzing sticky notes and student work:

You will find that I encourage the use of sticky notes as a way for readers to monitor
their comprehension and for you to check their understanding of the strategy and the
text. Gathering these sticky notes and determining who is using the strategy
effectively should not be a laborious process. Here is what I always do and encourage
you to do, as well:
1) Gather sticky notes
2) Review notes and separate into three piles (Got it!, Almost there, and
Need my support). If you can pinpoint the breakdown of students in the
„Need my support‟ category, break them up even further.
3) The next day, pull a small group of those students needing your support.
4) Keep the sticky notes as anecdotal notes for your records

…about the Appendix:

I have included some graphic organizers in the Appendix. Please modify these based
on the age and needs of your students. Use more picture supports for younger
students. Change the language of the organizers to meet the needs of your children.

...about CFUs:

I have taken the liberty of abbreviating Check For Understanding with CFU.

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Predicting

Strategy Definition Why readers need it

Predicting Using sources of *To engage in text
information to anticipate *To think deeply about character
what will happen in the text choices
*To think deeply about how story
elements effect plot

Objectives/Teaching Points

Basic objectives:

Students will be able to predict by reading the title and looking at the cover and
asking themselves, “What do I think is going to happen in this text?”

Students will be able to predict by taking a picture walk through the text and asking
themselves, “What do I think will happen in this story based on the pictures?”

Students will be able to predict by reading titles (including chapter titles), headings,
and captions and asking themselves, “What do I think this text will be about?”

Higher level objectives:

Students will be able to predict by using what they already know about their
character to anticipate his future actions and decisions.

Students will be able to predict by recalling what they already know about the genre,
structure, author, character or topic of a text and using this to describe what might
happen in the text. Note: There are several teaching points included in this objective and
based on grade and students, they should be taught separately. I do not recommend teaching
this as one lesson, rather four or more.

Students will be able to predict by using personal experience and world knowledge to
describe what might happen in the text. Note: This might include: problems usually get
solved, bullies usually cave in, it always stops snowing at some point, the 1960s were the thick
of the civil rights movement.

Students will be able to reflect on their predictions by noticing when their predictions
are validated or need to be modified. Note: Be careful not to tell students their predictions
were wrong. As long as students can articulate why they made their predictions, their
predictions are not wrong.

Students will be able to change/modify their predictions by reading on, thinking

about what happens in the text and asking themselves, “Does my original prediction
still fit? Do I need to make a new one?”

Students will be able to change/modify their predictions by looking for hints, clues,
warning, or foreshawdowings supplied by the author.

Ways to Teach It
1) As you read aloud, describe what you think might happen in the book and
explicitly name how you are coming to this prediction (title, pictures, genre,
personal experience, world knowledge).

CFU 

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Ask students to jot down their predictions on sticky notes as they come
up with them. Be sure they include what prompted them make that
prediction. Review sticky-notes. Look to see which sources they are
using to predict and expand their repertoire as needed.

2) Model for the students how to use a T-chart graphic organizer to write out
which part of the text makes you predict what.

[ Prediction – Clue for Prediction ] (Appendix A)

CFU 
Ask students to replicate the T-chart using a text on their level. Notice
the frequency (too often, not often enough?) and placement (only in
the beginning?) of the predictions.

3) Model for the students how to expand the abovementioned T-chart with an
E-chart (Witherell 2007):

[ Prediction – Clue for Prediction – What Actually Happened ] (Appendix B)

CFU 
Similar to #2. Additionally, see how the students are reflecting on
their predictions. Are they starting to notice when they should modify
their thinking?

4) Model taking a picture walk through the book and using the pictures to
describe what will happen.

CFU 
Ask students to take a picture walk through a book on their level. Have
them sketch or write their prediction. Talk to students about what
drove their thinking.

Helpful Graphic Organizers

Appendix A: [ Prediction – Clue for Prediction ]
Appendix B: [ Prediction – Clue for Prediction – What Actually Happened ]
Appendix C: [ What I Predict – Changing My Prediction – My Reasons to Change
or Not ]
Appendix D: Looking at the cover and the pictures

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Activating Background Knowledge

Strategy Definition Why readers need it
Activating background Bring to light readers‟ prior *To fuel our connections
knowledge accurate knowledge of *To promote questioning
content and structure of *To develop “hooks” in our
text minds on which to place
new information

Objectives/Teaching Points

Basic objectives:

Students will be able to activate prior knowledge by reading the title of the text and
asking themselves, “Based on the topic, what words do I expect to see in this text?
How might those words be used?”

Students will be able to activate prior knowledge by asking themselves, “What do I

think I already know about this topic?” *Note: Be sure to emphasize that this is what
students think they know. Unlearning information followed by learning new material is
significantly more challenging than learning it right in the first place!

Students will be able to activate prior knowledge by taking a picture walk through the
text and asking themselves, “What do I see on these pages that I already know a little
bit about?”

Higher level objectives:

Students will be able to activate prior knowledge by coming up with questions about
a topic before, during, and after reading and discussing those questions with peers.

Students will be able to activate prior knowledge by connecting the topic of the text
to personal experience or world knowledge.

Ways to Teach It
1) Wordsplash (see Appendix E)
Teacher writes a topic on board/paper. Teacher brainstorms words that she
associates with that word. After jotting down 10-20 words, teacher creates
sentences relating the brainstormed words to the original topic.

CFU 
Ask students to do this using a topic from a different read aloud text or
a text that is on their independent reading level. Look to see that
students are jotting down words that in some way relate to the topic. If
students cannot articulate how their brainstormed words relate to the
topic, redirect.

2) Semantic Mapping/Semantic Webbing

Teacher writes the topic on the board and writes what he thinks of when he
hears that word (similar to a wordsplash). Teacher lists the words on the
board, putting the words into categories. Teacher labels the categories. After
reading about the topic, teacher augments the original map by adding on and
changing it.

CFU 
After practicing with the teacher or proficient peers, students should
create their own semantic map. After reading, the students should use
a different colored pencil or pen to augment their map. By using a

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different color, the teacher can see how their new learning connects to
what they thought they knew on the outset.

3) Model creating an E-chart

[ Questions About the Topic – What We Think We Know – New Learning ]

(See Appendix F)

I find this chart preferable to the KWL chart (What We Know – What We
Want to Know – What We‟ve Learned). This chart frames students‟ prior
learning in a tentative way: What We Think We Know. When students share
what they know (either verbally or in writing) and they are sharing incorrect
information, it is significantly harder for them to unlearn and then correctly
learn new information. We do not want to show the students that we don‟t
value their knowledge, but if it‟s incorrect we want to emphasize that it‟s
something we only think we know.

CFU 
Students create their own E-chart. Teacher checks to see:
1) If their questions are related to the topic and are substantial,
2) If they understand that what they know is tentative until
confirmed and,
3) That their new learning is meaningful and relevant.

Helpful graphic organizer

Appendix E: Sample word splash
Appendix F: [ Questions About the Topic – What We Think We Know – New
Learning ]

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Making Connections
Strategy Definition Why readers need it
Making Relating the text to the *Readers can then empathize with
connections reader‟s life, other texts, characters
and the larger world. *Readers think about more expansive
issues
*To predict characters‟ actions
*To learn life lessons

Note: We want to ensure that we are encouraging students to make authentic, and
not tangential, connections. It is critical that we ask them to consider how these
connections provide us with a deeper understanding of the text. Usually we find that
connections help students predict characters‟ actions, understand characters‟
emotions and motivations, understand relationships between characters. Students
will gradually refine their connections and eliminate tangential ones.

Three types of connections:

1) Text to self – Relating events or characters in a text to ones‟ life
2) Text to text – Relating events or characters in a text to those in other texts
3) Text to world – Relating events or characters in a text to those in the world

Objectives/Teaching Points
Most of the following teaching points can be modified to fit any of three types of connections.

Basic objectives:

Students will be able to make connections to a text by empathizing with the character
(or putting yourself in the characters‟ shoes).

Students will be able to make connections between texts by comparing the

protagonists‟ personalities and actions.

Students will be able to make connections by noticing similarities in setting.

Higher level objectives:

Students will be able to make connections between texts by analyzing similar

messages or themes.

Students will be able to make connections to a text by thinking of a time they had a
similar problem to the character and reflecting on how they solved their problem.
Readers then wonder if the character may solve her problem that same way.

Students will be able to make connections between texts by comparing and

contrasting different versions of the same story (fairytales, folktales, biographies,
historical fiction) for the purpose of deeper understanding of plot, character, etc.

Students will be able to make connections between texts written by the same author
in order to figure out the author‟s opinions and biases.

Students will be able to make connections by comparing settings of texts and

wondering how those settings influence their respective plotlines.

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Ways to Teach It
It is best to teach connections in the following order: text to self, text to text, text to world.

1) Model using the E-chart:

[ Event in text – Similar event in my life – How this helps me understand the text]
(See Appendix G)

Reread a familiar story (one you‟ve previously read and discussed with the
students). Model for the children where you can relate events in the character‟s
life to events in your life. Point out that this helps you understand any number of
the following:
 How the character feels
 How the character might react
 What others think of the character
 What lessons you learned about life

The basis for this understanding is that you have experienced something similar
to the character and are drawing from that experience to connect to the character.

CFU 
Using a book on their independent reading level, students should think
about how they can connect to events their characters are
experiencing. They should then think through how that enhances their
comprehension of the plot.

2) Use the above technique to model your connections to story elements deeper
than simple events (internal thought, relationships, problems, reactions, etc).

CFU 
Same as #1

3) Facilitate whole class conversations around a simple text. Students naturally

want to talk about themselves. With gentle guidance and explicit modeling you
will be able to steer them to talk about how the book connects to their lives and
how that deepens their understanding.

Guiding questions might include:

 What lesson did you learn from this text? What lesson did the main
character teach us?
 What would you have done if you were [Character]? Why?
 How have you handled a similar situation to the situation [Character]
experienced?

CFU 
You‟ll want to take anecdotal notes on who is participating in these
discussions and how germane their comments are. Are they
connecting their thoughts back to the text? Are they allowing the
comments of others to influence and expand their thinking?

4) After reading several non-fiction texts on similar topics over a short period of
time (one week), facilitate a similar discussion to the one above.

Guiding questions might include:

 How do Author A and Author B differ in their views on the
Holocaust?
 We learned about sharks in Book A and minnows in Book B. How do
you think sharks and minnows would interact? What text evidence
supports that?
 After studying woman‟s suffrage movement, what types of
conversations do you think Susan B. Anthony and Hillary Clinton
would have? Why do you think that?

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CFU 
Same as #3

5) Text to world connections as inferences (Allington 2001):

Invite children to play a guessing game with you. Read them sections of a
text, followed by questions that require world knowledge in addition to the
knowledge of the text in order to make meaning. This activity is implicitly
tied to inferring.

Examples may resemble:

Teacher reads: Luisa sat under the palm tree reading her book.
Teacher asks: What is the setting?
Students answer: Somewhere tropical.
Teacher asks: How did you know?
Students respond: I just know that palm trees only grow in tropical locations.

Teacher reads: George Washington finally arrived at Valley Forge.

Teacher asks: How did he get there?
Students answer: Perhaps a horse, walking. Not a car, though!
Teacher asks: How did you know?
Students respond: I just know that cars were not invented at that time.

Helpful Graphic Organizers

Appendix G: [ Event in text – Similar event in my life – How this helps me
understand the text]

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Visualizing
Strategy Definition Why readers need to do it
Visualizing Making mental images in *To help us retain information and plot
our mind driven by the text, *To help us become attached to characters
prior knowledge and our *To prevent us from abandoning books
inferences.

Objectives/Teaching Points

Basic objectives:

Students will be able to visualize by picturing what the characters look like.

Students will be able to visualize by picturing the characters‟ actions, facial

expressions and gestures.

Students will be able to visualize by picturing the setting based on the author‟s
description and what you already know about the setting from real life (ie. I know
the beach is sandy and hot.)

Students will be able to visualize by using all of their senses (smell, sound, taste, feel)
to connect to the book.

Students will be able to visualize by imagining familiar settings as their own. (ie. If
the setting is a classroom, picture your own classroom. If the setting is an apartment,
picture your apartment.) *Note: This only works for fairly low level text in which the setting
does not play a significant role in the plot and is a common location (laundromat , playground,
schoolyard).

Students will be able to visualize by acting out parts of the plot, facial expressions,
and gestures.

Higher level objectives:

Students will be able to revise their mental images as they read on and gather more
information.

Students will be able to visualize by using what they know about life and allowing
that to enhance their images. (ie. I know that penguins live in cold, snowy places so
the setting of this text must be somewhere chilly!)

Students will be able to visualize by researching that which is unfamiliar. (ie. the Nile
River, a tiger shark, American Indian headgear, lying supine on the floor, a malevolent
grin).

Students will be able to distinguish between mental images relevant to the plot and
critical to comprehension from those that are just fun to make!

Ways to Teach It

1) As you read aloud, stop periodically to orally describe what you are seeing. Point
out the parts of the text that made you visualize. Sketch these mental images in front
of students as you talk.

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CFU 
Ask students to do the same either with a book on their independent level,
a read aloud or a shared text. Gather their sketches. A high quality sketch
will include details relevant to the text with few irrelevant objects,
details that invoke all five senses, and details depicting characters‟
emotions (Keene 1997).

2) As you read aloud, use a T-chart [ Part of text – What I pictured ] to depict which
parts of the text made you picture what images. (See Appendix H)

Talking and writing prompts include

 I visualize…
 I picture…
 The movie in my mind is…
 I can almost smell…
 I can almost feel…

CFU 
Same as #1

3) Character Bulletin Board (Beers, 2003)

Used with either a class novel or an independent reading book, encourage
students to create a poster board or bulletin board of the protagonist. As they
glean information about the character, they can add words, pictures or objects
to their board in order to bring their character to life. This can be replicated
with setting, antagonist, etc. Be sure to model this process first.

CFU 
Same as #1. Additionally, take note of how the students are modifying
their images. What sources are they using to modify? Were their initial
images very far off? Why?

4) Ask students to sketch, in sequence, the mental images they see as they read. If the
book is a picture book, students should be discouraged from sketching pictures that
the illustrator already included and should be pushed to include images they‟ve
inferred. This connects nicely to the skill of retelling.

CFU 
Same as #1

5) Using a picture book, students should use their mental images to sketch pages they
think the illustrator should have included.

CFU 
Same as #1

6) Read Froggy Gets Dressed (London 1992) without showing the students the pictures.
In this text, Froggy continues to put on articles of clothing. After modeling and
sketching for the class the movie in your mind, children can visualize and sketch the
images they‟ve created in their minds (Whitherell 2007).

CFU 
Same as #1

7) Read the poem Something Missing by Shel Silverstein (below). Students are
encouraged to picture in their minds as the gentleman gets dressed and figure out
what he forgot to put on. (His pants!)

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Something Missing
by Shel Silverstein
I remember I put on my socks,
I remember I put on my shoes.
I remember I put on my tie
That was painted
In beautiful purples and blues.
I remember I put on my coat,
To look perfectly grand at the dance,
Yet I feel there is something
I may have forgot—
What is it? What is it? …

CFU 
Informally check to see which students were able to picture this.

A couple of notes…

*Encourage students to use their mental images for deeper comprehension:

Draw conclusions
Interpret the text
Recall the text after reading
Talk about and adapt their images after hearing about or seeing other people‟s
images

*When reading aloud, ask children to demonstrate the character‟s facial expressions
and gestures at certain times. This will let you know that they understand the
character‟s feeling. It will also help build a love of literature and motivate students to
remain engaged.

Helpful Graphic Organizers

Appendix H: [Part of text – What I pictured]

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Questioning

“Making students inquisitive and giving them the opportunity and the intellectual
tools to be so is one of the central purposes of education.” John Barell (2003)

Strategy Definition Why readers need it

Questioning Driven by curiosity, readers
ask questions about what
they‟re reading.
*To help us monitor
comprehension
*To interact with the text
*To clarify confusion
*To propel us deeper into the
reading

Objectives/Teaching Points

Basic objectives:

Students will be able to ask questions when they need to locate specific answers in a
text.

Students will be able to ask questions about a text by noticing when they don‟t
understand something and jotting down their question on a sticky note. Readers keep
these questions in mind, answering them when they can and seeking help when they
can‟t.

Students will be able to ask questions when they need to clarify meaning.

Higher level objectives:

Students will be able to ask questions about a text by wondering aloud what the
meaning of figurative language might be.

Students will be able to question the text by wondering about the larger, more
universal context.

Students will be able to ask questions to determine author‟s style, opinion, or

purpose in an attempt to deepen comprehension or learn lessons.

Students will be able to ask questions about a text when they find themselves reacting
strongly to something. (ie. Why would Jamaica want to keep playing with her
brother even though he‟s so mean to her? How can people justify killing young calves
for their meat? Esperanza is just a little girl. Shouldn‟t she be able to come to
America without having to hide in her uncle‟s truck? Do children from Mexico still
have to do this?)

Ways to Teach It

1) Coding questions (Harvey and Goudvis 2007)

As you read aloud to students, solicit and chart questions. Discuss and code
(as listed below) questions. Model how simply asking questions promotes
deeper understanding of text because you are interacting with the text.

Note: The level of your students will determine your pace in introducing these codes.

A= answered in the text

BK= answered using background knowledge
I= inferred
D= discussed

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RS= researched
C or ? = confused

CFU 
Ask students to code as they read their independent books. Review
their coding to see which types of questions they are asking most
frequently, the density of their questions, the relevance of their
questions to the meaning of the text, etc.

2) Wonder Books (Harvey and Goudvis 2000)

Wonder Books are non-fiction notebooks in which students jot down questions
they have based on books they‟ve read, research they‟ve done, and topics of
interest. Students code their questions and as they read on, answer them.

CFU 
Periodically review students‟ Wonder Books. Notice the frequency and
density of their questions. Notice if they are answering or reflecting on
their questions.

3) Asking questions is naturally followed with answering those questions. Seeking

out these answers propels our motivation to read on and read with our minds
wide awake. Readers must “determine whether the answers to their questions can
be found in the text or whether they will need to infer the answer from the text,
their background knowledge, and/or an outside source” (Miller 2002). As you
are reading to your students, chart your questions and model coding them using a
similar system to the one below. Once sufficiently modeled, students can do this
independently.

I found my answer in the text = T

I inferred my answer from the text = I
I used my prior knowledge to answer the question = PK
I found my answer using an outside source = OS

CFU 
Notice from what sources students are answering questions.
Encourage them to draw from a range of sources. Take note of what
students do when they cannot answer a question.

4) Model taking two-column notes: [ Facts I‟ve Learned/Questions About Those

Facts ] (See Appendix I)

5) Question Webs (Harvey and Goudvis 2007):

At the center of the web is a question about the text. The lines off the center
are possible responses to that question or deeper questions that have arisen.
Children are encouraged to grow their web until their thinking about the topic
has become deeper. (See Appendix K)

Helpful Graphic Organizers

Appendix I: [ Facts I‟ve Learning/Questions About Those ]
Appendix J: I Wonder Chart
Appendix K: Question Webs

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Inferring

“Inferring is about reading faces, reading body language, reading expressions, and reading tone as well
as reading text.” Harvey and Goudvis

Strategy Definition Why readers need it

Inferring To derive further *To connect us to characters‟ feelings
information by reasoning *Enables us to make predictions
or evidence *Enables us to visualize
*Allows us to see characters‟
motivations
*Forces us to think more deeply about
the meaning of the text

Objectives/Teaching Points

Basic objectives:

Students will be able to infer to whom the pronoun refers by paying attention to its
antecedent (ie. Ben and Courtney got into his car. – must be Ben‟s car).

Students will be able to infer the meaning of tricky words by reading text before and
after the word and asking oneself, “What other word might fit here?”

Students will be able to infer character‟s facial expressions, body language, and tone
by paying close attention to how the character acts in those events.

Students will be able to infer by connecting what is in the text with what is already in
their minds/prior knowledge.

Students will be able to infer characters‟ intonation by thinking about how the
character is feeling about the situation.

Students will be able to infer the theme of a text by asking themselves, “What lessons
does the author want me to learn by reading this text?”

Students will be able to infer the opinion of the author in a non-fiction text by asking
themselves, “What does the author write that gives me a hint about how she feels
about [topic/person]?”

Higher level objectives:

Students will be able to infer by making judgments about characters or events that
have not been explicitly stated.

Students will be able to infer by developing theories that explain characters‟ motives.

Students will be able to infer by recognizing and interpreting symbolism.

Students will be able to infer the author‟s view of the world and/or biases by paying
close attention to stated opinions.

Students will be able to infer characters‟ relationships to each other by paying close
attention to what the characters say to each other.

Students will be able to infer the theme of a text by seeking out the underlying ideas,
morals and lessons in it. (Harvey and Goudvis 2007)

Students will be able to infer in non-fiction text and textbooks by first observing and

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process facts and then interpreting them.

Students will be able to infer by using “their prior knowledge and textual clues to
draw conclusions and form unique interpretations of text.” (Miller 2002)

Ways to Teach It

1) Using a paragraph of a text, mark up the places in which you make inferences
while you‟re reading it to the students.

Example:

The Hundred Dresses

The two girls reached their classroom after the doors had been closed (teacher writes: the two
girls must be students and they are late for class). The children were reciting in unison the
Gettysburg Address (teacher writes: reciting must mean “saying” or “repeating”), for
that was the way Miss Mason (teacher writes:Miss Mason must be the teacher) always
began the session Peggy and Maddie (teacher writes: these must be the names of the two
girls) slipped into their seats (teacher writes: sounds like they didn‟t want anyone to
notice their tardiness) just as the class was saying the last lines.

CFU 
Ask students to do another paragraph with you (maybe in a small
group) and then ask them to use sticky notes to jot their inferences.
Review these notes (in this case, you‟ll need the text, as well) and
check to see:
 How deep are their inferences?
 Do their inferences push their comprehension of the
plot?
 From what sources are they making their inferences
(prior knowledge, research, common knowledge)?
 Do their inferences lead them to new understandings?

Note: Do not ask students to do this too often, as it can be tedious and strip the
joy from reading.

2) It Says -- I Say (Beers 2003) (See Appendix L)

Use a portion of text and move from concrete meaning (literal) to inferential.
Chart your thoughts on the below It Say – I Say chart.

Example:

Read… Sam ate all the food on her plate without slowing down between bites.
It Says I Say
Sam… her plate Sam is a female
ate all the food…without slowing down Sam must be starving!

Continue reading… Her bus would be arriving in about two more minutes.
It Says I Say
Her bus would be arriving… Now I need to revise my inference
because now I know Sam is rushing to
catch a bus.

CFU 
Same as #1
Note: Do not ask students to do this too often, as it can be tedious and strip the
joy from reading.

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3) Show students signs or bumper stickers and have them write their inferences.
Examples:
Sign in football locker room: I am your coach, not your mother.
Sign at a veterinarian‟s office: Puddles are for jumping over, not walking through.

CFU 
Check to see if they are able to make inferences. If they are, and are
struggling to make inferences in their own reading, show them the
direct connection.

4) Show a wordless picture book like Good Dog Carl by Alexander Day page by page.
Between each page (or so) ask students to tell you what is happening. In one
spread, the baby is at the top of a laundry chute and consecutively the baby is at
the bottom in a laundry bin. Students will tell you the baby slid down the chute.
But how do they know that? They‟ve inferred it using what they know about
laundry chutes (they go down to the basement) and what they know about the
baby and Carl (they‟re a bit silly and having a fun day together). This type of
activity can also be used to visualize.

CFU 
Ask students to sketch what they infer happens between spreads of
pages. Use the same criteria as #1 (above).

5) Use an E-chart to determine the meanings of unknown words:

[ Word – What We Inferred it Means – What Helped Us ] (See Appendix M)

When students come to a word they don‟t know, encourage them to figure
out its meaning, not just skip over it. They can infer the meaning of unknown
words by rereading, reading on, using the picture, and a variety of other
strategies. Model filling out the chart similar to Appendix K, then encourage
students to do the same as they read their independent books or textbooks.

Helpful Graphic Organizers

Appendix L: [ It Says… I Say… ]

Appendix M: [ Word – What We Inferred it Means – What Helped Us ]

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Determining Importance (Analyzing)

“Before we can even begin to determine importance, we have to determine why we‟re
reading in the first place.” Emma Nolan (colleague)

Strategy Definition Why readers need it

Determining Picking the most important
importance information, highlighting essential
ideas, isolating supporting details,
reading for specific information
(Harvey and Goudvis 2007)
*To help readers sort
information
*To help readers decide
what to remember
*Forces us to infer themes

Note: Make sure that students have a clear understanding of why they‟re reading a
text and what their perspective, or lens, is before you ask them to determine
importance. For instance, an economist is likely to read an article about the
downturn of the housing market differently than a first time home buyer. A child
who frequents the aquarium and the beach may read a text about blowfish quite
differently than one who is afraid of the water.

Objectives/Teaching Points

Basic objectives:

Students will be able to determine importance by following significant events and

characters and asking themselves, “Does this character or event help develop the
plot? How?”

Students will be able to determine importance by looking for events that advance the
plot.

Students will be able to determine importance by asking questions for which they
want answers.

Higher level objectives:

Students will be able to determine importance by previewing and reviewing

structures of text (captions, bold words, titles, punctuation, illustrations, etc) and
asking themselves, “What is the common link between these structures?”

Students will be able to determine importance by turning the chapter title, heading,
or subheading into a question and seeking the answer to that question (ie. Heading:
Homes for Owls  Question: Where do owls make their homes?, chapter title: The
Contest  Questions: What type of contest? Who will win?)

Students will be able to determine importance by categorizing wow facts and facts
related to a central topic. Note: A wow fact is merely a shocking piece of information (Ex. A
cow has five stomachs. A human intestine is 35 feet long.)

Students will be able to determine importance by looking for events or relationships

that support a thesis or argument.

Students will be able to determine importance by highlighting details and asking

oneself, “What is the common theme between these details?”

Students will be able to determine importance in non-fiction text in three steps:

1) Know for what purpose they are reading (ie. For entertainment; To write a
research paper; to write a literary essay; to write procedural text; to assemble a
bookshelf).
2) Gather information that supports your purpose.

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3) Connect that information in a logical manner/to a larger theme.

Students will be able to determine importance in historical fiction text by establishing

the narrator‟s perspective and connection to the pertinent, historical events.

Ways to Teach It
1) In order to locate the big idea, draw an asterisk on three sticky. Use all three
sticky notes to indicate sections of the text that are pivotal to the greater meaning
of the text. Once you‟ve completed this, explain (either verbally or written) why
you feel those parts are central to the text.

CFU 
Ask students to replicate this task in their just right books. Collect
their books and review their notes. Check to see:
 Are they just selecting “wow facts”?
 What is their rationale for selecting the sections they
did?
 Are they able to make larger meaning from the text
using this exercise?

2) Three column note taking in non-fiction text: [ Topic – Details – Big Picture ]
(See Appendix N)

As you read aloud to your students, model writing down the topic on the left of
your notes and details/facts in the middle. Students then form larger picture ideas
by reviewing the notes and jotting those big picture ideas on the right.

CFU 
Ask student to create their own three column notes. Review these
notes to see if students are picking out facts and events that are
relevant to the main idea or are tangential. Check to see if students are
able to draw big picture ideas from this chart.

Helpful Graphic Organizers

Appendix N: [ Topic – Details – Big Picture ]

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Critiquing

“The key [to critiquing] is to engage your students in the process, so they become thoughtful
consumers of print. You don‟t want them to grow up thinking, If it’s in print, it must be true.
Much printed material is incorrect and/or biased, and right from the start young students
need to begin detecting inaccuracies, inconsistencies, and prejudice in material they read.”
Fountas and Pinnell 2001

Strategy Definition Why readers need it

Critiquing Evaluating and judging a text
by using personal or world
knowledge

Objectives/Teaching Points

Basic Objectives:

Students will be able to critique a text by deciding whether the storyline or factual
information has drawn them in or whether they need to abandon the text.

Students will be able to critique a text by figuring out from whose perspective the
story is told.

Students will be able to critique a text by forming their own opinions about what the
author writes.

Students will be able to critique a text by asking questions about what the author is
really trying to say and deciding if you agree with that.

Students will be able to critique a text by researching who wrote the text and
determining what type of perspective or biases she may bring to her writing.
Questions might include:
*When was this author born?
*Through what significant historical or personal events did she live?
*What do the author and I have in common?

Students will be able to critique a fiction text by thinking about how believable the
characters, setting and plot are. Note: This may need to be taught in three separate teaching
points depending on the levels and needs of your students.

Students will be able to critique a text by noticing how the author uses language to
depict characters, setting, and plot.

Higher Level Objectives:

Students will be able to critique a text by discovering and examining biases.

Students will be able to critique a historical fiction text by noticing if the characters
are accurate depictions of the time period in which the text is set.

Students will be able to critique a historical fiction text by noticing if the setting is an
accurate depiction of the time period in which the text is set.

Students will be able to critique a fiction text by determining if the author can
effectively create empathy for the characters.

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Students will be able to critique a persuasive text by noticing how compelling the
author‟s argument was.

Students will be able to critique a text by sorting credible facts from misleading
information.

Students will be able to critique a text by “considering the deeper meaning of the text
for today‟s world.” Fountas and Pinnell 2006

Students will be able to critique a text by discovering and examining the underlying
messages.

Ways to Teach It:

1) Minnie and Moo

Using a simple text (like the Minnie and Moo series by Cynthia Rylant), model for
students seeking out big picture topics. In this text, you‟ll be able to pull apart the topic of
gender issues and how gender is portrayed in children‟s books. Discuss whether you
agree with how Minnie and Moo are depicted in these texts and whether you believe the
author was accurate in her depiction or showing a bias.

CFU
Ask students to replicate this work using another simple children‟s picture
book. Be sure they cite specific examples of biases (if any are found) or
accurate depictions of characters (if any are found). Allow time for students to
share their findings and have discussions.

2) What‟s missing?
When reading textbooks, historical fiction, biographies, newspaper articles or other
related nonfiction texts, model for students how to decipher from whose perspective the
text is written and whose perspective is missing. Often you‟ll find that the point of view of
women and minorities is missing.

CFU 
Ask students to look out for what is missing. Encourage them to jot down the
perspectives that are missing and write down what they think the author
should have included.

3) Researching the author

Model for students becoming curious about the author a text. Show them how to do
quick research on an author using the internet, the “about the author” blurb, or other
resources. Once you‟ve gathered sufficient evidence think about what biases the author
may bring to the text. Think about what type of language he may use. Think about what
personal or historic events might drive his approach in writing the text.

CFU 
Ask students to research the author of a text they are reading or have read.
Encourage them to think through the author‟s potential biases, his
perspective, and life events. Ask them to read or reread the text keeping that
new information at the forefront of their minds.

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Synthesizing
Strategy Definition Why readers need it
Synthesizing/ Putting individual pieces of *To form new
summarizing information together with our understandings
background knowledge to form new, *To grow new
deeper information, a new perspectives
perspective, or new insight

Objectives/Teaching Points

Note: Because synthesizing is a higher level skill, I have not broken these objectives into separate
categories. Please review and select objectives relevant to the needs of your students.

Students will be able to synthesize by integrating new knowledge with existing

personal and worldly knowledge to form new opinions or insights.

Students will be able to synthesize by thinking about how the text fits or does not fit
with what is already known (Fountas and Pinnell 2006).

Students will be able to synthesize by monitoring their understanding of the text and
its themes and concepts. They then meld those thoughts together to form new
knowledge or ideas.

Students will be able to synthesize by pulling in responses to the following statement:

I used to think this text was about _____, but now I think it‟s really about_______.

Students will be able to synthesize what they‟ve read by extending their literal
retelling to an inferential level. Note: This requires previous teaching of inferring.

Students will be able to synthesize by rereading to seek out the true meaning of the
text/the author‟s true purpose.

Ways to Teach It

1) When introducing synthesis, use a familiar and simple picture book (Fly Away
Home by Eve Bunting is simple and meaningful). That way, the students already
know the plot and characters. They can focus their mental energies on drawing
out new and insightful information.

2) Text Reformulation (Beers 2003)

Reformulate text into different genres. Turn a poem into a narrative. Turn a work
of non-fiction into a newspaper article. This will help solidify comprehension and
bring that understanding to a higher level. Turn a realistic fiction story into a
comic book. Turn a piece of non-fiction into an ABC book (great for pre-readers
and struggling readers).

CFU 
Check to see if students maintained and enhanced the greater meaning
of the text.

3) E-chart: [ It Says- I Say-And So ] (see Inferring section) (See Appendix O)

Adding the „And So‟ column will solicit a synthesis of knowledge from students.

CFU 
Use the same criteria as stated in the Inferring section of this
document. Check to see if the „And So‟ column pushes students to
come away with a more meaningful understanding of the text.

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4) Students write a prequel or a sequel in which characters remain true to form and
plot lines are logical and connected to the original text (Witherell 2007).

5) Three column note-taking in non-fiction text (Harvey and Goudvis 2007):

[ Topic – Details and Facts – Personal Response ] (See Appendix P)

As you read aloud to your students, model filling in the above chart. Be sure to be
verbally metacognitive (think aloud) as you are working so that students can
replicate your thinking.

6) The Language of Synthesis (Miller 2002)

I used to think_______, but now I think_______.
This text appears to be about______, but I think it‟s really about_______.

CFU 
Students can do this work in their independent text. Collect these brief
responses and see if and how students‟ thinking has developed.

7) Ask children to retell what they‟ve read in writing. Ask them to include
information that was new or insightful. Then pair kids up who are reading the
same text and ask them to compare their retellings. They should then have even
deeper, more insightful information with which to revise their original retelling.
(Miller 2002)

CFU 
Look to see that students are not simply retelling or regurgitating
information. Look to see from which sources they are pulling
information (text, prior knowledge, inferences, creation of new
information).

Helpful Graphic Organizers

Appendix O: [ It Says – I Say – And So ]
Appendix P: [ Topic – Details and Facts – Personal Response ]

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Appendix

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Appendix A: Predicting

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: Jot down your predictions before and as you read. On the right, jot down
what part of the text lead you to make that prediction.

Prediction Clue for Prediction

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Appendix B: Predicting

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: Jot down your predictions before and as you read. On the right, jot down
what part of the text lead you to make that prediction. Reflect on your prediction by
jotting down what actually happened once you find out.

Prediction Clue for Prediction What Actually Happened

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Appendix C: Predicting

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

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Appendix D: Predicting

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Appendix E : Word Splash

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Appendix F: Activating Background Knowledge

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: Before reading, think about what you‟d like to learn about the topic.
Next, think about what you think you already know about this topic. After doing
some reading and researching, jot down any new learnings about your topic. Has
what you thought you knew been confirmed? Changed?

Questions About the Topic What We Think We Know New Learning

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Appendix G: Making Connections

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: Write or sketch an event in the text. Write or sketch how that event is
similar to an event in your life. Write how this helps you more deeply comprehend
the text.

Event in the Text Similar Event in My Life How This Helps Me

Understand the Text

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Appendix H: Visualizing

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Part of Text What I Pictured (sketch or write)

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Appendix I : Questioning

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Facts I’ve Learned Questions I Have About Those Facts

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Appendix J: Questioning

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

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Appendix K: Questioning

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: In the center of the Question Web write down one question that comes to
mind
as you read. On the stems, write down possible answers that you gather from your
reading.
Mark the one you feel might be the best answer.

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Appendix L: Inferring

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: As you read, jot down any part of the text that requires you to make an
inference. On the left, write down what the text says. On the right, write down the
inference you came up with based on that text. If your inference changes, note that
as well.

It Says I Say

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Appendix M: Inferring

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

New Word What I Infer it Means What Parts of the Text

Helped Me

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Appendix N: Determining Importance

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: As you read, jot down the topic of what you‟re reading and any relevant
details.
Determine what is important by pausing and reflecting on the bigger picture of the
text. Jot
your thoughts on that in the far right column.

Topic Details Big Picture

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Appendix O: Synthesizing

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: As you read, jot down any part of the text that requires you to make an
inference. On the left, write down what the text says. In the middle, write down the
inference you came up with based on that text. On the right, write down any new
learnings, new perspectives, opinions you‟ve formed, questions you still have, etc.

It Says… I Say… And So…

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Appendix P: Synthesizing

Name ________________________________________
Date _________________________________________
Name of text __________________________________

Directions: As you read, jot down topics and details. Combine these with your
personal reaction to the text. Include background knowledge, a change in
opinion, new ideas you‟ve come up with, etc.

Topic Fact/Detail Personal Response

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Glossary of Terms

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Instructional Strategies
 Anecdotal notes
o Jotting down informal observations of a student with the intention of
reviewing the notes to decide next steps in a child‟s learning
 Check For Understanding
o Checking to see if students understand what you‟ve taught in a systematic and
meaningful way
 Concrete/Literal meaning
o Using only the words/text to process and interpret information
o Using no inferring or higher level thinking
 E-chart
o A simple graphic organizer used for categorizing or relating
o For sample see Appendix B
 Gradual release model (“I do, we do, you do”)
o When introducing a new strategy, teachers first model, then do guided
practice with the students, then support the students as they work
independently.
o When planning to use the gradual release model, think about what you want
your students to do independently, then model that exactly. Guided practice
should also be replicable to what you want them to do independently.
 Guided practice
o Working with students to practice that which you‟d like them to eventually do
independently.
 Inferential meaning
o Understanding that can be determined using sources other than reading
 Metacognitive
o Being transparent in your thinking
o Talking through how you are finding your answer or coming up with your
thoughts
 Model
o Explicitly showing students how YOU do something so that they can
replicate it correctly
 Previewing text
o Looking through the text before reading
o This can be done to predict, provoke background knowledge, to build
excitement about a text, and to set readers up to be successful as they read by
giving them insight into the meaning of the text.
 Prior knowledge (background knowledge, schema)
o Information that a learner already possesses about a topic
o Students recall that information with the purpose of using it to process new
information more easily and enhancing it.
 Proficient peer
o A student who has mastered a skill or strategy and is able to teach it to
another
 Retelling
o Recounting the major events of a text in a sequential and logical manner
 Scaffold
o Support, assistance
 T-chart
o A simple graphic organizer used for sorting or relating topics
o For sample see Appendix A
 Venn Diagram
o A type of graphic organizer used to compare and contract
o Two circles overlapping in the middle- in this overlap jot down the ways the
two items being compared are the same and on the outsides of that overlap
write down how they differ
 Web
o A type of graphic organizer used to elaborate on an idea
o In the center of the page, a circle contains a topic. Line branch off that circle
to include details, questions, etc. related to that topic.

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Components of Reading Instruction and Balanced Literacy

 Fluency
o The act of reading smoothly, with intonation and expression
o Using a natural sounding reading voice
o Reading in phrases or chunks; not word by word
 Guided reading
o A group of four to six students on the same reading level, reading the same
text (the teacher picks a text that is one or two levels higher than the students
independent reading level called “instructional level”)
o Teacher plans lessons that give students a repertoire of reading strategies for
processing texts that are just outside their reading level
o This small group lesson should take about 7-15 minutes depending on age and
stamina of students.
 Independent reading
o Students read privately in a book on their level
o Students under the age of six will likely need to “whisper read” (read aloud
but quietly) since they are not developmentally ready to read in their
heads/silently
o Rule of thumb: Readers should read independently for roughly ten minutes
per grade. (ie. 1st graders read 10 minutes daily; 2nd graders read 20 minutes
daily; 3rd graders read 30 minutes daily, etc)
o Independent reading should be assigned for nightly homework as well
following the same system as above.
 Lexile
o A leveling system for readers and books
 Miscue
o An error made while reading
 Pre-readers
o Students who are not yet able to read
 Read aloud
o Reading out loud to students
o Research finds that in order to increase student reading levels and build a love
of reading, students should be read aloud to four times daily in a variety of
genres.
 Reading conference
o Working one-on-one with a student as they read from a book on their
independent reading level.
o Conferences focus on one reading skill or strategy and generally take 3-7
minutes.
o Teachers ensure that students are working towards mastery on that skill and
that they can replicate it in whatever they read (ie. Not an isolated skill)
 Reading level (independent)
o The level on which a student can read independently and without assistance
from peers or adults.
o Leveling systems include Fountas and Pinnell, Lexile, DRA, and many more
 Running record
o A method of assessing readers to determine their independent reading level
o Teacher listens to a child read and systematically records the number of errors
(miscues), points of rereading, hesitation, omissions, insertions, etc.
Comprehension questions follow. The record is then analyzed.
 Shared reading
o Reading a short text (poem, song, message) together as a class with the
purpose of decoding words, reading with fluency and intonation, and
enjoyment of text.
 Word study
o A 5-20 minute segment of the literacy block
o Students learn phonics, high-frequency/sight words, word families, blends,
etc.

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Literary and Text Elements

 Genre
o Varieties of texts
o Common genres include: fiction, non-fiction, poetry, biography, historical
fiction, realistic fiction, mystery, science fiction, fantasy, etc
 Story elements
o Features of a story including character, plot, climax, resolution, setting,
protagonist, antagonist
 Symbolism
o When one thing represents another (ie. An object may represent a character‟s
emotion; the weather may represent the tone)
 Theme
o The moral or lesson learned from the text
o The overarching idea
o Big picture

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Bibliography
Allington, Richard L. 2006. What Really Matters for Struggling Readers: Designing Research-
Based Programs. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Beers, Kylene. 2003. When Kids Can’t Read What Teachers Can Do. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.

Fountas, Irene and Gay Su Pinnell. 2006. Teaching for Comprehension and Fluency: Thinking,
Talking, and Writing About Reading K-8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Harvey, Stephanie, and Anne Goudvis. 2007. Strategies That Work: Teaching Comprehension
for Understanding and Engagement. 2nd ed. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Keene, Ellin and Susan Zimmerman. 1997. Mosaic of Thought: Teaching Comprehension in a
Reader’s Workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Miller, Debbie. 2002. Reading with Meaning: Teaching Comprehension in the Primary Grades.
Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Witherell, Nancy. 2007. The Guided Reading Classroom: How to Keep All Students Working
Constructively. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Children’s Books Cited

Bunting, Eve. 1993. Fly Away Home. Mooloolaba, QLD: Sandpiper Publication.

Day, Alexander. 2010. Good Dog, Carl. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster Children‟s
Publishing.

Estes, Eleanor. 1944. The Hundred Dresses. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Books.

London, Jonathan. 2007. Froggy Gets Dressed. New York, NY: Puffin Books.

Silverstein, Shel. 1981. A Light in the Attic. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers.

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